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Using Childhood Memories to Gain Insight into Brand Meaning
Using Childhood Memories to Gain Insight into Brand Meaning Author(s): Kathryn A. Braun-LaTour, Michael S. LaTour and George M. Zinkhan Source: Journal of Marketing, Vol. 71, No. 2 (Apr., 2007), pp. 45-60 Published by: American Marketing Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30162183 . Accessed: 21/10/2013 22:09 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. . American Marketing Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of Marketing. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 136.244.49.238 on Mon, 21 Oct 2013 22:09:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions A. Braun-LaTour, MichaelS. LaTour,& George M. Zinkhan Kathryn UsingChildhoodMemoriesto Gain InsightintoBrandMeaning Inthisarticle, theconceptthatpeople'searliestand defining theauthorsintroduce productmemoriescan be used totheirproducts. The authors toolto helpmanagersmorefully understand consumers'relationships as a projective how these memoriessymbolizethe use a studyon threegenerationsof automobileconsumersto illustrate The findings indicate intobrandmeaning. and howtheycan be used to gaininsights consumer-brand relationship in influence on current and future thatpeople'searliestand defining preferences experienceshave an important to theconsumerand experiencesare symbolic predictable waysacross theconsumerlifecycle.These memory The whichcomplements thetoolboxofextantresearchmethods. a newlensforviewing brandmeaning, represent authorsprovidedetailsaboutthistechniqueformanagerswho are searchingformethodsthatrecognizethat consumerscoproducebrandmeanings. are alwaystrying to findnew waysto ask onagers about whattheirbrandmeans to consumers.An alternative way of phrasingthis questionis the focusof thisinvestigation: Whatcan consumers(and their the reveal about brand memories) meaning?By identifying of the consumer self in relation to a development given can uncovera powerful, emoproductor brand,marketers tionalmeansof connecting their to brand (or reconnecting) consumers. earliest memories and (EMs) Probing defining memories(DMs) to understand andrelationship personality issues is not new to eitherpsychotherapists (e.g., Adler Bruhn and Mosak DiPietro 1985, 1990, 1992; 1931; 2006) or socialpsychologists (e.g.,Bruner2003; McAdams1988, 2001; Singer2001; Singerand Salovey1993, 1996). Most theorists,from Freud to Jung to Piaget to Erikson and Rochberg-Halton 1981),have recog(Csikzentmihalyi nizedtheimportance of childhoodin establishing relationIn theacademicmarshipsand "imprinting" preferences. however,theattention ketingliterature, givento thistopic has beenrelatively sparse,withonlyone study(thatwe are aware of) usinga Freudiananalysisof childhoodexperi- ences to provideinsightsintoa present-day animalisticart collection(Holbrook1988). Withinthe consultingworld,however,G. Clotaire who studiedunder Rapaille,theFrench-born anthropologist childhooddevelopment Jean specialist Piaget,has successmarketed the of fully importance probingchildhoodmemories. Rapaille has gaineda reputation forhis high-profile studies that EMs. He does notpub(andhigh-priced) probe lish his resultsin refereed and does not provide journals clientswithdocumented from interview sessions. analyses His methodsremainsomewhatof a "secret,"even though morethanhalfof theFortune100 companieshave sought hisexpertise at one timeor another. Some mayconsiderhis theoriessomewhatdatedand focusgroupsessionsleading (Zaltman2003). Nonetheless,Rapaille claims a seriesof successes(e.g., linkingtheimportance of childhoodassociationsto "Mom" and thesmellof coffeebrewing).It is thatProcter& Gambleused,and continuesto use, reported such information in its advertising campaignforFolger's (Hitt2000). Rapaille's workwithChryslerresultedin the firm'sstrategy to bringback theoriginal"essence"of the brandwhile incorporating new technologyto designthe popularPT Cruiser. Some academicshavebeen vocal in theiroppositionto A.Braun-LaTour isAssistant Professor ofHospitality Kathryn Marketing, Rapaille,claimingthathis promisesare too grandand his F. Harrah William CollegeofHotelAdministration (e-mail: Kathryn. insightstoo simplistic(Sacks 2006). This articleis not andMichael S. LaTour is a professor andchair, meanttobe a treatise [email protected]), eitherin support oforin opposition to ofMarketing, ofBusiness Michael.LaTour@ Department College (e-mail: this article is motivated a interRather, Rapaille. by general ofNevada, LasVegas. M.Zinkhan isCocaunlv.edu), University George est in understanding how marketerscan use consumer ColaCompany Chair ofMarketing, of Business, Terry University College memories as a projective tooltounderstand whattheirprodofGeorgia Themethod inthis featured (e-mail: [email protected]). uct or brand means to consumers. The article wasfirst while the first was a author at scholar purposeof thisartideveloped visiting theMind oftheMarket attheHarvard Business andshehas cle is to reviewthelogic,development, andmarket uses for School, beenpilot andrefining itsincethat Theauthors time. thank testing Jerry earlymemoryelicitation and to demonstrate howEMs and Zaltman for hisguidance andtheanonymous JMreviewers for their helpDMs add insightsinto brand/product meaningfor three fulcomments inshaping this article. of automobileconsumers. The elicitedmemogenerations on bothliteraland symboliclevels Toreadandcontribute to readerandauthor onJM,visit ries can be interpreted dialogue and can marketers help developtheirown brandmyths. http://www,marketingpowercom/jmblog. Marketers who recognizethatconsumerscoproducebrand (c)2007, American MarketingAssociation ISSN: 0022-2429 (print),1547-7185 (electronic) 45 This content downloaded from 136.244.49.238 on Mon, 21 Oct 2013 22:09:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Journal of Marketing Vol. 71 (April 2007), 45-60 willfind thismethod useful fortheir brand posimeanings andcommunication strategies. tioning recesses andMetofourrecollections" deepest (Neimeyer zler1994,p. 130). Wepropose thatconsumers' canproautobiographies videmarketers with stories that canbea projective memory Background toolforunderstanding consumers' andfeelings thoughts isbased about a product orbrand. Thelogicforthismethod Methodsand Meanings is on the ideas: First, memory following autobiographical When to understand of consumer behavthe trying "whys" of the center and contains memories of identity experiences toolshavebeena popular choice ofmarketior,projective the the that are foundation for (Baddelely self-concept an see Rook researchers extensive review, 2001). (for ing Bruner autoNeisser 1988; 2003; Second, 1981). although methods a of intersection representsignificant Projective is it also conmemoryself-centered, indirectly clinical socialpsychol- biographical theory, psychology, psychoanalytic information about and the tains brands/products meanings andcultural (Rook1988). ogy, anthropology lives(Hebridge have added to consumers' 1988;Olsen they tools tasks in As thenamesuggests, are projective a of lifetime 1995).Third, despite experiences, onlya fracor which attribute toothers whatthey cannot participants so those are remembered holdmeantion are that retained, willnotsee in themselves andLevy (McGrath, Sherry, more distant Cohen the 1985; 1989).Fourth, ablenor ing(Bruhn belief isthat areneither 1993).Thegeneral people Bruhn and more 1990, "earliest"; 1992) (i.e., repeated toprovide in a self-report (i.e., dataaboutthemselves willing aremore andSalovey 1993)experiences Singer A common "defining"; because ofan ego-defensive reaction. fashion andrevealimportant symbolic unstruc- likelyto becomemyths tasks isthat arerelatively feature ofprojective they about the toZaltman product/brand. According inthattheparticipant cannot meanings tured andlacktransparency consumer memories arearchetypes, ofthetest.Themost (2003,p. 213),"Many determine thepurpose immediately commonas universal defined that essential, images capture inmarthat havebeenapplied well-known tests projective across a of alities variety experiences." ink-blot testandthethematic aretheRorschach keting that focus There aretwostreams ofsystematic research test(TAT;Rook1988,2001). apperception that as on memories techniques autobiographical projective at Social SidneyLevy(2003) and his colleagues which the consumer self. One stream, developing parallel to researchers Inc.wereamong thefirst Research marketing inAlfred individual Adler's explores psychology, themany embrace techniques originates Among projective techniques. lives and the stories that how EMs guide people's provide is his tothisresearch themostrelevant Levypioneered, which of These identities. become memories, part people's andmythmaking workonstorytelling (Levy1981).Levy andsyminearly contain emotional arerooted childhood, as stories canbeanalyzed howconsumer (1981)describes socioculstream from The other bolic emerges meaning. consuch stories to andhe interprets explain projective, theories. Thisresearch narrative tural and explores practice choices. sumption of of DMs in the the role particudevelopment personality, Rook techniques (e.g.,Levy1981; Although projective in is situated The current research adolescence. larly during motivaabout consumer contribute 2001) insights important streams. of both these the confluence is now where a person tendtobe static, tions, telling they future. orlittle aboutthepastortheintended butnothing EMs is needed that research ReedandForehand (2003)propose is oneofthefirst links TheEM method theprocesses to understand techniques projective by whichsymbolic and theRorschach anditpredates and usedbypsychoanalysts, selfareformed, a brand andtheconsumer between This techand DiPietro TAT brand of how Aaker 2006). (Mosak many years (1997)callsforgreater by understanding who Alfred "self niquewaspioneered As Belk(1990,p. 674)notes, Adler, bypsychologist develop. personalities because hispatients' EMsas important but viewed material notonlytothepresent extends environment, they repreinhisorherautointime." backward andforward extends Thus,a technique senta person's starting point subjective oftheself(Adler andrevealthefirst oftheselfhasgreat thedynamics that cancapture symbol promise biography as to a blueprint these memories consumer behavior. forunderstanding 1931).ToAdler, provided forecasted the and also of one becomes what sort the self information about holds such that Thesystem person encounter be to a of is calledautobiographical andidentity might likely person (Conway types experiences memory because it recalls isimportant inlife.TheEMa person consumers later andRubin 1993),anditisthegluethat provides next-astring ofassociaand setsthestageforwhathappens aboutthepast,present, witha senseof continuity tome of"what isimportant theme linked is a reconstructive future. (Braun1999; tions bythelarger process Memory been the EM have now." to mind an exact that never Schacter proce1996) reproduc- right Psychotherapists using brings andBruhn than 80years, factand dureformore ispart that a recollection tionofthepastbutrather (1992,p. 13)posits our andsubstantiate thatmirror recollections do,indeed, that"werecallincidents "Autobiographical partfiction. or and 'overlook' and beliefs ispast(memo- current that which tothepresent enable ustobring 'forget' perceptions beliefs." with that areinconsistent thething itself, present image incidents ria),butnever onlyitsreconstructed techas a projective is thatEMsoperate Thepremise of inthecontext andalways terms inpersonal (fantasia), inherent in the are on the errors that based of self-constructions ourcontinuously memory nique systems evolving isonpatients' recollections Thefocus constructive Inthiswayitis clearthat process. cognition andretrieval (ingegno). theageoften.To incidents thatoccurbefore thefurthest ofspecific oftheself,from spectrum spanstheentire fillinthemissstories andbackaswellintothe keeptheir ofourfuture reaches coherent, people memory anticipations ofMarketing, 46 /Journal April2007 This content downloaded from 136.244.49.238 on Mon, 21 Oct 2013 22:09:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ofthetype ofthestories thattheir cannot finish. nature ofrelationship memories a person has,forexample, ingparts andlifestyle a cardealer andPaulssen 2005). (Fournier Theyproject prefer- with themselves-personality ences-into their EMs.Therefore, there isa mythic element Whatmaybe morerelevant toautobiographical memtotheEMs,which enables them notonly oryis therelationship tobeinterpreted andstorytelling. between thebrain level.Myths are at a literal levelbutalsoat a symbolic to Damasio(1999,p. 30), "Consciousness According of thatareconsidered truthful accounts I when brains aregiven thesimple thepower, prosenarratives begins power whathappened intheremote the must a story." children learn how to add,oftelling past.Thepeopletelling Young has a lifenarrative from Socialcognitive their memory story maynotbeawareofhowtheir memory develop parents. beenshaped ownpersonality, andso haveproposed that needs, biases, bytheir psychologists autobiographical memory forth. As a result, EMsarenottransparent, similar tothe emerges after theappearance oflanguage (Nelson1993). methods thatmarketers use. Children totalkabout ataround twoyears traditionally projective pastevents begin revealmoreaboutthemselves ofage,andtheir toengage inmemory talkabout Nonetheless, participants ability past thantheymight theirmemories thethird andfourth think, events through initially develops rapidly during years. because havecometo realizethatthecomplex partly theyarenotawareofhowsuchmemories Psychologists havebeenshaped mixtures ofpersonal that arewoven to (seeMosakandDiPietro 2006). knowledge together most usechildhood memories form andpersonal area function not Although psychoanalysts autobiographies myths aspart oftheir Bruhn that there has butalsooftheir culture. the (1990)laments therapy, onlyofindividuals Throughout beena lackofleadership andsystematic in school children's memories areshaped follow-through years, bythenarrathedevelopment ofEMsandtheir thatset- tivestyletheirculture Theirexperiences are usagebeyond espouses. The Neisser Ulric ontothemeanings of thatculture. andmarkers (1982)cites grafted ting. cognitive psychologist EMs as a promising butvirtually area.The culture a person influences his unexplored "[Tithe grows upinstrongly Adlerian viewoftheimportance andusageofEMs has orherbrain's'wiring,' or neural in theearly pathways, beenlimited topsychotherapists, whousethem as oflife.Thestories wehearstarting inearly childhood primarily years an important toolforunderstanding frames ofreference ormental models patients' present-day become important concerns. future events, thatlater influence theproducts andbrands webuy, Theyhavebeenusedto predict espesuchas thesuccess/failure ofa marriage andvocational ciallyifstories about those brands resonate with deepculandthey havebeenusedretrospectively tounder- tural choices, inourmemories" embedded 2003, (Zaltman meanings stand thedifferences inchildhood between and p. 192). delinquents andDiPietro (Mosak 2006). nondelinquents DMs Narrative AutobiographicalMemory, There areother inthedevelopment ofthe important points Development,and ChildhoodAttachment consumer selfthatarelikelyto influence consumption, Oneofmydiscoveries wasthatinorder tocreatethefirst behavior. Erikson toadolescence asanimpor(1968)points ofa word-when whatever itis, tant imprint of youlearna word, which period identity development during questions thereis alwaysa first time. "coffee," "love,""'mother," suchas "WhoamI?" and"HowdoI fitin?"aretypically There'sa first timetolearneverything. Thefirst timeyou raised.Forvisibleproducts, suchas automobiles, social understand themeaning ofthisword;youcreyouimprint influences be more than familial or may important personal atea mental connection thatyou'regoingto keepusing factors in determining choice.Historically, carshave therestofyourlife.Andtocreate thismental connection, mostother as a meansofself-awareness Without thereis no emotion, eclipsed objects youneedsomeemotions. of neurotransmitters in thebrain,and you andofknowing aboutothers production (MarshandCollett 1986). don'tcreatetheconnection. So actually wordhasa every Carscanmediate socialrelationships indirectly, through mental I callthata code,anunconscious codein highway. anddirectly, thecapacity to serveas a symbols, through thebrain.(Rapaille2004) common focalpoint ofattention (Collins 2000).Astheself It is notclearthatRapaille"discovered" moreunified adolescence childhood becomes (Erikson 1968), during become buthe hasa validpointwithregard broader andoffer to the socialnetworks imprinting, many opportuniofearlyexposure. theselfthrough importance (1982)andother tiestocommunicate Bowlby conspicuous consumptionactivities. researchers As Belk,Bahn,andMayer(1982,p. 10) seemstobe a psychological arguethatthere "sensitive" "Thismaysuggest that which mother-child attachment note, inferences period during ageandsociability forms. "Attachment" is aninborn cuesarestrongest inthebrain that basedon consumption adolessystem during inwaysthat evolves influence onnostalgia Researchers and cence." andSchindler motivational, emotional, (Holbrook with tosignificant thatadolescence others is theperiod whenconmemory processes respect (Pille- 1991,1996)find mer1998).Thissystem motivates a childtoseekcloseness sumers learntheir forculturally observable preferences withhisor herparents andto communicate withthem. products (e.g.,films). Theseexperiences withothersbecomeencodedinto Socialpsychologists havebegun toinvestigate DMsasa andserveas expectations thathelpchil- means touncover traits implicit memory 1988,2001; (McAdams personality drenfindtheir "secure base."During thedevelopmentalSinger andSalovey focus hasnotbeenonthe 1993).Their in which most EMs children seekout ageofmemories butrather onmemories that share thecharoccur, period actively attachment Research thatthese acteristics ofaffective relationships. vividness, suggests intensity, repetitiveness, attachment affect later andlinkage toother memories andSalovey patterns interpersonal relationships 1993). (Singer in life(Harzan andShaver1987)andeveninfluence the Themorememories arerepeated andshared withothers, Childhood Memories andBrand /47 Meaning This content downloaded from 136.244.49.238 on Mon, 21 Oct 2013 22:09:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions and thereare forreconstructions the more opportunities alterations 1932),whichmakesDMs also likelyto (Bartlett we expectthat containmythicelements.For automobiles, adolescencebecause most DMs come fromparticipants' moreinformathatis thetimepeople typicallyremember tion about theirlives (called the "reminiscencebump"; Schacter1996). Indeed,Belk (2004) findsthatmanyof his of automobilescame from fondrecollections participants' thisperiod. As withEMs, DMs can serveas important symbolic experiencesthatcan be used as a projectivedevice. For example,Singerand Salovey(1996) findthatlifegoals and are revealedthroughDMs. As an example, motivations Singer(2001) uses DMs to provideinsightintothemotivationsof a heroinaddict.In general,thesememoriesare linkedto thepresentemotionalstateof theperson.Moffit havemorenegaandcolleagues(1994) findthatdepressives McAdams(1988) findsthat tiveDMs thannondepressives. arereflected suchas powerand intimacy, traits, personality in certaintypesofDMs. As haveEMs, DMs havebeenused in both as a focusof intervention by clinicalpsychologists In addition, individual andcouplespsychotherapy. theyproforlessonlearningand meanvide important opportunities to a person'ssense of purpose ing makingthatcontribute andidentity. ChildhoodMemoryElicitationMethod As do otherprojectivetechniques(i.e., the TAT; Rook and counseling 1988), themethodsused in psychotherapy For situation. need to be adaptedfortheconsumer-market much EMs and DMs may provide example, although insightaboutan individualin a counselingsession,marin whattheproductmeansto theconketersare interested sumer.Thereare issues regardingwhetherthe childhood memoriesrevolve aroundbrands,products,or product mighthaveyearsto probe types.Whereaspsychotherapists childhood and understand memories,marketers patients' needresultsmuchquicker. of a consumerEM and DM We beganthedevelopment on two very different based projective technique the DM questionnaires EM and the (see (1) approaches: and(2) Bruhn1990; SingerandSalovey1993,respectively) The latter(accordingto setting. Rapaille'sfocusgroup-type in "The Persuaders"miniseries; interview a PBS Frontline see Rapaille 2004) consistsof a four-hour groupsession thatis dividedintothreeparts.The firstpartis a typical to rationalizeand disfocusgroupthatallowsparticipants fromthis information a brand. The about their cuss thoughts which a After discarded. break,during parpartis usually con"feelgood" abouttheirintellectual reportedly ticipants tribution, theycome back for a second session and are emotionalchildhoodfairytales to Rapaille to tell asked abouttheproduct(accordingto Rapaille,thisis to confuse them).In thethirdsession,afteranotherbreak,participants come back to a dimlylit roomin whichtheirchairshave beenreplacedbypillowsandblankets;theyareaskedto lie downon thefloorin a fetalpositionandrelax.Some memare askedto either orycues are provided,and participants to writedownordiscusstheirEM oftheproduct. According these that during (2006), report people regularly Rapaille comebackto themthattheyhadforgotsessions,memories tenforyears. The questionnaire methodasks people to writedown theirEM ("a specifichappeningor eventfromyourchildand a one-time hood,an eventthatyou actuallyremember, specificincidentoccurringunderthe age of 10") or DM thatyouremem("has tobe at leastone yearold,something berveryclearly,a memoryyou wouldtellsomeoneelse if you in a profound you wantedthatpersonto understand are askedto writedownwhenit way"). Next,participants what occurred,whatwas theclearestpartof thememory, and whatthought was thestrongest feelingin thememory, or actionis connectedto thatmemory. ofsurfacing a singular Because oftheimportance reprefortheEM beforetheage often(Bruhn1990) and sentation thedifficulty somepeoplehaverecallingEMs (Mosak and Pietro2006), we combinedaspectsof bothtechniquesin Parof thememoryelicitation ourdevelopment procedure. will be are that told beforehand participating they ticipants in a memory exerciseabouttheirchildhoodandto feelfree to preparebylookingat picturesor talkingto familymembers beforethe study.At the timeof the study,theyare blanket.The directedto sit on theflooron a comfortable researcherbegins with several yoga warm-upsboth to in a morerelaxed "breakthe ice" and to get participants memories are morelikely state. Autobiographical physical to be accessed in a calmer,less active state of mind (LeDoux 1996). Next, the researcherleads the group throughsome breathingand visualizationexercisesand a "memorywalk,"in whichhe or thentakesthemthrough she providessome landmarkcues and leads themback in Thisapproachis basedon thehiertimetotheirchildhoods. of autobiographical archicalstructure memory(Barsalou involveslandmark 1988). The highestlevel of abstraction a thatpinpoint events(i.e.,nationalandculturalhappenings momentin timeratherthanspecificyearsor dates). The other levels-life themes,generic action events, and in themememotion/sensory images-were notmentioned to fillin these ory walk because we wantedparticipants stories. detailswiththeirownmemory earliestchildWhentheresearcher getsto participants' hood,he or she asks themto writedownor drawimages associatedwiththeirEM of the product/brand. (McAbee and McAbee [1979] findthatdrawingEMs is a valid Then they methodforhelpingclientsrecall information.) aretold,"close youreyesandimaginea timewhenyouhad and thatdefinedthat an experiencewitha brand/product what for you learnedwhatthat brand/product you (pause), this like was through experience(pause); it brand/product to you(pause),andyoupora certain personality portrayed to certain a personality the world in this brand/ trayed product(pause); bringthatexperienceto mind."Participantsarethenallowedseveralminutesto writedownwords and images associated with that experience.Afterthe that session,theyare givena questionnaire memory-walk asks themto writea storyabouteach of thememoriesand to answera fewquestionsaboutit,suchas, "How old were you whenthisexperiencetookplace?" "Whatis themost and"Whatemotiondidyoufeel vividpartofthememory?" theevent?" as youexperienced 2007 ofMarketing, 48/Journal April This content downloaded from 136.244.49.238 on Mon, 21 Oct 2013 22:09:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions andinpreparation forourmainstudy, wecon- Modes ofAnalysis Before on ducted studies EMs and DMs the pilot using previously Interpreting theEMsandDMsislikedetective itisa work; described methods-one forCoca-Cola(Braun-LaTour,process ofsearching formeaning The memo1981). (Levy andZinkhan foranautomobile riescanbeexamined LaTour, 2005)andtheother ontwolevels-the more conliteral, manufacturer (Braun-LaTour 2001).In theCoca-Cola tentlevelorthemythic, level.Thecontent level deeper we found thatevenforan iconicbrandsuchas involves thememory stories andquantifying them study, coding the onvarious thisstudy from Coke-weconducted with suchas agewhen thememory took participants dimensions, who(literally) wereserved Cokeintheir it was a singular or a recurring baby place,whether DeepSouth event, memories weremore itinvolved closefamily members oranextended easilyaccessed whether bottles-participants' attheproduct level.Inthat weasked theemotions withthememories, associated (notbrand) par- socialcircle, study, inthememories, andgeneric events featured inthe towrite downtheir EM andDM before themain themes ticipants stories. toMosakandDi Pietro andwe compared themwiththememories that memory (2006), According session, wasa group ofresearchers whosought toquantify wereelicited inthemainsession; weusedquestionnairesthere oftheEMs,butthisled(intheir tosupersimilar tothosethatpsychoanalysts andsocialpsycholo- aspects opinion) ficial of the memories. This is analysis viewpoint congruent DMs use. We found that the did not but we much, gists vary inhisdifferent levelsof found moresingular memories andEMswhenpar- withwhatLevy(1981)observes many of the narrative form. we forthese code Therefore, analysis went therelaxation andmemory-walk sesticipants through not to an overall of the memoaspects get only impression sion(though thegeneral themes didnotdiffer). Thisisconries but also to in the deeper go analysis. sistent withfindings intheliterature. Forexample, Usher Tointerpret thememory stories asmyths, itisnecessary andNeisser (1993)wereabletogetpeopletoremember tobeable to read and the andsymbols interpret metaphors events as earlyas agetwowiththeir targeted techniques, inthestories, make across individuals (within comparisons whereas most EMresearchers anaverage report ageofthree theculture) their stories characregarding (e.g., significant orfour when a questionnaire andHarack(Kihlstrom using andlearnandunderstand theculture ters, actions), iewicz1982).Foradults, itis easiertorecover memories thatevents, themyth. howparticipants produced Observing project from lateadolescence than torecover memories from early themselves andtheir carsintotheir about feelings memory childhood because itoperates with thesameautobiographi-stories their choiceofincidents, emothrough language, calmemory (Kotre 1995).AsdidRapaille's system respon- tional andlogicis offoremost interest tone, (Levy1981). dents,manyof ourparticipants reported rememberingSuchapproach is similar tothehermeneutical to approach from childhood not that had aboutfor consumer things they thought narratives thestories 1997)inwhich (Thompson after thememory elicitation session. areviewed asexpressing years existential themes a perbywhich In theautomobile we whether is reflected andas drawing from a culstudy, explored people son'sself-identity wouldtelllonger andmoreinvolved iftheywere tural stories codeofshared historical andviewpoints. meanings witha camera recorded thanifthey weresimply askedto In Rapaille's tointerpreting stories, approach memory write downsuchstories ona questionnaire. onstructural Wefound that hefocuses ontheverbs elements, especially used(Woll2001),rather thanthecontent. Forexample, totelltheir stories to a peopleweremuchmorewilling memories ofautomobiles, than camera towrite them down. Thismethod alsooffered whenconsidering participants' intherelationship interested between theperson anopportunity toprobe thememories formore link- heismore details, and the car than one whether takes in thecity to other and so forth. Note that Bruhn story place ages experiences, and in another the This is related to ([1919] country. and others Mosak Jung's and DiPietro believe (1990) 2006) (e.g., view of the as or action 1970, 53) archetype image: thatseveralmemories be needed to life may identify are of readiness for and atthe action, "Archetypes systems so this to ten minutes themes, (five superficial questioning same time and emotions. are inherited with the images They draw out such connections. Allers, perparticipant) helped brain structure-indeed are its they psychicaspect." andWhite EMsto Katrin, (1997)compare tape-recorded Samuels that canbe found in (1985) argues archetypes written EMsandfindsignificantly morewords andmore is to find the archeexperiences. Rapaille's goal self-references inthetape-recorded versions about everyday (though or "the code" for the whichis typically type product, thesameamount ofprojective Written EMsmay described material). as one word,forexample, "car= identity." be lessnuanced because or participants mayomitfeelings claims that each hasanenduring (2004) Rapaille product vivid details. and different within thesameculture agegroups Thepilotstudies inthree resulted toourini- archetype, adaptations shouldnotdiffer in theirexpression of thatarchetype. contrived session. welearned thatwe First, tially memory ofthememory stories is similar to Rapaille's interpretation would bestbeabletoaccessmemories attheproduct level. whatZaltman whenlooking fordeep (2003)proposes we recognized thattherelaxation/memory walk metaphors. Second, arethehomeforlatent and Deepmetaphors wasanimportant of the exercise and be should component needs and the source of basic and emerging perceptual retained because ofthegreater ofsingular memo- behavioral quantity The importance of deep predispositions. riesandEMs.Third, wefound that andsuper- metaphors is reinforced work in videotaping bycontemporary neuroficialquestioning of thememories wouldyieldmore biology andcognitive to embodied linguistics pertaining detailed andvivid than accounts written stories. toZaltman (Zaltman 2003).According memory cognition (2003,p. Childhood Memories andBrand /49 Meaning This content downloaded from 136.244.49.238 on Mon, 21 Oct 2013 22:09:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ofcarmodels tobeof ferent andhistorical references types acrossthedifferent butwewerealso cohorts, importance in similarities ofexperiences interested inthetypes (and theirunderlying discussed. metaphors/archetypes) they thecultural should Whereas believes that imprint Rapaille notvaryamong we believed that cultural the agegroups, difinwhich environment oursample grew upwassovastly The Study thissamwould bedifferences. Inaddition, ferent that there Wechose arethefocus ofourstudy. memories Automobile ofmemories howdifferent ustoexamine types pleenables it researched because has been this heavily product category consumer life across the affect decision making cycle. to anopportunity andprovides intheself-concept literature seeBelk, Procedure onthis research build review, (fora thorough prior andMayer Bahn, 1982). told were recruited overthetelephone andwere United States Participants thesouthwestern Oursample camefrom the threeage whorepresent following: andincluded 60 participants between theagesof orGeneration cohorts: 20 13ERs, Xers, inhearing aboutyourchildhood We'reinterested experibetween 20babyboomers 25and35(10male,10female); in We'reasking enceswithautomobiles. youtoparticipate and20particitheagesof40 and55 (12male,8 female); a memory journeyexercisewherewe will helpyou remember thesilentgeneration pastexperiences bygivingyoucuesandproboomers) (orpre-baby pantsfrom In foryour guidance. orderto prepare vidingmemory market A professional 8 female). ages65andover(12male, childto about we'd like thinking your begin you journey, in this firm recruited thesepeopletoparticipate research For associate with cars. that hood and you experiences if Eachwaspaid$100fortheir (more participation study. or a at album consider instance, looking photo youmight thenextday).Theinterinterview a depth they completed Weare tofamily members aboutyourchildhood. talking of2002,a year thespring viewswereconducted during in childhood memories interested memories, particularly wasintroduced thePT Cruiser after thatoccurred toyouearlyinlife(under (andwasa hugesucofexperiences age much wasreleased memifyouhavea particularly (with cess),theyearFordThunderbird ten);however, important about oftheFordMustang andamidrumors later,youmightstartthinking orythatoccurred being anticipation), means to what that memory you. and fear after It wasshortly September reintroduced. 11, inthislargemetropolitan wasstillabundant cityinwhich Notethat forthemainsesthem suchinstruction "primes" oflife.Retro cars sionandenablesthemto beenanimportant hasalways part driving from benefit "hypermnesia" The"crossover" werehot,andso wasretro advertising. that literature a finding in thememory 1996), (Schacter werenotyet when theHummer) vehicles (e.g.,theEscalade, is given a task, suchasremembering a person people introduced. isabletorememschool theperson inhisorherhigh class, histories can consumers' among personal Heterogeneity oftheconsolidation overtimebecause bermoreandmore different in of their needs their frame meaning processes perceptions researchers brain. In addition, in the (e.g.,Zalthas 1997).In hisresearch, Rapaille (Thompson systems material "homework" have found that man 2003) providing when acrosscountries differences considered typically leads to more session before the engaged participants. we inimprinting. differences cultural However, considering The wereruninseparate Thethree groups. agecohorts to ofAmericans. focuson threegenerations According we described format the same followed main session previhasitsownperandHowe(1991),eachgeneration Strauss to then witha relaxation session, turning beginning auto- ously, fromwhichit approaches or viewpoint sonality the on andthen walk"backintime, focusing is more"other the"memory thesilent Forexample, mobiles. generation a written received EMs and DMs. questionnaire Participants aremore idealisthebabyboomers directed" andadaptive; and answered stories their wrote in which memory they andhubris; andtheGeneration tic,filledwithoptimism the when "How were old such as, experience you questions down on.Inaddiandlooked Xerswerethemost neglected "What takeplace?" didtheexperience "Where thatadvo- tookplace?" a period tion,eachgeneration grewup during "What is the of the strongest memory?" part Thesilent roles. ofparental cated different generation is theclearest types onthis a title had to "If in the put you memory?" feeling were and and be to wastold obey by overprotected quiet did the car role itbe?""What would what playin werethemostspoiled, their having memory, babyboomers parents; heor would what and"Ifthecarcouldtalk, andmost thismemory?" at homeandbeingthemostnurtured mothers Theywerealsoaskedto whoweremore shesayaboutthisexperience?" Xershadparents andGeneration relaxed; events wereoccurandcultural downwhatpersonal them.Because write themandunderprotected toward distant took time their the around Participants memory place. of the so for is ring involvement important development parental in which room to another at a time one taken were they influence the to this we childhood memories,expected type stories DM EM and their both to relate asked were a memory in difalsogrew Eachgeneration elicited. ofmemories up somequestions asked them Theresearcher models ofcars, totheresearcher. withdifferent cultural ferent environment, suchas for them details about their different memories, different of landmark different prompting wars, events, types tookplaceto theexperience whom andwith inwhether theage Wewereinterested where, andsoforth. when, movies, the When narrative. a richer ofEMsand helpthem ordifferent similar would exhibit cohorts appropriate, develop types the affected thoseexperiences askedwhether dif- researcher andMayer DMs(e.g.,Belk,Bahn, 1982).Weexpected oneandthe areoften anddeepmetaphors 14),archetypes ormotifs the thatcomefrom same.As universal patterns arethebasicconcollective unconscious, archetypal images andfairy tales tentofreligions, legends, mythologies, 2000). (Hirschman ofMarketing, 50 /Journal April2007 This content downloaded from 136.244.49.238 on Mon, 21 Oct 2013 22:09:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ordecision current choices forcarsat tension we andthisledtodifferent Thus, participants' making differently, myths. other times intheir lives. discuss them separately. of15participants, 5 from were Attotal eachagecohort, selected tocomebackthenextdayfora depth interview EMs abouttheir memories. Thatinterview lasted approximatelyTheaverage theEMsoccurred wassix.This ageatwhich 90 minutes. wereaskedtobring or pictures is Participants what classifies as the (1952) stage Piaget early preoperathat their EMsorDMs.Thisinterview tional images represented andisa time when allcomponents oftheautoperiod wasstructured similar to a Zaltman elicitation biographical metaphor arein place.Research memory system sugin interview which the (ZMET) technique participants' geststhatpeoplehavealready learned symbolic meaning areusedtoguidetheinterview (Zaltman andbrand pictures memory status bythistimeinlife(HiteandHite1995), In havebeenusedtohelp andself-brand 2003). general, pictures/collages connections areina stateofdevelopment interviews guidepersonal (e.g.,Belk,Bahn,andMayer (Chaplin andJohn2005).Acrossgenerations, theEMs wereaskedhowthepic- stoodforsimilar 1982).Forexample, participants someof themajoraspects notions; tures related totheir totelltheir memory, memory story involved intheEMsincluded car,excitement, family safety what cameto mind,whowas again, images/emotions andemotional), Ofthe andfun. comfort, (physical bonding, inthememory, involved whatelsewashappening tothem EMs,80%wereforsingle allthe (andalmost experiences thetimethememory tookplace,whythey during thought Generation Xershad singular EMs and showedthe remembered thatparticular whattheylearned strongest event, they between thatmemory andtheir currelationship from thatexperience, whatthenextmemory thatcameto rent carchoice). Forexample, thefollowing is Generation mind forconducting these one- XerTom'smemory was,andsoon.Thereason ofa singular thatinfluenced event his on-one interviews wastodetermine theEMsand later whether preferences: DMselicited thesession wouldyieldinsights into during WhenI wasaboutfouryearsold,I remember goingtothe brand andproduct those meanings beyond experiences. beachin dad's truck.The stoodout Coding my Toyota day becauseitwasmybirthday, andmydadtookoffworkto metothebeach.I cansmellandtastethesaltwater bring breezemixedwiththeexhaust ofthisoff-road machine, andto thisday,I havea fascination withToyotatrucks. EversinceI wasbrainwashed as a childwiththislovefor I havebeena definite of this consumer Toyotatrucks, brandname.Mypersonal consumer has almost memory forced metoonlywantthistypeofvehicle. SinceI have beenableto workanddrive, I haveownedthreeToyota trucks. Intotal, there were60EMsand60DMselicited from parWe used the of the sesticipants. transcripts videotaped for the sions,notthewritten stories, memory analysis we checked to makesurethestories werethe (though ofthedepthinterviews same).Thetranscripts provided additional material abouthowtheEM andDM influenced other oftheparticipants' lives.Thesestories and aspects interviews a framework forunderstanding conprovided memories fortheanalysis as well. sumers andtheir with automobiles. Weusedtherecurring developing relationship contained similar themes and content as the They singular Theinterpretation ofthememory stories wasdiscovery orilacked wasdetail. they ented weusedtwocoders EMs.What (Wells1993).Fortheanalysis, The of memories intogeneral action categorization whoweretrained inqualitative datainterpretaextensively events resulted in the weekend famfollowing experiences: tion.Weusedanextensive, structured toidentify process or with a ily outings special outings parent, birthday parties, thekeythemes (as perDey1999;Spiggle 1994),orwhat orother vacations, relatives, visiting grandparents thememory literature deemas "generic events" family might and a on It was "pretend" driving parent's lap. noteworthy as the basic action in the suchas (defined taking place story, werefamily oriented and theevent wassin- thatmostoftheseexperiences going fishing). Theyalsocodedwhether associated with of attachment. As we discussed in feelings or the the gular recurring,participant's ageduring experithe"Background" children seekoutattachsection, ofthememory, actively andwhowasinvolved. In ence,theemotion thistimeoftheir life.Thus,itis relationships thestories during wereexamined forstructural similari- ment addition, not that the of EM was concerned ties(within surprising andbetween majority to identify prigenerations) myths with the need for tobe with marily thearchetype or"code"). attachment-seeking (andpotentially toshare andrelate Carswere family experiences together. viewed as anessential of life and were associpart family Results atedwith and 2006). bringing joy family unity (Rapaille Thepurpose IntheEMexperiences, ofthissection is toillustrate thecarplayed howmanagers theroleofbringcanusetheEM andDM data.Webegin members Thecarwaseither the ingfamily stationed together. bydescribing different of at home or the memories in involved members to and from properties (e.g.,average age,type transporting ofevents, thenwe create homes. a memory network their DMs included emotions); Furthermore, although people is drawn from than ourdepth closefamily interviews but other thefocus inalltheEMs members, map,which mainly alsoincorporates comments madeduring Noexternal the wasonfamily. actors werepresent. participants sessions. Thismapdefines areasinwhich TheEMs represented the of "emotional videotaped feelings safety," EMsandDMscanlendthemostinsight. Italsoidentifies which is a safepsychological bondwithfamily members. thetension orstruggle within thisproduct which Forexample, her Marisa,a Generation Xer,described category, is thebasisofmythmaking. Eachgeneration dealtwith the uncle'scaras like"being ina living room" where itwas Childhood Memories andBrand /51 Meaning This content downloaded from 136.244.49.238 on Mon, 21 Oct 2013 22:09:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Another comfortable andwhere shefeltsafeandwarm. described thefamily vanas being"home" and respondent alltheperson's containing toysandjunk. Positive EMsreflect what return toagain wishes, people Thefollowing demonandagain. silent generation memory howeveninthemostdepressing thecar strates situations, ascomfort andprovided a "homelike" container: Alan acted funeral andwassurprised recalled by beingathisfather's inthelimousine, howcomfortable hefelt that hewas noting as comfortable as beingina largechairinhisownhome. car onthesizeofthefamily Several remarked participants anditscomfort. Theemotion involved inthese memories wasa feeling Thepsychoofsafety, ofbeingcaredforandcomforted. Winnicott Donald Woods ([1958]1965),best therapist known forhis"transitional (i.e.,security object"theory a feeling ofbeing warm finds that EMsthat blanket), bring emoandsnugtapintohowa patient experiences security, itis tional andbasicegorelatedness. extension, comfort, By of that EMs could the these representcomponents possible in Such an as the transitional object. "mothering" portrayed the bondwith enables thechildtohavea fantasized object for mother as shegradually longer increasingly separates a wayto theEM represents Inadulthood, oftime. periods ofbeing cared for. tothat reconnect feeling and toexploring theroleoftheparticipants Inaddition another issueis therole whatthey important experienced, Is it Is ita passive observer? ofthecarinthememories. doesit Whatsortof"personality" central to theaction? a central ofmemories, thecarplayed Inboth reveal? types thecar'sroleintheEM role.As wediscussed previously, Thesurvey asked ofconnecting members. wasthat family believed thecarwould"say"about whatthey participants ifithada chance their 1974);someof (Cooper experience wanderers" "Let's thoseresponses were, (baby go,happy I provided with "I amgladthat boomer); everyyour family and"Lookhowhappy I could"(silent generation); thing are" Xer). they (Generation tolistthepersonalalsohadanopportunity Participants said EM car. One their associated with traits participant ity a smile onitsfront, oftheChevron theimage that car,with aresomeoftheadjectives Thefollowing cametomind. chose:"jovial," "reliable," "comfort," "fun," "happy," they "calm," "staid,""sturdy," "motherly," "dependable," and"strong." Finally, partici"trusting," "gentle," "steady," EMcarthey oftheir ifany, wereaskedwhat, aspects pants words with liketoseeoncarstoday. would They responded suchas "reliable," "comfort," "family "dependable," and"safe." "solid," "strong," "roomy," "simple," friendly," lookforwhen thatconsumers Notethatthesearetraits orproducts brands The car" to a "family purchase. selecting EM were with their most associated Jeep,Grand they Bel bus,van,Chevy Aire,Cadillac, Torino, Volkswagen andminivan. station sedan, Buick, wagon, of"me," forstatus. anddesire OftheDMs,60% expression wereforsingular combined experiences. Many experiences ina convertible." suchas "riding Neisser (1981) together, dubbed suchmemories as "repisodic" because they appear as constructive ofrepeated memories. amalgrams episodic We found that14 wastheaverage age whenDMs in occurred. consumers atthisageasbeing classifies Piaget ofoperations. theformal whoreach theformal stage People and operation stageare capableof thinking logically memories included socializaabstractly. Defining people, andnewcars.Thefollife,schoolfriends, tion, learning, theDMs: wereassociated with lowing generic experiences in a how to drive, learning pride owning car,admiring ina "cool"car(andenjoying another car,driving person's of for and beingadmired), going a joyride.Themajority or are related to these directly purchasing being experiences to involved withthecar.Thecarenabled theconsumer him-orherself suchas pride, define toothers. Emotions, statement: wereinvolved. Consider (a babyboomer) Mary's Prix.It had a new64 Pontiac Grand Mydadbought Ourlast leather interior andawesome airconditioning.... I felt like Italsohadwoodgrain.... cardidnothaveeither. with I evengotintoanargument wearrived. myfriend, Linthan hisparent's that itwasmore saying prestigious I waswrong. butofcourse colnContinental, orimpress. Notethat to"show off" Thecarwasa means hereor a needfor is alsoa levelofvulnerability there that hisPorsche a babyboomer, related 914 Steve, approval. andcool"andthat was theepitome of "sophistication In hisresearch on male women werereallyimpressed. finds that men often Belk enthusiast drivers, (2004,p.247) that willmakethem sexual charm viewcarsas a "magical of Thecarwasviewed as a symbol towomen." irresistible Xer Generation successandaccomplishment. Likewise, both hadNisthat heandhisbestfriend Mark remembered andthatmade sanZ carsandcalledthemselves "Z-men," asifhehadaccomplished himfeelspecial, something. to be experienced, carwas something Thedefining are off.Thefollowing andshown descriptions enjoyed, DM: their that thecarwouldsayabout whatpeoplenoted of "I livedmy15 minutes "Let'srock"(babyboomer), ontheride and"I tookyoufolks fame" (silent generation), their described life"(Generation ofyour Xer).Participants the car as personality brand-defining having following traits: "fast," maker," "cool," "fashionable," "image "sexy," "attractive," "outgoing," "fun-loving," "classy," "proud," Desired and"smooth." "almost uncontrollable," "macho," car were from the "luxury," "sexy," defining qualities "cool," "fast," "convertible," "reputa"expensive," "speed," most associated orproducts Thebrands and"styling." tion," with theDMswereStingray, Thunderbird, Corvette, Capri, andhotrod. Celica, MemoryMap Thenodesonthememory map(seeFigure1) represent DMs and theconnections fromour interviews, constructs menbetween thenodesshowassociations. theDMs centered onfamilies, theEMexperiences Whereas Onlyconstructs each from oftheparticipants ofthepartici- tioned members ofexternal theinfluence showed byatleasttwo-thirds the We constructed on the of ideas the featured memories These circles. social map primap. appear generation pants' also interview from thedepth thecarbeingan data,butexamples marily off," "goingfora joy ride," "showing ofMarketing, 52 /Journal April2007 This content downloaded from 136.244.49.238 on Mon, 21 Oct 2013 22:09:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions FIGURE1 MemoryMap Freedom Escape Responsibility Practical Fun Single self Home Slow car Sports Familycar Family bonding Desire Pride Old Physical safety Status Stylish Quiet Emotional safety Boxy, roomy Nostalgia came fromthe surveys.As such, the map representsa of ourparticipants. majority or tension,in the map The mostobviousdistinction, between"familycar,"represented appearsin thedisconnect on the on theleft-hand side, and "sportscar,"represented side (i.e., theEM data primarily relatedto the right-hand relatedto thesports familycar and theDM dataprimarily car).Thistensionof needinga safevehiclewhiledesiringa whichis consisfun,sportycar existedforall generations, tentwithSolomon's(1983) proposition thatan automobile withtheindividualsenseof selfor can be used to identify the familysense of self. Brown,Kozinets,and Sherry in reference (2003) call suchcontradictions "paradessence," to theparadoxicalessenceof a brand. Levi-Strauss(1977) takes a structuralist approachto that the and of is a myth proposes purpose myth to provide a logicalmodelthatis capableof overcoming a contradicis that(1) all culturestryto accountfor tion.His argument in theworldaroundthemand(2) in contradictions apparent almostall languages,mythsfollowsimilarstructural lines in dramatizingthese contradictionsinto storyformto resolvethem.In our interpretation of thedata,we do not take such a strongstructuralist butit is noteperspective, the that contradictions that worthy memorymaprepresents consumersexperience(e.g., thetensionbetweenotherand self,the tensionbetweenfamilycar and statuscar). This findingmaps onto Holt and Thompson's(2004) man-ofactionheromyth,whichis a resolutionof two opposites: Retro breadtherebelcool (sportscar) and thesecure-but-boring winner(familycar). are successBrandsthatcan resolvethecontradictions beliefthatthebrand ful.The brand'smythis theconsumer offersa way to resolvea problemor situationthatprevisome kindof contradiction (Holt 2003). ouslyrepresented In thecase ofthesuccessful PT Cruiser, thecarresolvedthe contradiction by beingbothbig and roomy(aspectsof the and stylfamilycar),thushavingsomeemotionalcomfort, and attention ish, distinctive, getting(whichis associated withthe sportscar side of the map). As Rapaille (2004) said: Whatpeopletoldus is that"we'retiredofthesecarsthat haveno identity. I havegoodquality, goodgas mileage, a diselse,butwhenI see thecarfrom goodeverything I havetowaittillthecargetsclosetoknowwhatit tance, Whenyougotoseeyour is,andI havetoreadthename." shedoesn'tneedtoreadyournametoknowwho mother, connection. And youare,yousee?Wewantthisreptilian so thisnotion ofidentity, key,wasveryreptilabsolutely ianfora car.Chrysler's other research toldthempeople don'twanttobuycarsanymore, theywantSUVs [sportetc. minivans, vehicles], utility Fromthisperspective, brandswithstrongcontradictions are viewedas "better." In otherwords,strongopposition leads to strongmyth.By extension,brandpositioningis in its superiorif it can capture(and resolve)contradiction brandstory.Companieswithdying(or injured)brandsare Childhood Memories andBrandMeaning /53 This content downloaded from 136.244.49.238 on Mon, 21 Oct 2013 22:09:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions oftencompanieswhosebrandmythshavefallenbehindor are outof tunewithcontemporary culture(Holt2003). The is thatbrandsare comproblemwithmythidentification plex,andpeopleareevenmorecomplex.In manyinstances, theremightbe morethanone myththatdescribestheproduct or brand.Accordingto Levi-Strauss(1977), thebinary is mediatedbya thirdterm,whichtypically conopposition stitutes valuedin theculture.Consumermemory something storiesare situatedin a broaderculturalsystemof meanings. Culturalmythsthatmanifestin consumermeanings are groundedin thecollectiveculturalmemory(Thompson sharea 1997). Ourdatasuggestthatthoughall generations thethirdvariable-howit is binaryoppositionor struggle, mediatedor resolved-differs Othamongthegenerations. in automobileownership ershavefoundgenderdifferences difference in our (Belk 2004), butthemostoverwhelming datawas generational. The GenerationXers 11 Americawas In oursample,thefearin post-September still operating,thoughat an implicitlevel (i.e., no one 11 world, In thispost-September itdirectly). acknowledged theGeneration Xers werebeginningto startfamilies.The naturalurgeto reliveor re-createtheirown childhood(as discussedin othertexts;Levy 1981) is heightened by the that childhood was not that their own good. reality really Theygrewup in theeraduringwhichdivorcewas rampant, theirself-centered babyboom parentsoftenignoredthem, womenwerebreakingaway fromfamiliesto startcareers, childhoodenvironment, and so forth.Despitethisdifficult in oursample,theGeneration Xersindicatedin theirvideo thattheirEMs were something interviews theycherished. between This groupalso showedthestrongest relationship car choice. theirEM andcurrent membersof this To make sense of thiscontradiction, groupcreatedtheirown mythsabout theirchildhood.In was centralto theexperience. almostall theEMs, thefather a larger-than-life He was frequently figure.Zoe rememin her father's handand noticown hand her beredputting remembered how dwarfed she it hers; lookingup at his ing amazed at how large he and seven-foot-tall being figure was; she recalledstoppingduringtheirchildhoodvacation, creekwith gettingout of thecar,and playingin a running them hersiblingsand herfather reachingdownand lifting this out. Later,she notedthatshe may have remembered experiencebecause of the fantasyof wantingto have a fatherwho was involvedin herlife (thatwas thelast trip as a family;he separatedhimselffrom theytooktogether car was a redJeep theirlives afterthatpoint).Her current Cherokee;shesaidthatshewas drawntoitforitsbox shape and wonderednowif she was influenced by theredstation wagon of her childhoodexperience(it was also square shaped). Zack recalledhisEM as beingin thebackofthestation wagon in the thirdseat (facingbackward)as his father Abouta halfhour drovetowardthe vacationdestination. intothetrip,he vividlyrecalledthecar comingto a halting he did not stop.Because he was facingtheotherdirection, hadslammedon thebrakestomisshitting see thathisfather a deerin theroad.He barelycaughta glimpseof thedeer beforeit ranoffintothesafetyof thewoods.He recalleda drove,as if any feelingof safetyin thecar whenhis father potentialobstaclecouldand wouldbe averted.Thathe was in thismemory. facingbackwardhas additionalsymbolism Later,he said thathe enjoyedthefeelingof isolationin the thirdseat;facingbackwardmadehimfeelseparatefromhis femalesiblings: I wasinthethird seat,sortofinmyownworld. Brought Itwasfun....Sometimes I'd feelkind mytoysbackthere. ofisolated...It wasgreatbecauseI didn'thavetoworry aboutmysisters me or myparents at bothering yelling me....Itwaskindofcool. As HoltandThompson(2004) note,theheromythdrives male behavior;we foundthatthiswas particularly the case with men, cars, and theircurrentfamily.Stuart recountsthefollowing experience: Thefirst timeI really orcaredabouta caris when noticed I gottogowithmyDadtotestdrivea Trans Am.MyfamandtheBandit, andthatis thecar ilyhadjustseenSmoky theheroofthemovie,BurtReynolds, drovetogetaway fromall thebadguys.It wasthecarto have,andI was excited. really Later,he said thatas a child,he playedwiththeTransAm toy car in his backyard.He admittedthathe had had a sportscar at one time,butnow thathe was marriedwitha child, he had an SUV. The interviewswere conducted beforethereleaseof theHummerand some of thelarger SUVs, so at thattime,such a car choice represented protectingand isolatingoneself(or family)fromthe "bad becauseit rodehigherthanother terrorists) guys"(drivers, cars on theroad.Lauer (2005) claimsthatconsumersusubuyingSUVs to theirsafetyand space,buthe allyattribute thanphysical findsthatsafetyis viewedas emotionalrather but rather social andthatspaceis notinterior cargo spacethe privilegedabilityto traverseinhospitableterrainto removeoneselffromsociety. AnothermemoryfromSamanthaevokesthedarkside She recalledbeing of the hero archetype(the destroyer). drivenby her fatherin his "souped-up"Toyotatruckto school so she couldbe admiredby theotherkidsbecause wereknownas thetruckwas so cool. She and herbrother the"cool kids"becauseofthetruckandwouldpurposefully be lateto schoolso thattheycouldbe drivenin thatchariot. thecar. Her EM was of herfather crashingand destroying taken of fear That memorysymbolized havingsomething hero to save the of a and not day. having strong away forreachingthis A brandstorythatmightbe effective wouldbe one thatevokesthemythicfatherfiggeneration fatheras a hero, ure. Such a storymightshowthecurrent the bad from his guys and confronting protecting family wouldbe viewedas being evil.The father and overcoming empoweredand in control(some of thefeelingsthatwere butalso 11 in particular takenawayfromhimon September andhis a familyandno longerhadhisfreedom as he started car). sports The Baby Boomers thebabyboomerswere Duringthetimeof theinterviews, of raisinga and theresponsibility becomingemptynesters, ofMarketing, 54/Journal April2007 This content downloaded from 136.244.49.238 on Mon, 21 Oct 2013 22:09:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions wasnotattheforefront oftheir thatshehadnotlefttheparking They shelethermombelieve family experience. intheir brake weremostinfluenced indicated thatsecret toherself formorethanten on,keeping bytheDMsthey andnottaking videointerviews andsaidthat weremore and years fortheaccident. they pleasant responsibility AsSally offreedom, torelive more than andnot cherished Feelings anyoftheother generations. wanting youth, areall associated "I'mata point inmylifewhere I canfocus backon withthePeter Pan noted, taking responsibility callthe"eternal I amlooking would I lookfora cartoday notforthe image archeme,andwhen (orwhat Jung boy/girl Thebabyboomers' tothefearofpostofkidsbutforthecute, that rep- type"). response practical hauling sportiness 11wastoescapetotheir more from allthose There idealistic adolesresents freedom was September responsibilities." brands thatembrace alsoa stronger between theDMandthecurrent cence.Therefore, eternally relationship remaining inbody, andspirit, aswellasthose that inoursample feature choice behavior. werecon- young mind, Many respondents associated with a sports menandonewoman indi- images car(five DMs,wouldappeal babyboomers' sidering buying tothisgeneration. theFordThunderbird). catedthat wereeyeing Thisis they consistent withBelk's(2004)finding thatpeopleintheir middle toreclaim lostyouth andalltheexcitement SilentGeneration agetry wasperhaps associate with their lateteenage themostintriguing. As cars Thesilent generation they years bybuying thatarereminiscent ofthose in thesensethatthey desired whenthey were children, theywerewarcasualties they andtheir As children, whowerefaced thebabyboomers werethemost wereoften overlooked, parents, younger. theDepression, worked Theangstthatis evident in the with andthere wasnot spoiled bytheir parents. longhours, timefornurturing. Their lifeparalleled Generation Xersandtheinterest inre-creating thedeveloptheir child- much oftheautomobile, from themass-produced FordA,to hood(inmore inthis ment notatallapparent positive ways)were the to the 1957 tothepresent. Whatappeared Their lifehas to be moreprevalent was Corvair, Chevy, generation. also an been internal between the the to need to break from andthe control, struggle practicality re-creating parental which their ascribed the and abundance to available memories featured either that break orputting offresponsiparents after World WarII; forthisgeneration, thestruggle featured convertibles bility. Manyofthememories along them was not between and car the with of freedom at one's hair down." family sports (on memory feelings "letting between andstatus car.Their life Mike'sfirst involved his unclewinning a map)butrather practical memory the and transformation of Cadillac Eldorado convertible ina raffle. to sophistication, Accordinghim, paralleled growth, andsomeaspired their lifetimes thecarcostmorethantherowhouseinwhich hisuncle theautomobile, throughout Others condemned that livedinLittle He remembered with toownthebestcaravailable. type Italy. beingimpressed of and the ofthe thecarandwishing hehadoneinhisowngarage conspicuous consumption extravagance today automobile as a status backtotheir thecarwas wayoutof his pricerange).He symbol, harkening par(though ents' more views about the role of cars.Theview this a lot of memremarked, practical "[G]oing through exercise, my thateventually wasrevealed in their childhood oriesrevolved around convertibles." Whenaskedwhy, he prevailed memories. saidthattheyarecarefree, nota responsibility and car, ForAlan,thisstruggle wasongoing. He grewupina He [I] wouldliketobuyonetorelive "yeah, myyouth." tenement in his One of EMsisofescapwasoneofthemeneyeing theFordThunderbird. buildingBrooklyn. the and a rideinhis who was also the recalled his Jim, ing day-to-day squalor misery bytaking eyeing Thunderbird, uncle's A Model and exhilarated when inits of with his in uncle his 1955 being riding Oldsmobile, memorybeing seat.A wealthier owned a he which "themost beautiful carI'veeverseen, ... redandwhite two- rumble Buick, neighbor ... he and tonewithlotsofchrome." Thememory a time said represented involved [and] "power prestige," theneighbor's sonsothat hecouldride when drove farmland atmore than100miles befriended "dippy" they through in it on occasion. When he was older and had somemoney hour to to his aunt's He house. said that "the per get experihesaid, encetaught meI likefastcars."He laterbought two tobuya carforhisbusiness, Oldsmobiles. His interest in theThunderbird wasthatit I guessI thought, I neverdo. I whynotindulge myself. hisDM ofhisneighbor's "matched" Thundidn'tevencompare I didn'tshop.I justwanted to canary-colored prices. derbird convertible. Heremembered Itwasn'tthecarthatI loved.I wanted itandenjoytoget getthisthing. admiring a Buick.I never untilnowassociated thatBuickwith[his toschoolinit(as opposed tohisparent's ingbeingtaken butnowI wonder. Allthoseyears, this Buick, neighbor's] moreconfining tocars sedan).He admitted beingdrawn was buried in mind or in burned heart. thing my my that area little that different, people stopandnotice. Patrecounted hermemory ofbeingsixyearsoldand Hebought theBuick, andforhim, itbecame a metaphor for inthebackseat with herlittle ina carseat; hisownpersonality. brother "Buick wasright forme,quiet sitting prestige, hermomstopped ata neighbor's houseandleft them alone notshowing likea Cadillac." Thisviewofa Buickwasconfora fewminutes. Shewasalways fascinated with with what SocialResearch Inc.'soriginal 1954study driving sistent andtookthatas anopportunity topractice, behind found aboutCadillacs andBuicks;namely, Buickswere sitting thebigwheel andmoving thegears. What shedidnotreal- socially a notch belowCadillac, butforthoseontheway ize wasthatshereleased theparking andthecar brake, carsforsubreliable, up,Buickswereconsidered sturdy rolled down thedriveway andacross thestreet andhit(and stantial whereas Cadillacs wereresented as snobpeople, lefta largeholein)thehouseacross thestreet. Sherecalls bishorsnooty themore (Easton 2001).Currently, practical that wasmoving soslow, andsofast, atthesame sideofAlanwon;heowned a minivan. Hesaid,"there "everyone goes time." Themost ofthat wasthat practical Alanagain." hewasabletogive symbolic aspect experience Thus,although Childhood Memories andBrandMeaning /55 This content downloaded from 136.244.49.238 on Mon, 21 Oct 2013 22:09:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions andthus someofthese concerns werenotpivotal inhislife, thepractical- interview, intohisdesire forstatus atonetime carwasa sports car(Trans tohislife.Hiscurrent tookoveragain. hischildhood Am),and during years itylearned offreedom and "new" he saidthathe choseitforthefeelings ofowning thestatus Denniswanted something whose wasa female there homea HisEM wasofhisfather anddifferent. babyboomer escape.Likewise, bringing EM wasofherfather herfamily's station he time."Whatan experience," newcar forthefirst wagon driving VilvisittoSanta's roadafter a family ofhaving "theexcitement a newcar."Hesaidthat downa dark, recalled, windy the home Her hit car on He father another back then. a newcarwassomething (everyone way lage. special justhaving hascontinued tobe a andthe wasfine).Forthiswoman, inandexploring remembered it,thesmell, safety climbing inhercarchoices, andshewould concern a foremost ingeneral. HisDM wasalsoabout aweoftheexperience probaisintosomething; newcar.Hesaidthat archetype mything bly respondwell to the "father-as-hero" "everyone Xers. fortheGeneration tobenewcars." Herecalled family many pho- described justhappens inthehouseorin infront than ofthecar(rather tostaken didnotknow MarketingImplications front ofthehouse).He saidthathisfamily livedin or and owned stocks who bonds, everyone anyone formardatacanbeusedtoprovide Thememory insights car that differenit was the same of the datainformation type house; Forexample, roughly theobjective keters. memory theHudson tiated Terraplane, described couldhelpmangers people.His EM involved intheEM andDM sections a lotlikethePTCruiser looked which hethought ("a cute construct orcorpoadcampaigns effective autobiographical hisearliest car....Yeah,I'd buyone").Again, experience ratecommunications Sujan,and (e.g., Baumgartner, current infiltrated theeasiest preference. events" Bettman 1992).The"generic represent His sonoftheDepression. Bobwasa morepractical lifethemes, tothepast(Barsalou entree 1988).Theimages, cartovisithiscousin, EM involved thefamily get- andlandmark inthis discuss wedidnotfully taking events (which to tobandtogether inthemuddy road,needing and to tingstuck could article) provide symbols images incorspecific thecaroverhiscousin's legs porateintoconsumer communications. pushthecar,andpushing By associating thiswasa fond Hesaidthat memory themselves (whodidnotgethurt). childhood with memory experiences, important wouldall laughaboutit a family andbecame as forth they theemotions myth; canbenefit brands brought through the consumers visited. Hismemory eachtime making of Proust the manner symbolizes those memories they relive (in tocars, hesaidthat andhis"petite With bestoutofa badsituation. theEM andtheDM respect Within madeleine"). andthen experiences oldercarsuntiltheydropped hisdadbought the thatdefine anddifferences aresimilarities a carwasa tool,not generations older car.Tohisfather, another stratecommunication andsuggest bought segmented to ofinterest atnewcarswasnotanything a toy:"Looking andlife ofsimilarity, thegeneric experiences gies.Interms tobetheKingofEng- themes itwould belikewanting usbecause with Consistent acrossgenerations. wereshared andweknewwe'd be a king, land.Weknewwe'dnever human of some 1999) ([1957] finding, aspects Levy's interms ofcars nature never havea newcar."Bob'spracticality forstaConsumers andliferemain yearn unchanged. he ownsa Dodgevan.Previously, He currently continues. their children's ble families, lives,andfinding bettering After happiness. for$12,000. hebought a Mazdavan,which owned in thesymbolic areobserved Thedifferences in it and he tried to turn three thisin buya to thesememories attached approximately years, (we discuss meaning he atthe$24,000 butgawked newmodel associevents andthelandmark pricetag,which detail subsequently) greater thesamevan.He said wastoohighforbasically claimed of which wouldallowformoretargeting atedwiththem, wereintobuying someofhisfriends that cars,such thecollective showy ofthedifferent memories (Halbgenerations suchcarswould wachs[1950]1980). thatbuying andthinking as a Mercedes, thepoint(even he never saw but them somehow, that totheEM experiences wasa mythic There change quality hecouldafford informait). them notjustfortheliteral ustoanalyze enabled though is ofthisgeneration tomembers relevant Thearchetype remembered tionbutalsofortheir Participants symbolism. andbuying themselves thepullbetween theMidas/miser, like would ofhowthey interms being showy andthebrands roots. themselves their andremembering thebestwhile As thanhowthey tobe (rather practical being were). actually ofthisgenera- Vailliant thepsyche that wants toengage Fora brand forcater(1977,p. 197)said,"Itisalltoocommon totheBuick: pillars Alansaiditbestinhisreference intheir tion, maintain that andthen butterflies tobecome perhaps makes Maturation "quiet prestige." theyhadbeenlittlebutterflies. youth childhood their tellabout liarsofusall."The"lies"people A GeneralNote on Archetypesand Deep sometruth forinterpretation. makethem Although perfect Metaphors are there with thememory associated wasprobably stories, with associated elements also be best described could the three experipresent-day many generations Although andcurrent ences(e.g.,lifestyles; therewas concerns, we recounted, stories thearchetypal preferences; through 11America). with Forexample, onemaleGeneration someoverlap. Xer,who suchas a preoccupation post-September ontothe idealized selvesareprojected anexperi- Inthisway, recalled hismother, wastheonlyonetofeature people's a gameofstick- past. heplayed herinwhich enceinthecarwith andSherry toBrown, as his itthere andholding Kozinets, (2003),such According inghishandoutthewindow andit at been hinted ideal has a EM (andhisother Thissortofplayful accelerated. mother byscholars, only utopian brand in role an Peter Pan archethe fitbetter with aswell)would memories plays important understanding meanings an whowant tocreate Forbrand atthetimeofthe andconnections. didnothavea family Thisperson managers type. 2007 ofMarketing, 56/Journal April This content downloaded from 136.244.49.238 on Mon, 21 Oct 2013 22:09:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions in their Hummer willseeksimilar selforimage, toconsumers' "authentic" past Xerparents family's connecting andpresent-day associations whenthey As Belk attributes a promising design experiences provides opportunity. from willseek ownfamily car30years "Eventhough ournostalgia memories buytheir now;they (1990,p.670)states, ownform thanobjective their ofemotional areessentially un-real andimaginary rather safety. exists as A traditional is that thebrand intheobjects that wenevertheandinherent them, wayofthinking inspire itsownsetofattributes and"perandpossesses oftheseobjects." Authen- anentity lessinsist upontheauthenticity ofthisapproach is thatit traits." Onelimitation ofbrand isanimportant 1993). sonality (Keller identity ticity aspect formanagers tofind these bedifficult a waytomake isthebrand's that brand essence DNA, might Kelly(1998)claims totheconsumer. In ourresearch, the traits Thenarrative orwhatit stands forto consumers. approach meaningful ofexamining is basedontheassumption thata butcontinued to thebrand ofthebrand/product meanings changed to their brand brand takes on its consumers onestrategy, a influence current through meaning preferences. Through the in themap interactions withthebrand For couldworkto reconcile theoverall tension (orproduct). example, or trait of a Buick to certain between on self and on the be ascribe the way viewing focusing family, might focusing PT suchas"old," In thesports carversus thefamily tothebrand, or"stodgy." car,as thesuccessful "dull," adjectives would be to Cruiser sincethetime these interviews contrast, thenarrative of the brand hasdone.Notethat way viewing in have with the wereconducted, theCrossfire, and Hummer associate a Buick of Escalade, people's experiencesriding their backoftheir allattempted toestablish ownbrand basedon onbutterscotch car,ofsucking grandparents' myths thisconflict. on a of to the soforth. Analternative involves taken movie and theatre, candy, being strategy focusing and a the or consumer then scholars have creating particular type Although marketing recognized generation brand the Peter of of this has toward these the nature the brand, hero, myth importance experiential experiences, using as guides. notbeenfully intohowbrand modPan,ortheMidas/miser archetypes integrated management elsaredefined andSherry Kozinets, (cf.Brown, 2003).In thepast,a brand's schema hasbeendefined as alltheassoGeneral Discussion tothebrand inmemory ciations connected (Keller1993), Thepurpose ofthisarticle wastointroduce EMsandDMs areassumed tobestored which ina semantic-type network. asprojective that marketers couldusetouncover Thisresearch offers another thatis consistent techniques perspective brand wasguided in Ourmethod withtheliterature ontherelational ofbrands meaning. byresearchers aspect (e.g., and social well as as Fournier associbrands andtheir psychoanalytic counseling psychology, 1998).Inthisapproach, thewell-established Theconsumer atedmeanings G. Clotaire from theinteractions Rapaille. theyhavein emerge stories both were andqual- consumers' lives.Keytounderstanding what means a brand memory analyzed quantitatively Inthefollowing in wediscuss ourresults is unlocking whatconsumers sections, remember abouttheir itatively. today terms ofpositioning a brandacrosstheconsumers' life usageofthebrand orproduct inthepast.Fromthisperhow our are related and could add be used to are"meaning marketers andconcycle, findings spective, managers," a narrative dimension to theconception of thebrand sumers ofbrand arecocreators essence Kozinets, (Brown, andthestrengths/weaknesses ofthismemory elici- andSherry schema, andSherry 2003;Brown 2003). tation method with other methods. compared projective LifeCycle MethodologicalConsiderations Therehasbeena resurgence of interest in identifying Products canserve different a person's research methods that"digdeeper" intotheconsumers' purposes throughout lifetime. Numerous eachexuding different brands, measures, person- unconscious (e.g., ZMET, physiological tothese needs. Thisfinding response-latency someprojective traits, Nonetheless, ality correspond varying techniques). is congruent withcontemporary fora longtime(e.g.,TAT,Qhavebeenaround research, personality sug- techniques a situational bestrevealed nar- sort, Thechildhood elicitation method gesting Rorschach). component through memory A major ratives. isthat automobile manufactur-is bestclassified as a projective basedonconimplication technique ersshould beaware oftherolethat vehicles in haveplayed sumer andthememory elicitation storytelling, procedure consumers' to understand what in want future. wedescribed the hereidentifies markers as past they important memory Thisinsight is especially inindustries inwhich themakings ofconsumer stories. Notethatthis important memory occursfar in advanceof product approach is different from traditional research designplanning storytelling introduction. which in asks about tales (i.e.,Levy1981), general family The consumer-brand is dynamic and orstories; from which the entire interviews, relationship life-story probe butitisalsocyclical. Certain can lifehistory andcanlastthree tofivehours; from theTAT, changing, keyexperiences intowhattheconsumer willdesire inthe which orcartoons that "askquestions" to provide insights develops pictures future. Wefound EMsofcarexperiences that wereindica- spurparticipant the (Rook1988);andfrom storytelling tiveofchoice ina family vehicle inlife.Forexample, ZMET,in whichparticipants' later ownimagesdirectthe intotheselection ofa defining experiences provided insight storytelling. hadbeenhandled. issues Inaddition, Thememory elicitation method attheindividual car,after sports family begins EMsofsafety andfunctioning become anissue(e.g.,from level;peoplerecount their EMs andDMs of a product. discussions withthesilentgeneration For Their recollection is enhanced a time participants). process byallowing children to andfrom lagbetween theinitial contact andthemainsession, example, todaywhoareescorted during orwhogoonfamily school vacations with their Generation whichtheir"synapses" begin"warming up" childhood Childhood Memories andBrandMeaning /57 This content downloaded from 136.244.49.238 on Mon, 21 Oct 2013 22:09:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions to associations. Thememory walkfurther them ofthememory recollections. encourages ingtheindividual integrity intheir interview Becauseourfocus recallearlier is onEMsandDMs(andtherolethey lives,andtheshort points As sessionhelpsthemform a comprehensive narrative. narratives are lives),theresulting playedin participants' a memory havenoted other researchers method andmorefocused from a thanmight be expected (Lup- shorter using ton1994),theseimportant memories ortypical-life-story which makes interview, mayrestat a more depth analysis without such moreefficient. unconscious levelandbedifficult toarticulate Wefollowed thememory elicitation with inourCoca-Cola wefound longer assistance. in interviews andnotethatthatdatawerecritical Indeed, pilotwork, session were dif- forming that thememories elicited ina focus theoverall uses group However, map. memory Rapaille elicita- onlythedatafrom ferent from those recalled as a result ofthememory session inhisinterpretation, thememory tionprocedure. Wealsofound thatwhenfocusgroup stories thatthevideotaped par- andwefound memory provide a readmemory stories elicited thesymbolic and themostusefuldataforinterpreting byothers during ticipants tothem much more mythic elicitation related session, with these memories. associated memory they qualities Thisfinding is than itself. thestories discussed EMs Thepsychotherapist Franz Plewa(1935)finds that bythegroup that offer consonant with Halbwachs's ([1950]1980)observation of an individual than more into any insights dynamics fun" though remembering mayappearto be an individual other Participants report "having psychic expression. andthesocialand no"individual" exists, process, memory about on their and"learning memory something journey inmany cultural influences result similarities (seealsoLup- themselves," andit buildsa nonthreatening, empathetic ton1994). with Wefound that thiswasthecaseespecially relationship. onframeworksthesilent other researchers havefocused Although the reminiscwho enjoyed generation, genuinely forderiving from consumer stories (e.g.,Thompson ingprocess. insights XersfeltposiWealsofound thatGeneration to focuseson a technique research 1997),thecurrent to like their "I would tiveabout begin bysaying experience: of what that uncover or the"content" stories, important camebackto memories I wasvery howmany surprised ofthismethod meas youwereleading researchers Themainadvantage analyze. us backin time;it wasa cool EMs andDMs is thatconsumers' overexisting methods activity." offeroftheconsumer, a quick, provide symbolic snapshot and intohowpresent concerns, pastexperiences, inginsight FurtherResearch a in creation of the story. memory lifestyles converge tounderstand concurrent memories inthe- Theuseofchildhood Researchers havefound reliability hightest-retest derived from as research increase sumer may preferences ofEMandDMtechniques matic (someresearchers aspects Wehope socialpsychology and develops. psychoanalysis for found80% test-retest specific reliability matching willnot current controversies that the regarding Rapaille or memories forgeneric andthisisprobably events, higher Holbrook ascribed that diminish that note effect; (1988) seeBruhn events; 1985). repisodic andoutrageous Dichter's flamboyant personality ofthemethod, as wediscussed Theoutput previously, Ernest ofprojective for the demise of reasons claims as one the andpromote a concrete meanstomarket offers managers need to be more studies will in There Forexample, thegeneric their brands. memory experiences techniquesmarketing. Howof our and to establish ad campaign, validity reliability approach. canbe usedtoguidea memory-referencing on researchers will usefulness to its depend marketing canbeusedtohelpbrands andtheemergent develop ever, myths in childhood memories studies more academic the Withanyresearch exploring their ownbrandstory. technique, EMs For domain. the consumer must more although singular a larger, example, ofhaving benefits sample generalizable in havebeenan important domain, of fora deepunderstanding thedesire be weighed aspectintheclinical against not be or is individual which a strikes method Thememory elicitation consumers. they may may insightsought, good or inwhich intheconsumer domain, of20 with as important ingroups theagecohorts balance myths byrunning is or It salient relevant. more be incidents have an In this video cameras. might repeated way,participants multiple best methods for the understand to also are still while stories to tell their eliciting important they memory opportunity formarketing andexpedient arebothuseful that session.Becauseparticipants memories from theelicitation fresh to is it and the relaxation self-conscious feel develop comprehensive important Finally, managers. memory during might foranalyzing these maintain- perspectives while thisfeeling reduces thegroup meanings. memory walk, setting REFERENCES N. 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