History of physical education in europe II

Transcription

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL
EDUCATION IN EUROPE
II
Leposavic, 2015.
1
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN
EUROPE
II
Leposavic, 2015.
2
Book:
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE
II
Editors:
Petar D. Pavlovic (Republic of Srpska)
Nenad Zivanovic (Serbia)
Branislav Antala (Slovakia)
Kristina M. Pantelic Babic, (Republic of Srpska)
Publishers:
University of Pristina, Faculty of Sport and Physical
Education in Leposavic
FIEP Europe - History of Physical Education and Sport
Section
Authors:
Branislav Antala
(Slovakia)
Fedor Ivanovich
Sobyanin (Russia)
Demirhan Giyasettin
(Turkey)
Ferman Konukman
(Turkey)
Elizaveta Alekseevna
Bogacheva (Russia)
Frantisek Seman
(Slovakia)
Enric Maria Sebastiani I
Obrador (Spain)
Gill Parry (United
Kingdom)
3
Petar Pavlovic (Republic
of Srpska)
Gregor Jurak (Slovenia)
Ken Hardman (United
Kingdom)
Sergii Ivashchenko
(Ukraine)
Kristina Pantelic Babic
(Republic of Srpska)
Sixte Abadia i Naudí
(Spain)
Luis Felipe Contecha
Carrillo (Colombia)
Sladjana Mijatovic
(Serbia)
Marjeta Kovac
(Slovenia)
Violeta Siljak (Serbia)
Natália Smolenáková
(Slovakia)
Vladimir Nikolaevich
Irkhin (Russia)
Nenad Zivanovic
(Serbia)
4
Reviewers:
Jela Labudova (Slovakia)
Nicolae Ochiana (Romania)
Veroljub Stankovic (Serbia)
Zoran Milosevic (Serbia)
Prepress:
Kristina M. Pantelic Babic
Printed by:
ABL PRINT, Mlynarovicova 5, Bratislava, Slovakia
Book-jacket:
Anton Lednicky
Circulation:
100 copies
ISBN 978-86-82329-53-4
NOTE: No part of this publication may be
reproduced without the prior permission of the
authors.
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD - ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS .................... 8
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS IN BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA ........................................................................................... 24
THE EMERGENCE AND HISTORY OF SPORTS EDUCATION IN
RUSSIA ........................................................................................................ 49
PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHING IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS
OF THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA ................................................................. 61
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE
TERRITORY OF SLOVAKIA ..................................................................... 81
ANALYSIS OF EXEMPT ABSENCES FROM PHYSICAL EDUCATION
LESSONS IN SLOVENIA IN THE PAST AND TODAY ........................... 97
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN CONTEXTS OF
DEMOCRATISATION: THE CASE OF SPAIN DURING THE
POLITICAL TRANSITION (1975-1982) ................................................... 110
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN TURKEY ........................... 121
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL
EDUCATION IN UKRAINE...................................................................... 133
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN ENGLAND ................................................. 144
PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHER TRAINING SCHOOLS IN LATIN
AMERICA: GENESIS ................................................................................ 180
6
During one session of FIEP’s Section for history of Physical
Education and Sports held in Nis (Serbia) in 2014 originated the idea
and initiative for writing of History of Sports and Physical Education
in European countries. By exchange of views with present
colleagues, the idea was accepted. After consent of FIEP Europe’s
President Mr. Branislav Antala (Slovakia) regarding this matter,
during the following Section’s session the Commission for leading
this idea into realization was formed. Elected members of this
Commission were: Nenad Zivanovic, Petar D. Pavlovic, Branislav
Antala and Kristina Pantelic Babic. At the same session was decided
to start first with writing of History of Physical Education.
With the work of stated Commission members, National
Delegates and Assistant of National Delegate of FIEP Europe, as
also other associates from most European countries, this publication
on beginnings of development of Physical Education in European
countries’ schools was created. All manuscripts received for this
publication successfully passed review process. All FIEP Europe
National Delegates were informed about this project, and we
received 18 European papers implemented in this publication.
Besides, we also received a paper from Colombia about PE in Latin
America, which is an indicator of interest for this topic beyond
European borders.
We hope to include all European countries in following
publications, and also to go outside Europe in our close future.
Papers are sorted alphabetically by countries which participated in
this edition, with Colombian manuscript as a final one.
We thank all authors for being a part of this interesting
project, and looking forward to work together in the future.
With best regards,
EDITORS
7
FOREWORD
ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS
Nenad Živanović, FIEP Europe, President of History of Physical
Education and Sport Section, Serbia.
When everything has its own time (Solomon), and one
should believe this to be so, then it is quite understandable that this
book on physical education and sport has awaited its time. Without
pretending that this is the final story of this beautiful theme, we
emphasize that it is only a part of our smart book (history) on
physical education and sport. From different sides and from different
angles perceived, our smart book on physical education and sport
perceives man and his desire to always be the best and excellent
among others (Homer) and constantly perceives physical exercise as
the beneficial food to man’s, primarily physical being (N.
Zivanovic). In different parts of the European continent, and in the
other parts of the world as well, man has been crossing the path of
developing its natural form of body movement - exercise all the way
to the derivative and modified forms. All this man has done in the
reverse direction, constantly returning to his natural forms of
movement - training. Of course, it has always been adapted and in
harmony with the social environment and social circumstances in
which he has lived.
However, we must point out one fact. Physical exercise, no
matter how it is defined, is not a subject that can be made and bought
in a store. Physical exercise is actually a man himself and his
movement, performed with the corresponding objective, not only to
develop or train some of his (motor) properties, but also because of
the emotional experiencing of such a movement - training. This fact
alone indicates the complex structure of man. His physical and
mental structure, consecrated by the Holy Spirit, makes him a
complete man, a personality - one, unique and unrepeatable.
Therefore, a physical exercise for him is a wholesome food essential
to his being.
8
At the heart of physical education is a man with all his
needs and desires. This man, as we have noted, has a need for
physical exercise, specific food that is essential to his, primarily
physical being. In fact, this man has a need for self-motion exercise. Therefore, when we talk about physical exercise and
physical exercising, we actually talk about the man himself. And this
man, searching for his identity, moves from the idea that a person is
one, unique and unrepeatable, to an individual – an atomized
individual who thinks he is self-sufficient. Thus, between these
extremes, a man wanders seeking, above all, himself and his
increasingly lost person. That is why education and, of course,
physical education is so important.
Education and physical education as well can be defined in
different ways. But it is not superfluous to recall that the term
upbringing (education) is an old Slavic word denoting feeding. Of
course, physical education as a part of general education ensures that
a physical exercise nourishes man. And from this simple fact derives
all the philosophy of physical education and sport, and it, among
other things claims: everything for a man, a man for nothing.
This philosophical idea draws its strength from the simple
fact that says life is the highest value obtained from the Creator and
noone, especially an educator, has the right to intentionally or
unintentionally, incur the collapse of these values. Hence, the
establishment of many schools, and in them the subject of physical
education, to make man stand up and show him all the values of life.
But, in all stages of life on the Earth, there were periods of ups and
downs of the human civilization and culture. Therefore, the time in
which we live should be considered taking into account this fact, and
in accordance with it we should try to find the best solutions. It is not
easy, but it is a sublime duty of the (real) experts and teachers.
It is interesting to recall the times of two hundred years ago.
Then, at the southern edge of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy a
Fruskogorskian monk Georgie, translating a V. K. Hufeld book
Macrobiotics, used a term physical education in the title of a chapter.
The book was translated into the Serbian language and published in
Budim in 1807.1 Before that, in these parts of Europe, different terms
1
More on this in: Milosevic, Z. and Berar M. Tracing the Term Physical Education, Physical
Education and Sport Through the Centuries, Vol.1, Iss. 1. 44–52.
9
denoting the organized forms of physical exercise, were used. The
most common terms used were the body exercises and gymnastics.
But this term physical education was exactly in line with the basic
meaning of education - and that is feeding. By means of the attribute
physical in this syntagm a type of food that is offered to a man,
regardless of his age, is highlighted. And that reflects a complete
pedagogical idea emanating from the basic philosophical ideas that
we have highlighted.
The Humanists
Turning towards man and his needs began in the mid-14th
century. The advent of the Humanism and the Renaissance in the
northern Italy established a new view of the world and of man in that
world. Scholars and leaders of the new movement were called the
Humanists. They had directed their learning towards the man (studia
humana) and had pointed to the humanity as a worthy decoration of a
free man.2 Such a radical shift and a break with the tradition of the
Middle Ages, whose role model was found in the legacy of the
ancient Greeks and Romans, was felt in relation to the physical
exercise, as well. Instead of generating the possibilities of the
organized physical exercise only for a selected group of (young)
people - knights, various forms of physical exercise were offered and
widely recommended to each and everyone. This urbi et orbi had
been accepted and a new wave of a tsunami force, had begun to
spread throughout Europe.
The leading humanists who spoke about education, have
always emphasized the importance of physical exercising. It was
2
Education and science that the Humanists took over from the priests and monks ceased to be the
"handmaiden of theology" and became a "teacher of life". In that school, as well as in the amended
environmental practices, one new man was formed. It was the man of this world who wanted to
live out his life to the fullest and improve the gifts with which he was endowed (so he thought) by
nature. To this and such a man ecstatic humanists sang the hymns. They tell him about his
"excellence" (exelenntia) and his "dignity" (dignitas). They equate him with God (quidem mortalis
deus) and encourage him to the comprehensive application of his own strength and quality (virtus),
the constant striving to be a "noble" and "free" (nobilitis et liber), and to achieve fame (laus). We
should now be able to add the competition, as well. After all, this is the motto of the EU, which is
written in its founding documents. This is so because with the neoliberal concept of planning and
management and the replacement of capitalism with the bankism (Gerald Selent), a Neohumanist
approach is quite possible. And, unfortunately, we are witnessing where it leads.
10
very important in the design of an educational system that included
various programs of physical exercise in their concept.3
3
It is appropriate, at least briefly to recall of the basic facts relating to these, for our profession,
significant people:
 Francisco Petrarch (1304-1374) was the first who was able to show the culture of the ancient
Greeks and Romans. With his own money he has funded deciphering the Latin alphabet. His
name is linked to the humanistic movement in Italy.
 Pietro Paolo Vergerio (1349-1420), in his treatise on the Education of the Master of
Padova’s son, stated as a topic of conversation: his character and discipline, free- open
minded learning, physical exercise, training in art (the art of) war, recreation. He pointed out
three allies: health, physical exercise and recreation, as well as the necessity of the
knowledge about health and all this he substantiated with many examples of the vigorous
physical exercise and recreational activities.
 Vitorino de Feltre (1378-1446), followed the ideas of Greece and Rome on the importance
of physical exercise, but he stressed the importance of ball games, jumping and fencing. He
was declared the first teacher of the Renaissance as his program has well balanced the
physical, intellectual and moral education.
 Aeneas Sylvius Picocomini (1405-1464) is one of the most important humanists who later
became the Pope. He claimed that the organism is indivisible and that the physical activity
helps the development of all human abilities.
 Mafeus Vegius (1405-1458) believed that education should develop all of man's physical
and spiritual qualities. He especially emphasized the importance of health habits and
advocated that physical education should be free education, not to exceed in the extreme, but
to be approached as a good recreation activity.
 Jakob Sadoleto (1477-1547) was the pope's secretary. But he wanted, following the model of
the ancient Greeks, to connect physical exercise and music. This was of great importance
because after many centuries this issue was given the proper attention.
 Hieronymus Mercurialis (1530-1606) recommended physical activity for health. He was not
inclined to asceticism and complete specialization. He made a division of gymnastics into
the preventive and therapeutic ones. He believed that physical activities represent an integral
part of the free education.
 Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) recommended physical exercise as part of the education of
children. He emphasized the importance of generous movements, but of these that will have
a positive impact in their lives. That is why he was against the creation of the athletes.
 Martin Luther (1483-1546), was an enthusiasts who believed that physical training is of
great importance for the education of the youth. He was imbued with the idea of the
"muscular Christians" (Muscular Christianity). He recommended that music should be used
as a useful and beneficial activity, and fencing and wrestling were considered as beneficial
and healthy physical activities.
 Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) believed that the games and sport were important for children
and youth. He felt that games and sport contained a certain degree of skills and that they
were very useful for the organism.
 François Rabelais (1483-1553), a writer and doctor, can be called a classical humanist. He is
known for his works Gargantua and Pantagruel, in which he outlined his views on education.
In his program physical education occupies an important place, which is based on the seven
skills: wrestling, running, jumping, shooting, riding, and all types of military skills. Rabelais
described the exercises that are suitable for enclosed spaces (training rooms).
 Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1670) has by his practical and theoretical works contributed
most to the development of physical education. He has in his major works laid a solid
foundation of our profession. In the General Didactics (Didactica Magna) he presented his
views on education on the basis of the premise that "schools are not torture houses, nor
prisons as lunatics think, but places to play in". And then he conveyed another message:
"With prowess and not fraud to win". In his second book, The World in Photos (Orbis
11
These programs, encouraged by the new view on life and
man's place in society, had gradually diverged and were directed in
two independent directions. In the continental Europe the idea of the
gymnastic forms of physical exercise prevailed. In contrast to this
idea, in England, on the insular part of Europe, sport had won the
status of the leading idea in the organization of physical exercising.
This, of course, was conditioned by different social circumstances,
for which there had been so many different approaches to the forms
of physical exercising. The fact is that the utilitarian values of sport
and gymnastics, in such circumstances, have come into the limelight.
Egocentristic approach to sport and ethnocentric approach to
gymnastics were quite in line with the social circumstances.
Until the advent of the Reformation and later revivals that
took place, there were no substantial and concrete progress in the
organized physical exercising and its firmer inclusion in the school
system. Only with the appearance of John Amos Comenius and his
work (to make it more absurd – a post got as a punishment) in a
school in Saros Patok in Hungary, there came a turning point of the
immeasurable importance to physical education and sport. He was,
thanks to his work as well as the position of the principle of the
school, the first in the history of our profession, to award a physical
exercise (education) a place in the school curriculum, as well as the
time allotted in the teaching timetable. We now, in fact, inherit what
was done by Comenius in the mid-17th century. And when it comes
to his theoretical and practical work, even today he can serve as an
example of the serious and creative efforts to approach education
(also) as - feeding. His works, primarily the United didactics and
The World in Photos are the examples of the great foresights and
meticulousness, and are a good token of the times that are behind us.
Pictus), written in four languages he described all physical exercises and competitions then
known in Europe. This is an encyclopedic work, which is very important for the History of
physical education and sport. In addition to these important books, Comenius, as the director
of a school in Saros Patok, has alloted to the subject of physical education place and time
within the school curriculum. Thus, a subject of physical education has for the first time,
taken seriously and equalled with all other achool subjects (disciplines) that were taught in
school. (According to: Zivanovic, N. Contribution to the epistemology of physical
education. Niš, Panopticon, 2000, 147-154).
The other notable personalities for our profession, from the time of the Reformation, and later,
will be discussed in the framework of the Theory of the development of physical education and
sport.
12
Theories
Development
of
the
Physical
Education
and
Sport
Different theories of the physical education and sport
development4 have based their philosophy of development on the
goal (and mission) of the physical exercise. Each for themselves and
all together, during the tumultuous centuries that are behind us, they
have undergone various stages of development. This was caused by
different social circumstances in which they were created and
developed.
At the end of the 17th and the 18th century there have been
many revolutions, among which five of them have exerted a great
and decisive influence on the conception of social development.5
Then came the inevitable undermining of the "ancient regime" and
its subsequent marginalization.6
"The Ancient Regime" has undergone criticism and change
in education, as well. In the period of the enlightment the attitude of
the church and its control of education, emphasizing the study of the
history of the ancient times, theology, Greek and Latin languages,
were sharply criticized. New people, the philosophers, represented
the opinion that - modern history, new (live) languages, engagement
in science and, within that, in physical activities, should be studied,
instead. Prominent figures, important for the development of
physical education and sport as well are John Locke7 and Jean
Jacques Rousseau8. They were, indeed, by their educational and
4
According to: (1) Zivanovic, N: School sports from the perspective of the theoanthropocentrism. In. Bokan, B. and Radisavljević Janic (Ed.). International Scientific Conference,
Belgrade, "The effects of physical activity on the anthropological status of children, youth and
adults". Belgrade, 2012: Faculty of Sport and Physical Education; 112-117; (2) Zivanovic, N:
Contribution to the epistemology of physical education. Niš, Panopticon, 2000, 155–165.
5
The revolutions of the crucial influence on the development of social relations and the concept of
social life certainly are: scientific, agricultural, commercial or economic, industrial, democratic or
socialist ones.
6
The term the "ancient regime" is used by the French to describe religious, legal, socio-cultural
and economic institutions that prevailed in the Western Europe in the late 17th and 18th century,
because it was inconsistent with the new tendencies of the development.
7
John Locke (1632 - 1704) is one of the largest English philosopher of his time. His works, essays
on education, have influenced many teachers and political theorists. He qualified a newborn as a tabula rasa, who under the influence of education builds up and changes. This has resulted in many
teachers to start with a different observation of children.
8
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1788) was another important person of the "Age of the
enlightenment". He sharply attacked the current system, and his thoughts and messages about
education he presented in Emil, a work which is half a discussion and half a novel. His ideas on
13
journalistic work guidelines for further development of our
profession. Their numerous followers,
Pestalozzi, Felenber,
Basedow, inspired by their work, have created the operating
principles and by their practical work have done much for the
development of physical education.
Theory of biocentrism
The theory of biocentrism dated back in the early 18th
century, when all the more pronounced were collisions of the old
and the new social relationships, old and new traditions, views of the
world and of man in this world. It has began to spread the notion that
man recognizes the natural impulsive moves and feels the need to
play, that he has discovered himself and his world through the
experiences, that its value is based in freedom, voluntariness and
natural forms of movement and exercising. This certainly is nothing
new, and not a new view of the world. But such ideas and thoughts
in the works of Locke and Rousseau, appeared to be new.
"It is a sad misconception that physical exercise is
detrimental to mental activity, as if both these operations could not
be carried out simultaneously, and as if one could not manage the
other".9 (3) Of course, this idea and the message for this time exuded
a new view of the man and his physical exercise. This novelty, to put
it plainly, was redolent of freshness of thought and for that social
moment, was a bold step taken towards a new era.
the new, progressive, education became the basis of many new educational programs in the mid
18th century. He believed that "constant, nature entirely similar exercises strengthen the body and
not only do they not dull the spirit but rather create a kind of reason capable of filial age, and that
every age is most needed. They teach us to know our strength, our body attitude towards the
bodies that surround us and the use of natural tools that are within our grasp and which correspond
to our organs." Such an attitude towards education and, of course, physical education stems from
his attitude - that all is the good that comes from the hands of the Creator, and by human hands is
corrupted. Therefore, he advocates a new approach to education and a return to nature. Because of
that his Emil prefers to climb the hills like a goat to jumping in the salon like a monkey following
the directions of the gallantry. Z. Z. Rousseau was among the first to raise the issue of the
education of girls. However, this education is different and appropriate to the creating of a good
housewife and a kind of decoration of the house. In the education of girls there are religious and
aesthetic education and skills. The rest of the education complements a husband at his own
discretion. Great attention he has devoted to the play. The conditions for play should be created by
the elderly and their assistance should be unobtrusive and discreet. Children need to feel free and
self-solve tasks in the play.
9
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emil or on education. Belgrade, 1925. Bookstore Rajković and Čukić,
p.53.
14
These ideas were accepted by the thinkers and educators
such as: Basedow,10 Pestalozzi,11 Saltzman, GutsMuths12. In recent
10
Johann Bernhard Basedow (1723-1790) has by its theoretical and practical work contributed to a
new approach to the physical education. He opened a school called "Philanthropinum," in Dessau,
in 1774. Contemporaries have called this school a "High school for humanity." In it the plan of the
daily work schedules looked like this: 7 hours - sleeping; 6 hours - dressing, feeding, rest and
recreation; 1 hour - correspondence and neatness; 5 hours - studying and intellectual work; 3 hours
- physical exercise, dance and music; 2 hours - handmade works (with physical exertion).
Throughout the summer students would spend about a month in the camp, where the nature
replaced textbooks, and another month was planned to carry out the practical work with the
peasants, craftsmen and merchants. The basics of the physical education in the Philanthropinum,
was "Dessaus’s Pentathlon", which consisted of: running, jumping, climbing, cargo carrying and
balancing (balance exercises). Great attention was paid to the persistent walking, swimming and
rowing. He advocated also for a broad application of games and gave methodological guidelines
for their application. He believed that the games developed prowess and provide emotional
experience - creating the conditions for a good life.
11
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) a Swiss educator has built his own position, which is
predominantly directing gymnastics towards raising the health and resilience of the body against
natural influences that can endanger it. In this context, special attention was devoted to
strengthening and training locomotor apparatus. Therefore, with him for the first time, simple joint exercises appeared. Pestalozzi has coming from town to village, begun to deal with the poor
children upbringing. In 1800 he managed to establish the "House of Education", which was later
moved to Iferten and became famous throughout the world. His "House of Education" resembles
very much the "House of Play" of Vittorino Rambaldoni (1378-1446). Among his many works the
most important are the following: Leonard and Gertrude and How Gertrude teaches her children.
There he also presented his views on the necessity of the integrated education. Because of this, he
believes that physical education should be a means of forming the spirit as well as the moral and
aesthetic education.
12
Johann Friedrich GutsMuths (1759-1839) is one of the most important theorists and creators of
the systematization of physical exercises. He spent some time in Salzmann’s Philanthropinum,
where he received a needed experience in gymnastics work. The principles underlying his theory
and methodology are current even nowadays, which tells how his work is built into the basics of
the later system of gymnastics, and even today's physical education. Here are these principles:
•
man is a physical and spiritual unity;
•
weakness of the body leads to the weakness of spirit;
•
highest intellectual culture, without physical education, provides only an
incomplete person, without the joy of life and beauty;
•
natural practicing of the primitive peoples civilized ones should replace with
gymnastics skills; these may be military, athletic and medical, but the only type
for all of them should be the - pedagogical gymnastics;
•
the duty of the most educated countries and all the teachers should be to
organize propaganda of the pedagogical gymnastics. That means everyday
gymnastics for all ... To create an atmosphere for gymnastics;
•
there is a need to reinforce the concern about hygiene and one should
recommend exercise in the fresh air;
•
in a teaching method one should count on the age, sex, profession, and the
composition of those who practice.
GutsMuths has in its systematization of physical exercises singled out:
a) real gymnastic exercises - jumping, running, throwing, wrestling, climbing,
balancing, dancing, etc.;
b) handicrafts;
c) social games for the youngsters.
15
years, these ideas were more elaborated by: Laban,13 Dalkroze,14
and Montessori.15 Their programs were oriented towards young
people. So Laban had built his expressive gymnastics on a natural
desire of a child towards movement and a spontaneous play. There
were created special education programs outside of school such as
snow school, school camps. Today, this approach is observed in the
programs of schools in nature and sports camps.
The theory of ethnocentrism.
The theory of etnocentrism in the center of its development
puts ethnos, people. Also, any form of physical exercise was created
having this in mind and was adapted to that end. It originated during
the turbulent times of the 19th century, when the international
conflicts dominated Europe and Napoleonic wars simultaneously
represented a conflict between the old and the new. Nations were
getting stronger, and the period of the professional armies was
passing by. In such a situation there was a growing need for the
physical education of citizens, who would be the new troops, if
necessary. The representatives of this school are: Franz Nachtegall16,
Pehr Ling Henrik17, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn 18, Miroslav Tirs.19
13
Rudolf von Laban (1879-1958) was a dancer and theoretician. In 1936 he emigrated to London
(England) and there he has, within his pedagogical work, developed a system of "education by
movement". He had claimed four aspects of movement (flow, time, space and path), eight
combinations and sixteen ranks. Soon the term "movement" has become the most important term
in the representation of Laban’s concepts, and the phrases such as "art of movement", "gymnastics
by movement" and "education by movement" became the integral part of the vocabulary of
physical education.
14
Émile Jaques-Dalcroze (1865-1950) as a good musician has always helped his disciples to use
movements to more easily become good musicians. After the Second World War his ideas were
accepted also in the British schools and were known as "music and movement".
15
Maria Montessori (1870–1952) Maria Montessori (1870-1952) has built on the ideas of
Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel her own educational system, in which the play and movement
were important elements. She said that "what really makes the teacher is his love for a human
child; because love is what differentiates the social duty of the educational worker and creates a
higher awareness of his mission.”
16
Franz Nachtegall (1777-1847) founded the first gymnastics institute in Europe, which was, in
fact, the basis for the further development of physical education in Denmark. When the practical
benefits of such work were noticed, daily basis physical exercising was introduced as a
compulsory subject in schools (1801). He soon opened in Copenhagen a military gymnastics
school for the education of the professional staff. In addition to the practical work Nachtegall
wrote gymnastics manuals.
17
Pehr Henrik Ling (1776-1839) spent five years in Nachtegall’s school in Copenhagen, and on
his return to Sweden he formed a new system of gymnastics. Sweden as Denmark, was in a
delicate international political situation, thus it was necessary to use the Civil Army (citizens) to
16
In the theory and practice of physical education these
representatives of ethnocentrism are known as the founders of
various gymnastic systems that were aimed at gathering young
people doing physical exercise and their development in order that
they, so strengthened, could fight for the social goals and ideals. It is
through the analysis of the ideas of their systematization of physical
exercise that we notice the emergence of the ultimate goal - ethnos,
and not an individual, a member of that nation. And even today, in
supplement the professional army. Therefore, first of all, they needed special programs of physical
exercise. Ling in 1814 founded under the royal patronage the Royal Central Gymnastics Institute
in Stockholm. The institute still nowadays exists, but under the other name (since 1967 it is called
the Institute for gymnastics and sport). Ling has proclaimed four types of gymnastics:
military (for strengthening the body and one’s will to encourage the other people's
will);
pedagogical (own body to subordinate to one’s own volition);
medical (to overcome and eliminate diseases);
aesthetic (towards emotions expression).
His gymnastics program was characterized by a design-specific directionality, whose main
characteristic is anatomical and physiological justification. Gymnastics equipment, which is still
famous in the world, has been adapted to the needs of the body.
18
Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852), in 28 as a soldier, survived the German military defeat, and
experienced it as a personal tragedy. From then on he devoted himself exclusively to the work on
strengthening the German nation. According to him, physical education had to create strong and
courageous warriors for the defense of France. Therefore he had devised his own system and
founded a turner organization. Since he was against everything that was not German, he would not
use the word gymnastics, known and famous throughout the world, but had found a new word turner. This term was derived from the medieval knight competition and exercises. In his program
he included running, jumping, climbing, suspension and exercise on special requisites. In the
period from 1819 to 1842 the Austrian Chancellor Metternich prohibited "turner". This restriction
had provoked an important change in the character of the turner exercise. In fact, during this
period training was performed secretly at homes. So there had been a restructuring of the physical
exercises, ones that required a large space were lost, and in the foreground erupted apparatus and
small space exercises. They were able to maintain discipline and control. These exercises were
later incorporated into the school programs. Jahn’s system of physical exercise, with the help of
his students spread out to other countries as well. Soon it lost a national basis and with the systems
of Ling and Nachtegall, became an important part of the development of physical education in
many countries around the world.
19
Miroslav Tirs (1832-1884) formed the Czech gymnastics society in 1862. When the German
students began to stand out and establish turner societies, Tirs organized the workout for the Czech
students. Later on his system was named "SOKO", as a symbol of bravery, heroism and nobility.
At that time, the living conditions of the national minorities in Austria were very harsh, so,
basically, this gymnastics organization was also established for the purpose of awakening the
national consciousness. It could be said that the sport has undergone through four stages of
development: (1) Patronizing sport (lat. Patronus: protector), (2) A gentleman sport or
pedestrianism (lat. Pedes: Foot), (3) School or university sport, (4) Civil sport.
The Tirs exercises system was divided into four groups:
a) exercises without requisites;
b) exercises using the requisites;
c) group exercises;
d) combat exercises.
17
these troubled times of the 21st century, there is a physical exercise
that is organized on the ideas of the ethnocentrism.
The theory of egocentrism.
The theory of egocentrism. This theory’s development is
based on man's quest to build his personality by emphasizing his
ego, his identity. And he puts in the foreground his ultimate
individualism. In sport, as one of the areas of physical education
which relies (as opposed to the physical education and recreation) on
the agon, fight, competition, man finds the ability to express his
individuality. This is why sport (along with other, primarily political
and economic reasons) has experienced a great expansion.
During the 19th century a specific system of games and
sports began to exist in England. This system has been specifically
accepted in so-called public schools20. It has spread throughout the
British Empire and even beyond its borders. Activities were
different, but there stood out - the virtuosity of glory, fair play,
dignity, individual effort and courage. A lot of credit for the
development of school sport, which is the basis for the so-called civic
sport, belongs to Thomas Arnold21, the priest, educator and
administrator of the Rugby College, and his followers, above all,
Thomas Hughes22.
In the continental part of Europe, at that time the
ethnocentric approach to physical exercise dominated. However, in
the late 19th century (in 1884) Pierre de Coubertin 23 visited England,
20
The development of sport is very distinctive. After the English bourgeois revolution, the new
social relations resulted in the class compromise of the English aristocracy and bourgeoisie, both at
the political and the economic levels. This was reflected in physical education, too and as a
product of that compromise a modern sport was created. It was created by merging some forms of
physical exercise and games favorite to the nobility (riding, fencing, hunting, swimming) and the
folk forms of competition (running, wrestling, pugilism, rowing).
21
Thomas Arnold (1795–1842) as a director of the college in Rugby, while watching children's
sporting events, realized and understood their significance for the education of children. Therefore,
they were included in the school curriculum. The motto of Thomas Arnold was to educate the
Christians - gentlemen. Self-improvement was something that represented a key education, which
had resulted in the creation of pedagogical system based on freedom. And in all this sporting
competitions had played an important role.
22
Thomas Hughes has as the successor of the ideas of Thomas Arnold, founded the movement
"Muscular Christian youth" (1842). Thus, sport helped young people to recognize the act of
freedom in the true sense of the word.
23
Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), has by his enthusiasm, work and his own money managed to
realize one for a long time present idea of restoring the ancient Olympic Games.
18
there he got familiarized with the sports games and, after returning to
France, started propagating sport. It was fruitful and in 1896 in
Athens (Greece) the first new Olympic Games were held. Today,
sport is experiencing a large and rapid development and is present in
all parts of the world.
The theory of anthropocentrism
The theory of anthropocentrism was established on the
philosophical worldview believing that man is the center of the
world and the ultimate purpose of its development. This theory
unifies all the previous theories of development: ethnocentrism,
biocentrism and egocentrism.
Its main features are:
1. Development of physical abilities and health,
2. Increase in social development (progress)
3. Improving the level of knowledge and skills in sports and
games,
4. Development of leading capabilities and increasing
opportunities for the cooperation with others,
5. Development of broad-based recreational skills,
especially for leisure time during the holidays.
These characteristics of the anthropocentristic approach to
physical exercise, although at first glance recognizable, represent a
distillate of the new desires and thoughts about the necessity of
human health and happiness. In doing so, it is suggested that these
two postulates, health and happiness are something that is a
necessity and purpose of man and that any form of the physical
exercise should comply with it. Of course, there is omitted closer
defining not only of health but also of happiness, but is associated
with the society in which human rights and freedom are achieved.
And accordingly, this philosophy of physical exercise first appeared
in Scandinavia and North America. In the second half of the 20th
century O. Åstrand24 and K. Cooper25, each in their own way,
Per-Olof Åstrand (1922–2015) had his research studies which were basically the interval
method, in his later works, in the mid eighties of the 20th century, completely rejected and
24
19
developed a program of physical exercise having primarily in mind
the needs of man. Later Jane Fonda26 has developed special
programs for women. Today these ideas are present in the form of
(different) fitness programs.
The theory of theo-anthropocentrism.
The theory of theo-anthropocentrism is the youngest among
the theories of the physical education development. It is considered
to be the youngest not due to the time of its philosophy originating,
but because of the time of its presence in our profession, and that is
the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century. In this
theory of the physical education development (physical education
and sport) one starts from the basic assumptions that: a) a man is
approached cautiously as if by "pigeon legs", and b) that physical
exercise is a wholesome food, primarily for the physical part of his
being. This is a theory that provides one more humane agon within
the frame of the Orthodox anthropology. This Christ-centrism allows
a Godman centric approach, in which God and man are in the center,
in the embrace of the eternal love and community.
This approach reminds us that school as a place to acquire
new knowledge and skills, is not composed of the the walls and
classrooms, but of those who are in it: the teachers and students. And
they, as the central beings of all created, may only be the
personalities in the community with another personality. For without
such a community there is no the first nor any other personality, and
there is not one thing that goes with the personality which is
freedom. Freedom, of course, implies an obligation arising out of it,
that everything is done for the well-being of the man himself. Thus,
one should take account of the duration of the physical exercise
(scope), as well as the load of the physical exercise (intensity).
replaced with the idea that man needed physical activity during the day, for 30 minutes, in the
various combinations of time intervals.
25
Kenneth H. Cooper (1931) had by his research established a system of physical exercise which
is known as Aerobics. He, like Åstrand, had based his system on 10,000 steps in a day. His ideas
are now used in many fitness centers.
26
Jane Fonda (1937) a film actress who aimed her exercise programs at women had made a
turning point in relation to the style of exercise and attitude of women towards their physical
appearance. She had developed a special program known as Aerobic exercise for women.
20
Knowing that the food (physical exercise) is varied and that it is
useful in optimal quantities (volume and intensity of exercise), it is
offered to man with love.
And to the posed questions of how and, above all, why
exercise, the answer is sought in the very being of man and his need
for this kind of food as well.27 In doing so, one does not forget that it
is necessary to each and all (Urbi et Orbi), which is, in fact, in the
very center of this theory. Representatives of this theory are Nenad
Zivanovic28 and Zoran Milosevic.29
Current time
Modern civilization resting on the neoliberal concept of
organizing the overall social life, with the Darwinist direction, faces
a major challenge. During decades long efforts it has managed to
incorporate in most people the guiding principles - only present is
what is important and what matters. Other time categories, such as
past and future are wiped out. In such circumstances one must
observe our profession as well.
Physical education and sport30 today can be seen not only as
an organic whole, but also as the two separate and, unfortunately,
absolutely independent units. And this requires careful
considerations about our profession.
Sport31 has particularly in its professional and elite parts,
completely rejected its old attributes (health, education,
socialization) and accepted the new ones (result and profit). When
talking about sport (elite and professional), one can no longer talk
27
The words of the Apostle Paul addressed at the weaken Corinthians: "I have the right to do
anything, but not everything is beneficial. I have the right to do anything—but I will not be
mastered by anything." (I Cor. 6, 12).
28
Nenad Zivanovic (1946), University of Nis, Serbia.
29
Zoran Milosevic (1962), University of Novi Sad, Serbia.
30
Terms which combine and contain physical education and sport, were different at different
times, and in different social environments. From the Renaissance to the end of the 19th and
beginning of the 20th century were dominated by the terms: the body exercise and gymnastics, and
in England sport. Later, the other two terms were crystallized from which the organizational
structure of our specialized field drew, as well as theoretical and practical work, namely: physical
education and sport
31
We recall of the classification of sport specific to the target sports:
School sport - Registered sport – Recreational sport
Registration sport is divided into: amateur, top and professional sports.
(According to: Nenad Zivanovic, et al., Theory of Physical Education. Nis, Panopticon, 2010, p.
21
about health, education, socialization, but solely in terms of the
results and profits, that is, in terms of its political and economic
utilitarianism. No longer are the ideas and messages of the
Pennsylvanian bishop Etelberto Talbot valid, as he instructed the
participants of the Olympics in London in 1908 – It is not important
to win, it is important to take part. Now, in accordance with the ideas
of the neoglobalistic New Age, there is one rule that is valid and is
assuming the level of the legal norms. This rule, established in the
mid-80s of the 20th century, says “It is not important to participate,
it is important to win”. And to win at any cost32 With this type of a
guiding principle it is not difficult to explain and understand the
emergence of the new cults: the cult of the body, the cult of sports
results and the cult of profit33.
Amateur sport34 has, to a lesser extent, accepted the new
attributes of sport. It is fully compliant with the New Era, because
the athletes involved in the amateur sport inherit the values of the
modern civilization. And the higher the level of the amateur sport,
the more pronounced this acceptance is. But in its lower segments
(sports clubs in small towns and rural areas), it has retained to a
greater extent, the old attributes of sport and these should be nurtured
and encouraged.
School sport35 is the only link between the physical
education and sport. This fact is not at all encouraging, but we must
accept it and make sure it stays that way. On our work depends
whether we manage to keep current title school sport. There are
numerous attempts to establish the term sport in school. Such efforts
are reflecting not only the desire to come to the terminology changes,
32
After an ominous wave of sports violence of the 80s of the 20th century, we are witnessing new
outbursts of violence in all its forms. Fights of the athletes, fights of the fans, murder of fans
(Istanbul 2014), provocations at the football stadiums (Belgrade, London, ..., 2014), all of it
foretells, as well as the late 20th century, the coming evil times. In doing so, obscene and
hypocritical explanations of these events indicate that the present civilization recognizes only - the
current time and the Darwinian concept of competition.
33
More on this in: Nenad Zivanovic, Apology of physical exercise. Nis, Panopticon, 2011.
34
Amateur sport, as one of the segments of the registered sport, with excellent and professional,
very often is treated as a recreational sport. Between them there is not only a terminological but
also the conceptual difference already, and it should be taken into account during each expert
analysis.
35
School sport, by its very terminological definition, by its attribute – school puts emphasis on
education. And until it does, and while sport in school term does not prevail, there is still hope that
the sports competitions in school have a primary goal - education, rather than - (exclusively) sports
scores. And that children’s school sports dreams and sports competitions would represent one nice
part of their childhood and youth.
22
but also to the conceptual ones. And that would be disastrous for us
all. Because if we say - sport in school, this means that in this phrase
emphasis is placed on the attribute sport. This inevitably entails cruel
clear fact - that we will have in school sport with all of its
particularly negative, characteristics. Let us mention only one of
them, and it is – to achieve the result at any cost. If we let the result
be the primary goal and do everything for its realization, then the
school and its role in education of the young people will turn into a
service station of the registered sport. This is not just an ominous
assumption, but a harsh reality that we face. The cure for this terrible
disease are certainly the new humanists and teachers who love man,
but the man who has the personality - one, unique and unrepeatable.
Physical education and its very name suggests that through
physical exercise as the beneficial food, we build up the personality
of all our students. In addition, relying on the Orthodox Christian
anthropology and ethics derived from it, we know that only through
love I am what I am (O. Justin Popovic). Therefore, if we know that,
we will not be the teachers who will go in for the idea of this New
World and regard our student as an object, commodities to be
exploited to achieve our own goals, but we should observe him as a
personality, unique and unrepeatable. We know that in this given
freedom lies our responsibility. This responsibility makes quite
comprehensive the Orthodox Christian understanding of freedom,
which is reflected in the self-restrain for the sake of the others
(Solzhenitsyn). And in this effort to see others besides himself, the
man is realized as a person. Certainly, it is not an easy task at all, not
only to understand but also to perform, but we should head on in that
direction.
Our teacher, educator and expert ( in this very order) loves
his students and strives to be the Anatoly - their light and the light of
our profession as well. He makes effort because he knows that one
educates with love and by setting personal example - role model.
This is how we observe physical education, and the book in
front of you talks about it.
23
REPUBLIC OF SRPSKA
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS IN
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Petar D. Pavlovic, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports,
University of Banja Luka
Kristina M. Pantelic Babic, Faculty of Physical Education and
Sports, University of Banja Luka
Correspondence
Kristina Pantelic Babic
[email protected]
Phone: +387 65 597 685
Social, economic, cultural, educational, political and other
kind of development, as also beginnings and development of
physical exercise in schools of Bosnia and Herzegovina, can be
divided in several periods: a) period until 1463, b) period from 1463
to 1878, c) period from 1878 to 1918, d) period from 1918 to 1945,
and e) period from 1945 onwards. We find first three periods
interesting for our subject (from the beginning until 1918), because
in these periods appeared first ideas and initiatives about
introduction of teaching of physical education (PE), as also
implementation of PE in curriculum of schools from that period.
Period until 1463
By formation of first countries in that territory their
habitants were in constant conflict with surrounding people, and
there were also fights between tribes over the territory
predominance, so it was quite understandable that a lot of time was
dedicated to physical exercise and practicing of martial skills in
purpose of creating stronger, faster, agile and more endurable
warrior.
In different gatherings, celebrations around churches and
monasteries, weddings, coronations of rulers and other religious
feasts, knights, noblemen and others gathered to compete and by that
24
demonstrate their skills with weapons and other disciplines. Based
on the drawings at signet rings, monuments, tomb stones and coat of
arms, as also national epic (heroic) poems, we can state that they
most cherished: riding, hunting, national (peoples’) games, archery,
running, jumping, fighting chest to chest, throwing rocks and spears,
wrestling and other similar disciplines. 1
Schools, as we know today, with present curriculums, did
not exist on territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina until 1463. Until
appearance of first schools, Serbs gained their literacy by themselves
(they were self-taught) from literate individuals and in monastery
schools. 2
As Serbs, Croats also gained their literacy as self-taught and
in schools which existed in catholic monasteries. 3 Teaching physical
exercise (physical education) did not exist in aforementioned
schools.
Period from 1463 to 1878
First ideas, initiatives and implementation of PE
(gymnastics) teaching, as obligatory subject equal to other subjects,
happened during Turkish occupation. In certain schools this subject
was treated with great significance. In that time there were primary
and middle schools: Serbian, Croatian, Muslim and Jewish.
Physical Education in Serbian schools
Primary schools
According to certain data, first Serbian primary schools
began to appear in: Sarajevo 1539, Trebinje 1763, Foča 1820, Banja
Luka 1832, Bijeljina 1838, Brčko 1839, Mostar 1846, Sokolac 1875,
Петар Д. Павловић: Физичка култура српског народа у Босни и Херцеговини
до 1918. године, Факултет физичке културе Универзитета у Српском Сарајеву,
Српско Сарајево, 1988.
2
Ђорђо Пејановић: Средње и стручне школе у Босни и Херцеговини од почетка
до 1941. године, Сарајево, 1953; и Војислав Богићевић: Историја развитка
основних школа у Босни и Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе
(1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965.
3
Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do
1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.
1
25
etc. Until the end of Turkish occupation there were 56 schools with
75 teachers. Back then there were no separate school buildings, but
teaching was provided mostly in private houses. There was no
curriculum as we are familiar with today. They studied: reading,
writing, calculus, religious subjects, etc. Subject Physical Education
(gymnastics, games or physical exercises) did not exist. But even it
was not a part of the curriculum, some teachers introduced certain
forms of physical exercise and competition, as also traditional games
of that territory. 4
Teacher Andre Pavasović came to Mostar at the end of 1846
and brought to his school “[…] whole new spirit and quickly gained
pupils hearts. Instead of boring classes he was reading national
poems with children and told them stories about Serbian past […]
Andro introduced excursions with pupils where he taught them to
sing and marvel.” 5
Zivko R. Crnogorcevic in his memoirs wrote about teachers
who, on their own accord, organized and performed certain forms of
physical exercise for their students.
„When I taught school and all other
children from 1850 to 1856, all our
teachers
took
us
to
regration
(contributions in goods that students
brought to their teachers) […] And when
we all gather, the teacher call us by his
catalogue, and we stand two by two in a
row, and we go under the hill […] and
there we play all different kind of
games, like: priest, chase, firiz, batinbacac and jumping, which child will
jump more, and the teacher supervises
and walk around us. When the water is
worm by summer he takes us to
Петар Д. Павловић: Физичка култура српског народа у Босни и Херцеговини
до 1918. године, Факултет физичке културе Универзитета у Српском Сарајеву,
Српско Сарајево, 1988; i Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i
Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.
5
Владимир Ћоровић: Мостар и његова српска православна општина, Београд,
1933, p. 61.
4
26
swimming, but also under his
supervision.” 6
About teacher Mirko Savic, who also performed certain
forms of physical exercise and competition with students in his
school, among other things, he wrote:
“He had a good behavior and besides
usual subjects he taught us some
gymnastics too: we would throw rocks
from shoulders, and two bigger students
would hold their belts up high, and if
smaller, they would hold belts lower and
jump over them. Before night big guys
come in front of the school, and the
teacher starts different games with them.
He could jump over the belts when two
students hold them at height of their
heads.” 7
Vladan Djordjevic in his book “Memories” wrote down that
his teacher Aleksa Suskalovic in Serbian primary school in Sarajevo
in 1851 gave great contribution to physical exercise and performed
different kind of exercising with his students, as also different kind
of, primarily, national games. His words testify about that:
“When we entered school yard we saw
unusual sight. Teacher was playing the
ball with his students. […] He was
playing with them and me and my father
were not moving looking at the miracle
that teacher was not a scarecrow but an
older friend to his students. They
finished the ball game with joyful
laughs, and were planning to start a new
game called ‘klisa’, when the teacher
noticed us two, and turned to one of the
students: ‘Stevo, you will run the game.
Don’t let anyone play rough, and the
Živko R. Crnogorčević: Memoari, za štampu priredio Milenko S. Filipović,
Sarajevo, 1966, pp. 35 – 36.
Ibid, pp. 42 – 43.
6
7
27
ones who want to play unfair, exclude
them. When you finish klisa, ring so we
can go back to school. Back than among
all Serbs was hard to find teacher for
primary school who passed all those
schools like our teacher. Therefore his
way of teaching was completely
unusual. He knew that kids prefer games
than books, he knew it was not due to
rage but pure necessity of young body
for more and miscellaneous movements
necessary for muscle development.
Therefore in the morning after meal,
when we come to school, before
everything he played with us for one
hour. We played ball, mete, slaves, klisa,
throw rocks from shoulders, raced,
jumped over some trenches or marks to
see who will jump further, and so on.
Teacher played all games with us and
for any disobedience and roughness
punished right away the ones who did it
by exclusion from the game. Only that
kind of punishment was also for
inattention in school and missed
homework, and there was no other
punishment necessary. This one was
enough to teach someone a lesson and
turn him back to track.” 8
Petar Mirosavljevic, who worked in Serbian schools in
Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1859 to 1909 in several places: Bjelo
Polje, Zitomislic, Konjic, Mostar, Obudovac, Sarajevo and Sokolac,
also on his own accord implemented physical exercise (gymnastics
or playing) for his students. According to memories of his students
he “[…] taught them gymnastics: simple exercises, different games,
jumping, running, throwing rocks from shoulders […] He also
8
Владан Ђорђевић: Успомене, књ. прва, Нови Сад, 1927, pp. 18 – 19.
28
collected national games and wrote them down, some even published
in pedagogical journals.” 9
Middle schools
Middle schools were not like today, but they were on higher
level than primary schools, and therefore we can call them high
schools. There were more middle schools: Serbian real – gymnasium
in Sarajevo (established around 1852); Serbian private female school
in Sarajevo (established in 1857 of 1858) named “Staka Skenderova
School”; Private spiritual school in Zitomislic monastery (1858);
Institute of Mia Irbijeva in Sarajevo (1866 or 1869); Small Serbian
Real School in Mostar (1868); Serving school in Sarajevo (1864);
Theological school in Banja Luka (1866), and others. Among listed
schools, only in Theological school in Banja Luka was a subject
Gymnastics in the curriculum, equal to other subjects, having great
significance. In other schools there was no Physical Education
(Gymnastics) as a subject in curriculums. But we can assume that
certain teachers, as also in primary schools, organized and performed
certain physical exercises and games on their own accord. For
example, Aleksa Suskalovic, who when working in primary school
organized different kind of physical exercise for his students, when
in 1852 transferred to Serbian gymnasium in Sarajevo, he probably
organized the same exercises from high school students too. 10
According to some sources students of Private spiritual
school in Zitomislic monastery unsolicited “[…] practiced national
sports and national games.” 11
1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, p. 148.
10
Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka
do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974; Петар Д. Павловић: Физичка култура српског
народа у Босни и Херцеговини до 1918. године, Факултет физичке културе
Универзитета у Српском Сарајеву, Српско Сарајево, 1988; Todor Kruševac:
Srpska realka – gimnazija u Sarajevu, knj. 3, Sarajevo, 1963; Ђорђо Пејановић:
Средње и стручне школе у Босни и Херцеговини од почетка до 1941. године,
Сарајево, 1953; Mitar Papić: Školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme
austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo, 1972; Лука Грђић-Бјелокосић:
Мостар некад и сад, Београд, 1901.
11
Šefik Pašić: Mostar, pismeni podaci, 1972, citirano u Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička
kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo,
1974.
9
29
Theological school in Banja Luka was established in 1866.
Its director and one of the teachers was Vaso Pelagic. The school
lasted for three years and the students were future priests and
teachers. Each of three years had 22 subjects, and among them was
Gymnastics as obligatory subject. The most significance Pelagic
gave to Serbian and general history, gymnastics and dietetics “[…]
because by good lecturing of those subjects we can get all most
important, most sacred and most sanative every Serb needs.” 12
Pelagic built exercise devices in church yard. As he was
subdued to Banja Luka’s archpriest Ugrinovic, who was against
physical exercise (gymnastics) because he considered that future
priests need only spiritual education, therefore soon two of them
came to a conflict because “[…] archpriest from Banja Luka broke
exercise device he made as spiritual man for his students in church
yard, and for which the archpriest said: Why do we need gallows at
the altar.” 13
Pelagic would probably be soon moved from Banja Luka if
he didn’t in the meantime get higher church position than archpriest
Ugrinovic. Right after getting the higher position he rebuilt the
exercise devices right away, or “[…] gymnastics closer to altar and
nobody could not break them” 14, because his new calling
(archimandrite) was higher than opponents.
Besides practicing on devices in church yard he organized
another forms of physical exercises for his students that fulfilled
main goals of physical education. According to him those goals were
achieved by: different games, certain athletic disciplines (walking
and marching with songs, running, jumping, throwing rocks from
shoulders, fighting, wrestling, bathing, swimming, rowing and
driving boats, balling, riding bicycle, skating, exercises on
equipment, riding, walking and excursions. 15
For all mentioned forms of physical exercise Pelagic gave
methodical instructions how to perform them and he described their
significance for humans, mostly youth.
Васо Пелагић: Писмо, Савремена школа, бр. 8-9, Београд, 1949, p. 119.
Васо Пелагић: Аутобиографија, Развитак, год. 1, бр. 3, Бања Лука, 1910, стр.
75.
14
Ibid.
15
Васо Пелагић: Изабрани списи, књ. 2, Сарајево, 1953.
12
13
30
It was noted that in every theological school there always
was one good shoulder stone thrower, and that sometimes even
Turkish soldiers came to the field near Vrbas river and competed
with theological school students in throwing the stones from
shoulders “[…] but there was never even one soldier who could
reach nor be equal to students.” 16
As a crown of Pelagic's taught about meaning of physical
exercise, primarily for youth, we can take his sentence actual even
today: “Don’t ever forget that happiness of our children depends on
their physical exercise.” 17
Besides setting ground for further development of physical
exercise in schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Pelagic was also a
first theoretician of physical culture (theory of game, physical
exercise and sport) at the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina of that
time. 18
Коста Ковачевић: Српска бањалучка Богословија, Босанска вила, год. 24, бр.
11, Сарајево, 1909, стр. 172.
17
Тихомир Тодоровић и Боривоје Богојевић: Васа Пелагић о значају гимнастике
и физичког васпитања, Зборник за историју физичке културе Србије, бр. 4 – 5,
Београд, 1968, стр. 101.
18
Petar D. Pavlović, Nenad Živanović and Kristina Pantelić Babić: Vaso Pelagić, prvi
teoretičar fizičke kulture u Bosni i Hercegovini, Četvrti međunarodni naučni kongres
„Antropološki aspekti sporta, fizičkog vaspitanja i rekreacije“, Zbornik radova, ur. S.
Simović, Banja Luka, 2013, str. 65 – 71.
16
31
Physical Education in Croatian schools
Primary schools
The Franciscans started the Croatian primary schools in
Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to some sources first primary
school was founded by fra Ilija Starcevic in Franciscan’s convent in
Tolisa near Orasje in 1823 or 1826. 19 Somewhere around 25 years
later started founding of schools in other places: Varcaru (1850)20,
Livno (1850), Kresevo (1850), Fojnica (1850), Travnik (1850),
Mostar (1852); and from 1854 in: Vares, Derventa, Dolac near
Travnik, Dubica, Jajce, Kraljeva Sutjeska, Skoplje (Bugojno), Tuzla
and other places. The schools were also founded by catholic nuns
(Sisters of Mercy), in: Sarajevo (1871), Banja Luka (1872), Derventa
(1872), Dolac near Travnik (1872), Mostar (1872), Travnik (1872)
and Livno (1874). In these schools there were no physical education
(gymnastics and games) classes, and we did not find any sources
stating that teachers performed those classes on their own accord. 21
Middle schools
Regarding middle schools Croats had: high schools
(gymnasiums), real schools, catholic real schools and small real
schools.
In Kraljeva Sutjeska, Kresevo and Fojnica (after 1757) in
Franciscan’s convents started to work first high schools
(gymnasiums). A little bit later schools were founded also in Guca
Gora and Siroki Brijeg. 22 Classes of PE (Gymnastics and Games)
were not performed. But pupils unsolicited “[…] in their free time
did national sports and games.” 23
Julijan Jelinić: Kultura i bosanski franjevci, knj. 2, Sarajevo, 1915; i Jelena Dopuđa:
Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine,
Sarajevo, 1974.
20
Todays Mrkonjic Grad.
21
Ibid.
22
Julijan Jelinić: Kultura i bosanski franjevci, knj. 2, Sarajevo, 1915.
23
Šefket Pašić: Pismeni podaci, citirano u Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama
Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, str. 20.
19
32
In Croatian real school in Livno (1855), Catholic real school
in Sarajevo (1865) and Small real school in Fojnica there was no PE
(Gymnastics and Games) teaching. 24
Physical Education in Muslim schools
Primary schools
After occupation of Bosnia (1463) and Herzegovina (1482)
by Turkey, started founding of Muslim primary schools called
sibian-mektebi. School activities were performed in mosque’s
facilities and in private houses. By the end of Turkish occupation
there were around thousand schools. There was no teaching of
Gymnastics and Games (PE). 25
Middle schools
Regarding Muslim middle schools there were: Madrasahs,
Ruzdije, Military school (Pripravna vojna skola) in Sarajevo,
Teachers school in Sarajevo and Officers school in Sarajevo.
In Teachers (1869) and Officers schools (1865) in Sarajevo
there was no subject Gymnastics (PE).
In Madrasahs (Banja Luka, Mostar, Sarajevo, Travnik and
other places) were mostly studied religious subjects and there was no
teaching of gymnastics (PE). In Gazi Husrev beg’s Madrasah in
Sarajevo once in a week the pupils went to picnics near Sarajevo
where they performed some national games. 26
In Ruzdijas (Sarajevo – 1864, later: Banja Luka, Bjeljina,
Bihac, Brcko, Visoko, Glamoc, Duvno, Jajce, Livno, Mostar, etc.)
according to school law from 1869 teaching of gymnastics (PE) was
in the plan, but we could not find any sources stating that it was
actually performed in practice.
Julijan Jelinić: Kultura i bosanski franjevci, knj. 2, Sarajevo, 1915.
Војислав Богићевић: Историја развитка основних школа у Босни и
Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965;
and Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka
do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.
26
Хајрудин Ћурић: Школске прилике муслимана у Босни и Херцеговини 1800 –
1878, Београд, 1965.
24
25
33
In Military school (Pripravna vojna škola) in Sarajevo,
which started working in 1873, the subject Gymnastics was in the
curriculum, but we also didn’t find any data saying that those classes
were really performed. 27
Physical Education in Jewish schools
According to sources from 1870 there were eleven primary
Jewish schools, and teaching of Gymnastics (PE) was not
performed.28
Somewhere around 1768 in Sarajevo was founded middle
religious school “Jesiva” for education of religious officers. Subject
Gymnastics was not in the curriculum.29
During the time of Austro-Hungarian occupation existed
and functioned primary, middle and higher: confessional (Serbian,
Croatian, Muslim, Jewish, and schools of immigrants), public and
private schools.
Physical Education in Serbian schools
27
1878, Београд, 1965; Ђорђо Пејановић: Средње и стручне школе у Босни и
Херцеговини од почетка до 1941. године, Сарајево, 1953; Mitar Papić: Školstvo u
Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo,
1972; Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih
početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.
28
1878, Београд, 1965; Војислав Богићевић: Историја развитка основних школа у
Босни и Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе (1463-1918),
Сарајево, 1965; Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od
prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.
29
1878, Београд, 1965; Mitar Papić: Školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme
austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo, 1972; Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička
kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo,
1974.
34
Primary schools
There were neither gyms nor playgrounds or areas were
classes of Gymnastics (PE) could be performed, and “[…] rarely any
of schools at the time, except Serbian school in Sarajevo, had a
special gym for that purpose.” 30
First data about implementation of Gymnastics (PE)
teaching in Serbian primary schools we found in journal “Bosanska
Vila” from 1886: “Some more conscious teachers and church-school
boards, where mostly was leading Sarajevo, introduced gymnastics
in Serbian schools that year. They recommended it for both male and
female children.”31
Stevo Kaludjercic, teacher of Serbian primary school in
Sarajevo in 1899 wrote a curriculum for Serbian primary schools,
and in that curriculum, among other subjects, was also Gymnastics.
In his annual report for primary schools he also stated the teaching
basics for Gymnastics, where under point no. 12 was written: “Goal:
development, strengthening and better movement of the body by free
and social games. In all classes are done gymnastics exercises,
games in one place and in the move, jumping from one place and
with run-up. (Done only at summer).” 32 Number of week classes
was not stated.
We will use an example from Serbian primary school in
Visoko to show how certain teachers performed teaching of this
subject. Mirko Vukojevic, former pupil of that school, later an expert
for gymnastics, who attended the school from 1899 to 1903, gave the
following data to Jelena Dopudja:
“The teachers were the excuse, mostly
from Vojvodina… Until then we did not
have that subject. And when Dusan
Zivojnovic (Vojvodina) came to be the
teacher, he announced to pupils: ‘We
will have gymnastics in the afternoon!’
The pupils did not know what
Stevo Kaluđerčić: Podaci o srp-prav. školama, „Narodno jedinstvo“, ilustrovani
zvanični almanah – kalendar Drinske banovine za 1932. godinu, Sarajevo, 1932, p.
362.
31
Ibid, p. 193.
32
Ibid, p. 362.
30
35
gymnastics is. We talked among us and
concluded that that will probably be
some exam, that he will examine us
from History. Only when the announced
class started, we realized what it is
about! As he remembers, they performed
some games with balls (he doesn’t
remember which and what kind) and
jumps. And he gave them marks from
that subject. When they celebrated the
final day of school, on Vidovdan, there
was a public exam in front of
representatives of church-school board
and parents, so, among other subjects,
from Gymnastics too. As eight year olds
they jumped from the board long jump
to 11/2 meters. Pupils purchased the ball
for the game themselves.” 33
In Serbian primary school in Mostar pupils also had classes
of Physical Education, “[…] combined folk sports and games with
contemporary physical culture – gymnastics or better said some
parts, modified forms of light athletics (folk) and similar.” 34
At the new curriculum for male and female primary schools,
published in 1907, there was Physical Education (gymnastics and
children games) as obligatory subject. “In 1907 physical exercise
(gymnastics) was introduced as an obligatory subject in Serbian
schools, but it could be performed only at summer days and in
schools where the conditions allowed.”35
36
The Gymnastic was usually performed by Sokol system.
One of the initiators for implementing the teaching of gymnastics in
do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, p. 25.
34
Ibid, p. 26.
35
Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965,
pp. 206-207.
36
Ibid, p. 209.
33
36
Serbian primary schools in Mostar and other places of Herzegovina
37
where schools existed was Serbian Sokol Cedomir Milic.
Serbian Sokols from Sarajevo, who practiced in the gym of
Serbian primary school in Sarajevo, also advocated the idea of
implementation of gymnastics in primary schools, and the most
contribution gave sokol Dimitrije Matejic, and on his suggestion on
session of Serbian gymnastic society, January 3rd 1907, “[…] was
concluded to introduce gymnastics in IV grade of Serbian primary
school, and to ask the municipality for this request.” 38
In March of the same year Serbian-orthodox church
municipality gave their consent, and sokol Savo Radonic started to
perform classes of gymnastics. Dimitrije Matejic continued Savo’s
work, and advocated the idea that female children should exercise
gymnastics too.
Courses for work with children were organized for teaches
of primary schools. One of those courses was held by Serbian Sokol
Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina, from 2 nd to 30th July 1912 in
Sarajevo.
Кристина М. Пантелић Бабић и Петар Д. Павловић: Соколска идеологија
Чедомира Милића, Физичко васпитање и спорт кроз векове, год. 1, бр. 1, Ниш,
2014, pp. 117 – 133.
38
Hajrudin Ćurić: Istorija „Srpskog sokola“ u Sarajevu, Sarajevo, 1940, p. 10.
37
37
Physical Education in Croatian schools
Primary schools
Primary schools existed and worked as a part of convents.
Nuns were the teachers, and until 1880 they worked in accordance
with the curriculum from Croatia, and after that according to the
plans of public schools. At the beginning there was no teaching of
Gymnastics. First data about teaching of Gymnastics in school in
Dolac near Travnik we found for school year 1896/97. In school year
1911/12 the subject was called Gombanje, and students of 3 rd and 4th
year of school were graded from that subject.39
In rim-catholic primary school in Banja Luka, there was a
subject Gymnastics in the curriculum, but there are no marks, so we
are not familiar with the fact if the subject was really implemented.
In the period 1914 – 1917 marks from that subject were written. 40
Teaching of physical education (gymnastics) was done by
nuns. Besides basic exercises, rhythmic exercises with music and
like, “In schoolyards they were teaching children various games,
especially in years after 1908, i.e. after the seminar for gymnastic
games in Sarajevo, which attended few participants ‘white’ and
‘black’ nuns from several convents.”41
Certain convents had gyms for physical exercise with
gymnastic equipment, and pupils from primary school went there to
exercise when the gym was not at their disposal.
Primary school in Office of St. Augustus in Sarajevo was
founded in 1887 and mostly children of Austrians who moved in
Sarajevo went there. The school had its own gym for physical
exercise, and teaching of gymnastics was done by nuns.
Teaching of gymnastics (physical exercise) was also
performed in primary school in Office of St. Vinko in Sarajevo.
Pupil of that school, Marija Jemric-Novak (went to school from 1910
to 1913) gave to Jelena Dopudja some data about how the teaching
of that subject was performed:
do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.
40
Ibid.
41
Ibid, p. 33.
39
38
“We were taught gymnastics by our
teacher, nun Mileva Muhek, probably
from Croatian mountain area. She was
singing nicely, so she taught us many
dances. When the weather was nice we
exercised in their yard, which was used
mostly for rest. We played all kind of
games there: jumping over the rope,
‘ringe-ringe-raja’, ‘Mother is coming
from the station’, Pot selling; […]
‘school’, playing the ball on the wall or
ground, and the children brought the
balls themselves. We were very prepared
for rhythmical games with music,
separately boys and girls. […] We were
dressed in white skirts below the knee.
[…] On Thursday afternoon we were
free from classes, and therefore we went
for a walk. The excursion was
something else. […] Some very nice
memories I have from excursion to
Trebevic and Pale. We, of course,
walked to Trebevic. […] during
climbing we came to first forest house
where we took some rest, and continued
walking towards our goal. There was a
celebration: kettle with hot cocoa and
some hot rolls were waiting for us. Later
we played some games and there was
just no end.” 42
Katica Stimac, also a student of that school
(from 1912 to 1913), told to Jelen Dopudja as follows:
“I went to IV grade of primary school in
St. Vinko’s Office (with white nuns).
We had a courtyard there, and, as I
do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, pp.34-35.
42
39
remember, we sometimes exercised and
played there… We walked a little bit in
two lines, and then exercises with arms
and legs in one place, with counting, the
simplest ones: arms up, aside, forward,
down, and something alike with legs and
some moves with body […] During
winter there was a little bit of that arm
moving in the classroom, in our benches.
Outside we played: ‘Pots’, ‘Cat and
mouse’, ‘Where we sharp the scissors’,
‘Sabac – sparrow, who is my friend?’,
we jumped over the rope, slowly and
with fast turns ( we called that ‘fajer’);
‘school’ also on break. […] We went to
excursion near Pale and on ‘mayolis’ (on
May 1st) in Pale… we didn’t have
special clothing for gymnastics.” 43
Physical Education in Muslim schools
Even with school reforms after the AustroHungarian occupation, there was no Gymnastics
(Physical Education) as a subject in the curriculums.
Physical Education in Jewish schools
Primary Schools
In that time there were two kind of Jewish primary schools:
schools for young children (called Melders), and primary Jewish
schools.
In schools for young children there was no Gymnastics
(PE). In primary Jewish school, founded in school year 1888/89 in
Sarajevo, that performed their activities according to the curriculum
43
Ibid, pp. 35 – 36.
40
of public schools, there was Gymnastics (PE). The school even had
its own small gym where teaching of gymnastics was performed. 44
Physical Education in schools of immigrants
After 1878 occupation immigrants from Austro-Hungary
started to come to Bosnia and Herzegovina: Italians, Hungarians,
Germans (both from Austria and Germany), Polish people,
Slovakians, Ukrainians and Czech. Special schools were opened for
them, and they performed their school activities according to public
school curriculum that contained gymnastics as a subject. We found
no data claiming that the mentioned teaching was actually
performed, and in which way. But according to Jelena Dopudja’s
notes, former students of those schools “[…] remember that they
mostly played different games, and dances with songs in German.” 45
Physical Education in private primary schools
Private schools were mostly founded for children of
immigrants, and the teaching was mostly performed in Hungarian
and German language. There were also trappist, evangelistic and
other schools. Teaching of Gymnastics was not performed in those
schools. 46
Physical Education in public schools
Primary schools
1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974; Avram Pinto gave the data to Jelena Dopudja.
45
do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, p. 37.
46
1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974.
44
41
After occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina AustroHungarian authorities disregarded all present schools and started to
open public schools with curriculum and books of Austrian schools,
in which Gymnastics (PE) as a subject played a significant role.
Country government by File no. 21339 from September 23rd
1880 determined the rules for opening public primary schools, and
two months later, on November 16th 1880 (File no. 28132) published
a curriculum for city primary schools. In list of subjects under no. 8
there was Gymnastics. It was planned to teach Gymnastics in all
years (I-IV), two times per week with two classes. Teaching basics
for that subjected stated:
“Strength, agility, certitude, sense for
work and self-confidence should be
nourished, bright spirit and sparkle body
should be maintained. Primarily should
be considered those moves, usually light
exercises, known in the certain area, and
then usual and free exercises, according
to physical development of children. If
children are 10 years old they can also
exercise on a stand (bars, Barren),
precha, etc.” 47
We could not find any sources based on which we could
conclude what teachers did during classes of that subject. In some
schools there was no marks from that subject, what brings us to a
conclusion that Gymnastics was not always performed as provided
by the curriculum. The name of the subject was not uniformed, and
in some schools it was called Gombanje and in some Gymnastics. 48
Games had a significant role in education of young people.
Perceiving the importance of games in education, Country
government on December 12th 1913 issued a rescript in which the
Zbornik zakona i naredaba 1878-1880, ponovo štampan u Službenom dodatku
školskog vjesnika 1894, p. 8; cited in: Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama
Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974; and Петар
Д. Павловић: Физичка култура српског народа у Босни и Херцеговини до 1918.
године, Факултет физичке културе Универзитета у Српском Сарајеву, Српско
Сарајево, 1988.
48
See more in: Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od
47
42
attention was mostly on moral education of students in national
primary schools through games. In this rescript, amongst, was
written:
“Further on, it was determined that the
best behaviors have the children who
know how to enjoy pleasant games
during break time… Walks and games
are the best way to control children
sparkle; therefore walks and games are
very useful educational tool, because
during walking and playing children
open their souls to us and that is the best
way to get to know them, and then we
can use the best educational method we
need.” 49
Further the rescript stated that until then there was not
enough attention given to walks and games, and therefore the
children didn’t know how to have fun with nice games, but instead
they performed the same games as the children who did not go to
school. Therefore “[…] is ordered, from now on, to cherish
intensively school walks and children games, in accordance with
requirements of teaching basics.” 50
After that order teachers paid more attention to games and
taking children to walks around town, and in some schools during
classes of physical education (gymnastics, gombanje) different
games were mostly performed.
Middle schools
After occupation Austro-Hungarian authorities also started
with opening of public middle schools, where physical education had
a significant place. In that time this subject was called differently:
gymnastics, gombanje, body-exercise. Schools worked according to
Austrian schools’ curriculum. Country government prepared the
curriculums in which contents of physical education were adjusted to
conditions in schools (gyms, gymnastic equipment, balls and other
49
50
Školski glasnik, Zemaljska vlada za BiH, Sarajevo, V, 1914, pp. 28 – 29.
Ibid, p. 29.
43
props). One of those curriculums Government published on
September 12th 1910 for High Schools and Real Schools in which PE
was provided with two classes per week in all years. The same year
in school gazette was printed the content of the mentioned subject.
Teaching plan was composed out of: Working exercises (9 exercises
were listed), Free exercises (12), Long rope (7), Exercises on bars
(3), Climbing (4) and Games (7). On second, third and fourth year of
school, besides already listed exercises, were also introduced some
more complex and other ball games. 51
New teaching plan for Physical Education was published in
1911 on 40 pages, significantly more in-depth than the ones from
1897 and 1910. In that plan, amongst, was written:
“Versatile and equal body education.
Maintenance and strengthening of
health. Adaption to natural, nice posture.
Preparing for conscious and willing
movements. Body strength and deftness.
Practice and sharpness of senses, soul
vigilance and freshness. Audacity,
soberness, endurance. Sense for order
and
community.
Awakening
of
permanent interest for body workout.” 52
In the beginning most schools did not have their own space
for workout. Just a few had their own gyms for this subject. Clothing
was not specially determined, but the students were working out in
trousers and shirts, they were wearing sneakers and sometimes
worked out barefoot. In the beginning teaching was performed by
teachers of other subjects who had Gymnastics as a subject in their
own education. Later on, teaching was performed by teachers who
during their studies attended gymnastic courses, Sokol experts, the
See more in: Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od
prvih početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, pp. 94 – 101; Naredba Zemaljske
vlade za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, Školski glasnik, Sarajevo, 1910.
52
Cited in: Jelena Dopuđa: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od prvih
početaka do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974, p. 48; See more in: Naredba Zemaljske
vlade za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, br. 53 od 29. XI 1913, Svrha; Građa za pojedine
razrede, Školski glasnik, god. 4, br. 12, Sarajevo, 1913, pp. 457 – 496, and Franjo
Bučar: Nastavna osnova za gimnastiku u bosansko-hercegovačkim srednjim školama,
Nastavni vjesnik, Zagreb, 1915, pp. 68 – 70.
51
44
ones who attended congresses about gymnastics and games and the
ones who finished military gymnastic courses.
More middle schools existed and worked, and the most
prominent were: Large High School, Large Real and Small Real
High School in Sarajevo, Large High School in Mostar, Real School
in Banja Luka, Small and Large High School in Bihach, Large High
School in Downer Tuzla. Teacher schools-pretorandies (male and
female in Sarajevo, male in Mostar), Trading schools in Bjeljina,
Mostar, Travnik, Trebinje, Tuzla, etc.; Higher female schools in
Banja Luka, Mostar and Sarajevo.
In high schools, Real schools, Teachers’ school and Higher
female schools subject Physical Education was a part of the
curriculum, but it was named differently (gymnastics, gombanje,
body-workout) and was mostly performed by two classes per week,
in some schools one class per week (teacher schools). In all Trading
schools there was no PE as a subject, and in those schools that
practiced PE it was done for one or two classes per week.
Teaching of PE was performed by more than 30 teachers,
among whom: Svetislav Badalić, Andjeo Basić, Nikola Begović,
Viktor Beck, Nikola Bićanović, Jovan Vasić, Josip Vedral, Petar
Vojnović, Nikola Vujičić, Nikola Duić, dr Aleksandar Erich, Stevan
Žakula, Ivan Branislav Zoch, Luka Karaman, Nikola Kozomora,
Jovo Lakić, Dimitrije Matejić, Dušan Metikoš, Vladimir Novak, Ivan
Farkaš, Emil Woska and others. We found more than ten names of
female teachers who were teaching PE: Jelica BelovićBernadžikovska, Milka Bergant, Julija Dubravec, Marija Knežić,
Jozefina Matejić, Persa Popović, Ludmila Tesar, Marija Trbojević,
Vilma Ulhir, and others.
Other middle and higher schools
Beside aforementioned schools, there were also middle and
higher confessional and private schools.
In High schools: Serbian in Sarajevo, Franciscan-high in
Siroki Brijeg and Archbishop-high in Travnik, among other subjects
45
there was Gymnastics too. In Franciscan-high in Visoko there was
no Gymnastics. 53
Teaching schools: in Private teaching school in St. Josip
Office in Sarajevo, among others, there was Gymnastics as
obligatory subject; at Extended course for education of female
Mohamed religion teachers Gymnastics was provided as optional
subject; in Muslim teaching school in Sarajevo and Office of miss
Adelina Pavlija Irbi in Sarajevo there was no teaching of
Gymnastics. 54
Higher female schools in Sarajevo: in Serbian higher female
school and in Catholic higher female school, Gymnastics was taught
as obligatory subject; and in Muslim higher female school
Gymnastics was provided as an optional subject.
In Spiritual Offices (Serbian, Croatian and Muslim), as also
in Muslim Ruzdije and Madrasahs, teaching of Gymnastics was not
performed.
do 1918. godine, Sarajevo, 1974; Todor Kruševac: Srpska realka – gimnazija u
Sarajevu, knj. 3, Sarajevo, 1963; Stevo Kaluđerčić: Podaci o srp-prav. školama,
„Narodno jedinstvo“, ilustrovani zvanični almanah – kalendar Drinske Banovine za
1932. godinu, Sarajevo, 1932; Ђорђо Пејановић: Средње и стручне школе у Босни
и Херцеговини од почетка до 1941. године, Сарајево, 1953; Mitar Papić: Školstvo
u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo,
1972; Растко Дрљић: Споменица фрањевачке и класичне гимназије у Високом о
50 – годишњици уједињења средњих школа Провинције Босне сребрене 1882 –
1932, Београд, 1932; Travnička spomenica 1882 – 1932, uredio: Kamilo Zabeo,
Sarajevo, 1932.
54
Ђорђо Пејановић: Средње и стручне школе у Босни и Херцеговини од почетка
до 1941. године, Сарајево, 1953; Mitar Papić: Školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini za
vrijeme austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo, 1972.
53
46
REFERENCES
Богићевић, Војислав: Историја развитка основних школа у
Босни и Херцеговини у доба турске и аустроугарске
управе (1463-1918), Сарајево, 1965.
Bučar, Franjo: Nastavna osnova za gimnastiku u bosanskohercegovačkim srednjim školama, Nastavni vjesnik,
Zagreb, 1915, pp. 68 – 70.
Crnogorčević, R. Živko: Memoari, za štampu priredio Milenko S.
Filipović, Akademija nauka i umjetnosti Bosne i
Hercegovine, Sarajevo, 1966.
Ћоровић, Владимир: Мостар и његова српска православна
општина, Београд, 1933.
Ćurić, Hajrudin: Istorija „Srpskog sokola“ u Sarajevu, Sarajevo,
1940.
Ћурић, Хајрудин: Школске прилике муслимана у Босни и
Херцеговини 1800 – 1878, Посебна издања Српске
академије наука и умјетности, Београд, 1965.
Dopuđa, Jelena: Fizička kultura u školama Bosne i Hercegovine od
Дрљић, Растко: Споменица фрањевачке и класичне гимназије у
Високом о 50 – годишњици уједињења средњих школа
Провинције Босне сребрене 1882 – 1932, Београд,
1932;
Ђорђевић, Владан: Успомене, књ. прва, Нови Сад, 1927.
Грђић-Бјелокосић, Лука: Мостар некад и сад, Београд, 1901.
Jelinić, Julijan: Kultura i bosanski franjevci, knj. 2, Sarajevo, 1915.
Kaluđerčić, Stevo: Podaci o srp-prav. školama, „Narodno jedinstvo“,
ilustrovani zvanični almanah – kalendar Drinske banovine
za 1932.g, Sarajevo, 1932.
Ковачевић, Коста: Српска бањалучка Богословија, Босанска
вила, год. 24, бр. 11, Сарајево, 1909, pp. 171 – 174.
Kruševac, Todor: Srpska realka – gimnazija u Sarajevu, knj. 3,
Poseban otisak iz Glasnika arhiva Društva arhivista BiH,
Sarajevo, 1963.
Naredba Zemaljske vlade za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, br. 53 od 29. XI
1913, Svrha; Građa za pojedine razrede, Školski glasnik,
god. 4, br. 12, Sarajevo, 1913, pp. 457 – 496.
47
Naredba Zemaljske vlade za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, Školski glasnik,
Sarajevo, 1910.
Пантелић Бабић, М. Кристина и Павловић, Д. Петар: Соколска
идеологија Чедомира Милића, Физичко васпитање и
спорт кроз векове, год. 1, бр. 1, Ниш, 2014, pp. 117133.
Papić, Mitar: Školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme
austrougarske okupacije (1878 – 1918), Sarajevo, 1972.
Павловић, Д. Петар: Физичка култура српског народа у Босни и
Херцеговини до 1918. године, Факултет физичке
културе Универзитета у Српском Сарајеву, Српско
Сарајево, 1988.
Pavlović, D. Petar; Živanović, Nenad and Pantelić Babić, Kristina:
Vaso Pelagić, prvi teoretičar fizičke kulture u Bosni i
Hercegovini, Četvrti međunarodni naučni kongres
„Antropološki aspekti sporta, fizičkog vaspitanja i
rekreacije“, Banja Luka, novembar 2013, Zbornik radova,
ur. Slobodan Simović, Univerzitet Banja Luka, Fakultet
fizičkog vaspitanja i sporta, Banja Luka, 2013, pp. 65 –
71.
Пејановић, Ђорђо: Средње и стручне школе у Босни и
Херцеговини од почетка до 1941. године, Сарајево,
1953.
Пелагић, Васо: Аутобиографија, Развитак, год. 1, бр. 3, Бања
Лука, 1910, pp. 74-79.
Пелагић, Васо: Изабрани списи, књ. 2, Сарајево, 1953.
Пелагић, Васо: Писмо, Савремена школа, бр. 8-9, Београд, 1949,
p. 119.
Školski glasnik, Zemaljska vlada za BiH, Sarajevo, V, 1914.
Travnička spomenica 1882 – 1932, uredio: Kamilo Zabeo, Sarajevo,
1932.
Тодоровић, Тихомир и Богојевић, Боривоје: Васа Пелагић о
значају гимнастике и физичког васпитања, Зборник за
историју физичке културе Србије, бр. 4 – 5, Београд,
1968, pp. 88 – 102.
Zbornik zakona i naredaba 1878-1880, ponovo štampan u
Službenom dodatku školskog vjesnika 1894.
48
RUSSIA
THE EMERGENCE AND HISTORY OF SPORTS
EDUCATION IN RUSSIA
Fedor
Ivanovich Sobyanin, Faculty of Physical culture,
Department of theory and methodology of physical
culture, Federal State Autonomous Educational
Institution of Higher Professional Education
«Belgorod National Research University»
Vladimir Nikolaevich Irkhin, Faculty of Physical culture,
Department of theory and methodology of physical
culture, Federal State Autonomous Educational
Institution of Higher Professional Education
«Belgorod National Research University»
Elizaveta Alekseevna Bogacheva, Belgorod institute of
development of education department of pedagogics
and psychology of health
Correspondence
Fedor Ivanovich Sobyanin
[email protected]
Phone: 8-909-206-00-53
The term sports education in Russia refers to the process
and the result of human exploration of all the experience of the
society in physical culture. «Physical culture is a type of culture of
the society, it is specific, moral and substantial activity directed on
physical perfection» (this definition was proposed by the Russian
delegation as the foundational one at the VII European Congress
FIEP (Barcelona, Spain 2012 ) and was unanimously approved by
the participants of the Congress and adopted in the final resolution.
Sports education as a systemic pedagogical phenomenon
that includes the following processes: learning (mastery of
knowledge and skills), education (the development of personality;
where person is a carrier of socially significant values), the
49
development of physical qualities, mental characteristics, processes
and properties), improvement (improvement and maintenance of the
physical, social and mental well-being of individuals and society).
The system of sports education in Russia has gone through
a long controversial process. It has been influenced by the material
history and the history of ideas in Russia. Sports education
originated in ancient Russia. The natural and social environment,
family, traditions and customs, oral tradition influenced the phisical
development of people. The need to protect vast areas from attacks
and wars, social and natural disasters forced Russians to take care of
physical development of the population from early childhood.
Outdoor games played an important role in education and training.
The games gave the children the opportunity to excersise their
reaction, agility and stamina; it allowed children to learn to make
decisions quickly in critical situations, developed the sense of
teamwork and mutual support.
Slavic tribes had a tradition of warriors physical training in
ancient time. Such practices are mentioned in historical writings of
famous Russian historians such as: V. Tatischev (1686-1750), M.
Karamzin (1766-1826), S. Solovyov (1820-1879), V. Klyuchevskii
(1841-1911). The legends about Russian heroes Alyosha Popovich,
Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich were known in many generations.
In VI-VIII, the Slavs already had a certain system of physical and
military training. Boys were taught horse-riding from the age of
three and at six, they would begin education at "youth houses" where
experienced instructors conducted sleep deprevation, hunger,
temperature ordeals to develop their stamina. They were taught
survival methods, hunting, self-defense techniques [2]. Physical
training of commonage and princely children, and children living in
rural and urban areas had its own pecularities.
Great Kiev Prince Vladimir Monomakh wrote his
"Instructions for one's sons" in the X century in which he proposed
one of the first systems of military physical training in Russia. The
system included excersises, hunting and promoted the development
of strength, endurance and courage. Vladimir Monomach himself
used tempering and skied [7]. .However, in the first half of the XVII
century, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov forbidded games under
the influence of the church that proclaimed it paganism.
50
Secular books that talked about the importance of the
physical education emerged in the second half of the XVII century.
Epiphany Slavinetsky in his treatise "Grazhdanstwo obychaev
detskih" devotes a separate chapter to the physical education of
children, focusing on games [16]. Socio-economic and cultural
reforms of Peter I in Russia lead to the creation of the first secular
schools which obligatory physycal training. The most popular games
were fisticuffs on Shrove Tuesday; boys above 12 could take part in
it. Kids began basic fighting training at 5. Battles were conducted
one-on-one and in groups and after the fighting rivals hugged and sat
down together for a festive table.
I. Betsky (1704-1793) is considered to be one of the first
theorists of physical culture in Russia. He is the author of the term
physical education. His work Short instruction, selected from the
best authors, with some physical notes («Краткое наставление,
выбранное из лучших авторов, с некоторыми физическими
примечаниями») is the first guide for parents and caregivers [5].
Catherine II (raigned 1762-1796) created the first public
educational institutions to which female students were allowed as
well. Schools similar to those in Smolny Monastery had to be
founded in each province and the first department for burgher girls
was created in Resurrection Monastery. For girls, physical education
was completed before the graduation from Smolny Monastery [10].
Free board department was opened at the Moscow
University in 1778. Physical training was part of the education
process and included marshial arts, jogging, ice skaiting, snow ball
fights, ball games, skittle, fencing, horse riding, hiking [8].
Prince Engalychev (1769-1829) wrote books about health
and physical education, among which is On the physical and moral
education («О физическом и нравственном воспитании») (St.
Petersburg, 1824) and made one of the first in Russia "Dictionary of
physical and moral education" (St. Petersburg, 1827).
Free market influenced social life in Russia in the beginning
of XIX. New 1804 Charter introdiced dancing and gymnastics into
the curriculum of gymnasiums. School education must had become
available to everyone. Modern pedagogical views were in TsarskoSelskom liceum where pupils had gymnastics, dancing, horse-riding,
fencing and swimming classes.
51
Social relations became tense in 60th in XIX thus people
became more politically and socially active. Advocates for phisical
training changed thier moral values. Personality acuered value in
itself. Works of advanced thinkers of the time (Gorinevsky,
Dement'ev, Lesgaft, Pokrovsky et al.) included radical criticism of
the authoritarian, pragmatic physical education, corporal
punishment, indicated that the low level of physical health of
Russian children was largely determined by the absence of a focused
physical education. [3,4,8,11,12].
There was a need in the scientific foundations of sports
education in school. Interconnection and interdependence of
physical, mental and psychological development draw the attention
to the importance of physical exercise. At the same time, the
humanists were opposed to the predominance of military exercises
and methods of coercion in the curriculum of sports education.
Particular attention was paid to the system of military
education. Cadet corps were replaced with military gymnasiums with
civil teachers and cadet schools. The program of the latter included
gymnastics and military exercise. A critical shortage of instructors in
physical training prompted authorities to create special courses
where trained officers and non-commissioned officers were getting
qualification to conduct classes in gymnastics.
Thus, by the middle of the XIX century, the background for
phisical training system and had been formed. The main issue of the
first period was the necessity to prove theoretically the nimportance
of phisical education for population. The foundational principles of
physical training were formulated within institutions of secondary,
profeccional and military education. State, military and educational
institutions began training of specialists. One of the most natorious
was Central Gymnastics and Fencing School in Saint Petersburg [1].
Among civil schools the most famous was Higher Courses of
Lesgaft.
The most important factors in the formation of sports
education in Russia were the implementation of the ideas of foreign
and Russian theorists about the benefits of exercise and games.
Philosophical and pedagogical views of Chernyshevsky (18181889), Dobrolyubov (1836-1861) on the harmonious education of
man, the unity of his body, the importance of physical activity,
interdependance between mental and physical development
52
influenced scientists, educators, community leaders dealing with
sports education. Russian scientist Sechenov (1829-1905) was
influenced by above mentioned theorists and made a great
contribution to the development of natural-scientific knowledge
about human body. Such topics as influence of phisical activity and
environment on the body, recovery excersise, importance of
individually tailored training were studied in his works [15].
Other factors palyed sighnificant role in the emergence of
sports education in Russia; among them are: the traditional military
education, custome phisical activities, people's games and holidays.
The influence of European (German, Swedish, French, сокольская)
individual and traditional gymnastics systems and gradual
introduction of the physical training in institutions led to the
formation of systematic structure of the sports education theory. It is
worth mentioning that climat, ethnic, geographic, language and
social conditions and the differences in the regions of Russia
influenced the content and methods of organizing and conducting
physical education classes.
The original Russian concept of the teaching methods and
concept of education through phisical culture can be found in works
by Lesgaft, Gerd, Dementiev, Zack, Filitis, Yavein and other
scholars and teachers. It allowed to see the physical culture as an
independent scientific and academic discipline. For example, for the
founders of hygienic directions E. Pokrovsky and his followers (I.
Gerd, E. Dement'ev, A. Zak, N. Filitis, G. Yavein), the goal of
physical education was to achieve the healing results by removing
the mental tensions.
There were two trends in the development of sports
education in Russia in the late XIX - early XX century. One of them
is related to the differentiation of sports knowledge and the
formation of an independent branch of the theory of physical culture,
a technique of physical training, theory and methodology of military
and physical training. Another trend was aimed at understanding the
accumulated theoretical knowledge and bringing in the ideas,
principles, beliefs into coherent system.
Great contribution to the development of sports education
theory was made by physician, anatomist, scientist, educator and
social activist P. Lesgaft, who developed the system of physical
education. He laid down the foundations of the theory and
53
methodology of such diverse disciplines as physical education of
preschool and school-age children, training of specialists in physical
culture, military physical training, physical exercise for people with
disabilities. The results of his work were of great value for the
development of anatomy, medicine, physiology, therapeutic physical
culture, adaptive physical education, vocational and applied physical
training, physical rehabilitation, physical recreation, education,
psychology and other fields of knowledge. In his system of physical
education, he tried to expand the narrow definition of physical
culture as a healing practive, which was defended by the famous
teacher P. Kapterev [6]. His theory based on the natural-historical
materialism, humanism, interdependence between humans and the
environment and education and anti-racist views included the
following provisions:
- Materialistic approach to the problem of the relation
between spiritual and physical;
- Recognition of the causation of phenomena and processes,
reliability and substance of facts;
- Denial of human hereditary doom and the recognizing of
the role of environmental influence, education and phisical exercises;
- The main education goal of education is the
comprehensive harmonious development of person with the leading
role of moral education [6]. Lesgaft put humanistic orientation,
fundamentalism, systematic and scientific principles in the the basis
of the Russian sports education .
At the beginning of the XX century, health-hygienic and
educational goals of sports education were recognized as equal and
binding, which was a significant achievement of the Russian
pedagogical thought. In addition, a significant stimulus in its
development was the revival of the Olympic Games and the
expansion of the international sports movement. All this led to the
beginning of the second phase of development of the system.
St. Petersburg Main Officer Fencing and Gymnastics
School was opened in 1909 and other similar institutions were
established in military districts. Professional training of gymnastics
and sports teachers was conducted at the sports unions and clubs.
Physical education was included in the curiculum in some advanced
schools. The official pedagogy doctrine claimed that 2-4 half-hour
breaks in a week was enough for the phisical development of the
54
pupils. But in such schools as Maya's school, Women's
Mogilyanskaya gymnasium, Medvednikovyh Gymansium, Women's
Stoyunina Gymnasium, Vosmiklassnoye Uchilische in Lesnoy (St. Petersburg), much attention was paid to the content, methods and
forms of physical education and daily physical culture lessons were
mandatory. Physical training included outdoor games, hiking,
trekking and competitive sports.
Society for the physical development of students created by
Lesfraft promoted extracurricular activities for physical education of
children not only in St. Petersburg, but also in Moscow, Odessa,
Tiflis and Tomsk. Propaganda of physical education conducted by
members of the society led to the opening of playgrounds, slides for
sledding and ice rinks for skating, conducting tours, walks and
hiking in many other cities in Russia.
Organization Bogatyr opened in 1904 organized holiday
activities and built playground and was the first of that kind in the
country. By the year 1914, the number of sports organizations
involved in the promotion of healthy lifestyles, sports, gymnastics
and tourism reached 360.
October Revolution in 1917 radically changed the political
and socio-economic situation in the country and opened soviet stage
in the development of sports education that lasted until 1991.
Specialized institutes of physical culture were created in the
first years of Soviet Union: State Central Institute of Physical
Culture in 1918 in Moscow, Lesgaft Leningrad Institute of Physical
Culture in 1919 in Petrograd. Physical education became compulsory
subjects in all types of educational institutions of the Soviet Union in
1920-1930 [2].
One of the results of the development of sports education
was the further development of physical culture theory. It allowed to
the development of such aspects of phisical culture as medical,
biological, pedagogical, psychological, historical, sociological,
theoretical and integrative, cultural and philosophical. As a
consequence, levels of knowledge about the phisical culture were
developed:
- The relationship between biological and social content in
physical education;
- The fundamental and technological problems of physical
culture;
55
- Particular related to physical training disciplines;
- The relationship between science,general culture and
physical culture [9].
The system of sports education has been formed with the
following types: special (or professional) sports education which
aimed at the development of the values of physical culture for
subsequent transfer to different categories of students enrolled in the
course of professional activities and non-special (non-professional)
physical education during which the subject developed skill
valuable for herself. Besides, sports education was devided
according to the level: preschool, general (schools), vocational
(technical schools, vocational schools, colleges), higher education
(universities). A system of additional education (classes for schoolage children in youth sports schools, sports school and colleges of
Olympic reserve) and the system of special education for children
with disabilities in the state of health and disability were integral part
of the system of sports education.
At the pre-school education level, the main objective was to
improve the health and ensure full physical development of children
and prepare them for school. Children at the stage of general
education developed all the basic physical qualities, mastered the
skills at the basic sports (gymnastics, athletics, outdoor sports,
skiing, swimming) and develop the habit of a healthy lifestyle.
Phisical training in colleges and universities was associated with a
professionally-applied physical training of youth. Students attended
phisical training classes in the main, preparatory and special medical
groups, depending on the health conditions in all educational
institutions.
Higher professional physical education was carried out in
the Institute of Physical Culture and faculties of physical education
where special departments were created to ensure the teaching of
general theoretical, biomedical, psycho-pedagogical and special
sports and educational disciplines. The main values that phisical
training specialist were supposed to acquire were knowledge, skills,
worldview [13]. The amount of disciplines aimed at shaping the
worldview of specialists in phisical training was increased three
times from 1930 to 1982. General knowledge disciplines curriculum
was realtively stable though some were merged or excluded. A large
amount of training time was dedicated to special physical training
56
(more than 50% of contact hours). The complex of special
disciplines that had been created included:
1) narrow focuse disciplines with a large volume of training;
2) practical complex for general training;
3) pedagogical specialized training.
The theory began to specialise and became more diverse.
Some scientific and special disciplines such as "physiology of sport",
"sports psychology", "biochemistry of the sport" were taught at the
faculties of physical education until the 1970s. There was virtually
no difference between the content of education in institutes of
physical culture and faculties for a long time because up until 1963
the curriculum was universal. Amount of biological disciplines had
been dicreased in favour of pedagogical disciplines, reinforced
methodical preparation and teaching practice since 1964 in the
departments of physical education [13].
Valuable experince that allowed to improve the quality of
life significantly and to make a great socio-economic changes in the
country was aquered during that period. It helped to survive World
War II and turn the USSR into a world sports power.
Significant changes in education took place in the period of
perestroika, reforms that began after 1984. A special role was
attached to the cultural function of education, principles of
humanization and democratization of the educational process, the
role of human factor in education, restructuring of the relationship in
the pedagogical system ("object-subject learning") and the idea of
respect for person. New teaching methods were actively introduced.
Training time was considerably increased: the total training time was
3626 hours in 1978 and 8105 in 1988 in any institute of phisical
training. Thus the educational process became more intense.
The modern stage - from 1991 to the present time - is
characterized by inconsistency of sports education in Russia. The
period began with crisis in the education system, which was the
consequence of the collapse of the USSR, social, political and
economic instability. New concept of education compatible with free
market was forming when the financial support of the educational
institutions was reduced; teaching specialist, couches and sportsmen
were leaving the country and the quality of the education
sighnificantly deteriorated. Educational institutions partially or
completely shifted to self-financing; there emerged private for-profit
57
educational institutions. New terms, such as educational services"
and human capital were used to describe the current state and plans
to develop sports education [14].
The new strategy of education policy was formulated in the
Concept of Development of Education in the Russian Federation for
the period up to 2010 [14]. The concept was aimed to increase the
competitiveness of Russia in the global educational system, upgrade
the content and technology of education, develope the quality
assurance system, improve management of the education system and
economic mechanisms in the field of education [14].
In addition to the Conception, the social and economic
growth in Russia has been developing and triggered the formation of
legal system (such laws as "On Education", "On Higher and
Postgraduate Education", "On physical culture and sports in the
Russian Federation" and other normative acts). The consequences of
these events were the growth of the competition between educational
institutions, actualization of the problem of improving the quality of
education, the efficiency of the educational institutions, increased
requirements for their licensing, accreditation and certification.
There are new ideas, including popular idea of "sportsoriented education", "conversion of sports technology in physical
education", "sports oriented on health education", the introduction of
the olimpic project "SpArt" («СпАрт») in the scientific and
pedagogical environment. New technologies based on the modern
exercises and practices (fitness, shaping, powerlifting, dancing,
relaxation techniques, traditional outdoor games) are being
introduced.
The present stage of development of sports education is
characterized by certain trends. For example, standardization of
education is designed to provide a unified educational space, to
maintain the quality of education in accordance with the needs of
modern society. Multilevel education differentiates educational
qualifications, determines the educational content, teaching load and
other parameters. Versatile education enhances students' learning
skills, making them more versatile, adaptable to the needs of society
and environment. Computerization allows to receive, process and
present more information to improve teaching methods.
Intellectualization of education is a growing trend in response to
scientific and technical progress and the emergence of new
58
technologies. Humanization is a feature and requirememnt in the
educational system. Cross-curriculum integration is the integration
of academic disciplines, information, individual educational blocks
that allows objectively and comprehensively review the studied
problems. International Integration is also a requirement for an
objective comprehensive comparison and exchange of information
and technologies between institutions of different countries; it also
allows to improve sports education and broaden the knowledge
anbout new cultural types. The steady improvement in the quality of
education is another relevant trend that develops in competitive
environment of national education systems and educational systems
on a smaller scale (competition among schools, universities, etc.).
In the end of the brief historical overview of the emergence
and development of the sports education in Russia, it should be noted
that sports education in modern Russia is focused on the
development of general personal culture, versatility, student's
adaptability to the demands of the world. This is due to the fact that
the very physical culture goes beyond pragmatically defined
problems of health promotion, improving the physical condition of
single person. The present time requires to make physical education
the mean which will provide a basis for improving the material basis
for the full and harmonious development of the personality and the
realization of all the essential powers of person.
REFERENCES
[1] Evstafiev, B.V., Chihaev U.T. The beginning of the school
history: from the life of the first fencing school. Leningrad: VIFK,
1981.
[2] Filippova, S.O., Ponomarev, G.N. Theory and methodology
of physical culture in preschool: teaching guide. Spb.: Detstvo-press;
Moscow: TC Sfera, 2008.
[3] Gorinevsky,
V.V.
Physical
education
(1913).
http://dic.academic.ru (accessed September 15, 2014).
[4] Grantyn, K.H. Basic principles of physical education by
P.F.
Lesgaft
for
school
children.
74-88.
http://elib.gnpbu.ru/text/pamyati-lesgafta_1947/go,0;fs,1/ (accessed
September 15, 2014).
59
[5] Leading Russian XVIII century educators. Betzkoy I.I. and
his
concept.
http://www.nravstvennost.info/library/news_detail.php?ID=3989
(accessed September 15, 2014).
[6] Lesgaft, P.F. Collected works on pedagogy in 5 volumes,
Vol. 1. Мoscow: Physical culture and sport, 1951.
[7] Maslennikov, I.B., Smirnova, G.A. Ski Race. Moscow:
Physical culture and sport, 1999.
[8] Moscow
University
Boarding
school.
dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/moscow/3287/Благородный
(accessed
[9] Nikolayev, U.M. Theoretical and methodological principles
of physical culture in the XX century threshold: [Monograph]. Spb:
SpbGAFK im Lesgafta, 1998.
[10] Pedagogical concept of I.I. Betzkoy and his practical
activity.
http://maxbooks.ru/pedogog1/pg13.htm
(accessed
[11] Pokrovsky, E.A. Russian outdoor games (winter games,
games with stones, sticks, ryuhi, bashni, gorodki). Spb., Bolshaya
encyklopedia malenkogo mira, 2007.
[12] Pokrovsky, E.A. Russian agility enhancing games.
Collection of Russian children games. Spb.: Rech, 2010/
[13] Sobyanin, F.I. Professional training of sports education
teachers with culturological approach: diss. Spb, 2001.
[14] The conception of Federal educational programme for
2006-2010. Мoscow: TC Sfera.
[15] Vydrin, V.M. Physical culture – a kind of culture of the
person and society (experience of the historical and methodological
analysis of problems). [Monograph]. Omsk: SubADI, 2013.
[16] Епифаний Славинецкий. http://dic.academic.ru (accessed
60
SERBIA
PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHING IN THE
PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF THE REPUBLIC OF
SERBIA
SlađanaMijatović, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education,
University of Belgrade
Violeta Šiljak, Faculty of Management in Sport, Alfa University,
Belgrade
Correspondence
Violeta Šiljak
[email protected]
Phone: +381 60 3555 736
THE PERIOD FROM 1830 TO 1914
Political, economic and cultural development of the
Principality and the Kingdom of Serbia, as a young civil state, was
carried out continuously during its struggle for complete state,
economic and cultural independence and its further progress as an
independent and autonomous state. In this sense, the development of
physical education in primary schools was carried out as well.
Although Serbia, after the great victories over the Turkish
army in Ivankovac, Deligrad and Mišar, obtained the status of a
vassal principality by signing Ichko's Peace (1806), only the hatt-isharif of Sultan Mahmud (1830) recognized the borders of 1813 and
returned to the Serbian people their right to the freedom of religion,
the right to establishing their own army and the right to open
schools, hospitals and printing houses.
However, the conditions for the development of education
were created only upon returning the right to open and establish
schools and consequently to develop instruction of physical
education in schools.
61
During the Turkish rule in Serbia there were almost no
schools, and basic literacy i.e. reading and writing could be learned
only in monasteries, with monks or in villages, with priests. Only
few schools were funded by the children’s parents and the teachers
were Serbs from Austro-Hungary, who were literate peasants or
priests.
After the First Serbian Uprising primary schools were
opened in towns and even in villages, so that there were about 40 of
them in those years. By electing Dositej Obradović a principal of all
schools (1808) and separating school and church, the rapid
development of education was launched, however, the fall of
Karađorđe’s Serbia (1813) resulted in closure of all schools, because
the Turkish authorities prevented any educational activities in Serbia,
knowing how dangerous it could be for their rule.
After the Second Serbian Uprising (1815) and the reliberation of Serbia, the work of schools continued, but not to the
extent as it used to be in Karađorđe’s Serbia, because the prince
Miloš tried not to go against the Turks in this regard. In addition,
being illiterate himself, Miloš Obrenović, like other illiterate princes,
claimed that educated people would lead rebellions, thus he did not
support faster development of education and schooling.
The obtained autonomy (1830) created the conditions for
faster economic, political and cultural development, and thereafter
the rapid development of schooling and education began. Thus
(1839) in the Principality of Serbia, there were more than 80 schools
with about 3,000 students. The first Ministry of Education was
established in 1834. In order to promptly obtain educational staff
who would work in the public service, the Serbian government sent
its cadets abroad since 1839 already, when 10 cadets (scholarship
holders) were sent to schools in Austria and Germany.
Starting from 1846, the opening of the primary schools for
women began in Serbia. Several new laws on schools created by the
most educated people of Serbia were passed, thus the first law on
schools in 1844 was drafted by the famous writer Jovan Sterija
Popović. Pursuant to this law, primary schools in villages lasted
three years while urban ones lasted four years, and the teachers were
required to obtain the necessary qualification and graduate from the
Theological school.
62
The Prince Mihailo Obrenović reorganized the
government system but also carried out certain organizational
changes in education. New laws on primary school were passed, and
consequently primary schools in villages lasted four years since1863,
and the teachers were appointed after passing the teacher's exam
(since there were no teacher training schools).
After the assassination of the Prince Mihailo (1868), under
the regency regime in the following ten years, even more favourable
conditions for the development of education were created. Dimitrije
Matić, who was one of the government’s scholarship holders and
studied pedagogy abroad, was elected the Minister of Education and
implemented a number of measures for the successful development
of education. In Kragujevac in 1871 the first Teacher Training
School was opened, where the teachers were prepared for working in
the primary schools in the Principality of Serbia. New curricula for
primary schools were designed and the number of students in schools
increased.
In the last twenty years of the 19th century many
modifications and amendments to the curricula, as well as in the
organization of the educational system, were made under the
influences coming from the developed European countries and in
line with the powerful pedagogical trends.
After the turbulent political events and the coup d'état
(1903), the Kingdom of Serbia experienced even stronger political,
economic and cultural development. The further development of
education and other cultural and scientific institutions continued.
New laws were passed, the curricula were amended and modified,
new schools as well as cultural and scientific institutions were
opened.
Physical Education in the Primary Schools in the
While in Serbia, at the beginning of the 19 th century, the
educational system and the network of schools were underdeveloped,
lacking in adequate material conditions and teaching staff, most
developed countries of Europe at that time, introduced physical
education into primary school. And only when Serbia obtained the
right to open schools (1830), and when young educated people
63
started coming from the western countries, the first ideas and
attempts to introduce such instruction as a compulsory subject
appeared in the Principality of Serbia.
This period included many ideas, thoughts and attempts in
relation to the introduction of physical education instruction into
primary school, starting from the moment when Serbia was granted
the right to open and establish its own schools until the Letter (act)
of the Minister of Education of 1868, which was the official
document that introduced physical education classes into primary
schools.
During these 38 years a lot of ideas and new curricula
appeared and many reforms were made within the school system as
well. In this period, four laws were adopted on the organization of
primary school, but none of those even mentioned physical
education. In addition to the laws, some special guidelines and
curricula, which further explained the implementation of curricula,
were issued but none of them included physical education as a
subject.
This means that, in the first decades of the primary school
development in the Principality of Serbia, the state authorities were
not prepared to introduce PE as a subject in primary schools.
Nevertheless, many ideas, attempts and efforts to include physical
education in school timetables among other subjects were spread by
some pedagogical workers:
1. Milovan Spasić who was the chief school manager
since 1845 wrote three books which represented specialized
literature for the primary school teachers. In one of them, published
in 1885 entitled: "Pedagogical and methodological instruction
material for the primary school teachers” Milovan Spasić wrote
about physical education of children as a foremost task of parents’
first and then of the teachers’ who should help this process through a
number of procedures and measures, such as organizing children’s
games.
2. At the proposal of the Parliament of the Principality
of Serbia, in September 1859, The Project of the Law on School for
the Principality of Serbia was designed, which also specified
physical education for male and gymnastics for female children,
among other subjects taught in primary schools. Although this law
64
Project was not adopted, it is evident that, in the late sixties, the first
attempts to officially and legally introduce the subject in schools
appeared.
3. Dr Djordje Natošević, the principal and the
professor of Serbian grammar school in Novi Sad, the supervisor and
the manager of Serbian schools in the Serbian province of
Vojvodina, was invited in Serbia to the duty of an officer in the
Ministry of Education, where he spent a year (1867-1868). After
visiting schools throughout Serbia in his Report to the Minister of
Education he criticized the state of schools and the organization of
teaching, and in relation to physical education, he wrote: "There is
no physical education in primary schools. There is nothing that
primary schools do for the sake of its development” (Archives of
Serbia, MPs, 1868, IV, 515, p. 3).
In the proposal of the curriculum he wrote that one of the
subjects should be gymnastics, which would be taught in all four
grades, from 11 am to 11.30 am and from 4 to 4.30 p.m. The content
of this subject would consist of: children's games, light military
exercises, swimming and fighting.
Based on Natošević’s Report on the state of the schools in
Serbia and the Report of Stevan D. Popović on the state of the
schools in Switzerland, the School Committee suggested that the
Minister of Education (in February 1868) open a Teacher Training
School, and to organize the course of gymnastics between the classes
in the primary schools in towns and villages.
In this period characterized by a discrepancy between
desires and actual conditions, i.e. by an inconsistency of needs and
financial possibilities of Serbia which was barely liberated, it could
not be expected the ideas of Serbian pedagogues to be accepted,
which would enable the integration of physical education teaching in
the mainstream of the European modern pedagogical thought and
contemporary teaching.
Yet, all these proposals and attempts to introduce physical
education teaching into schools represented significant efforts to find
a suitable place for this subject in the educational process, in
accordance with the achievements and the knowledge of the
European pedagogical thought.
65
Physical Education in the Primary Schools in the
During this period, a number of progressive laws on
school as well as directives and declarations of the Ministry of
Education were passed in relation to primary school, such as the
opening of Teacher Training School in Kragujevac (1871), which
launched the preparation of the first teachers.
The highest contribution to the introduction of physical
education teaching into schools was made by Dimitrije Matić, the
Minister of Education, who in December 1868 distributed “A Letter
to the Teachers of Primary Schools” where he, among other things,
suggested all teachers: ”should dedicate 3-4 classes a week out of
regular school time to gymnastics. The children can practice it
indoors or outdoors when the weather is nice” (Archives of Serbia,
MPs, 1868, IV, 518, p. 4).
In addition to this letter, the Minister also submitted to all
schools " The guidelines for physical exercises", which represented
an elementary curriculum of physical education (gymnastics)
teaching, divided in 17 separate sections, which were specific
program contents of physical education teaching, accompanied with
the appropriate explanations and short concise instructions.
Therefore, physical education (gymnastics) teaching was
introduced into the primary schools of the Principality of Serbia by
the Letter of the Minister of Education as of the 10 th of December
1868, and the Guidelines accompanying this Letter represented the
first curriculum of physical education for primary schools.
Inadequate professional training of teaching staff already
different in their professional education was the greatest difficulty in
the implementation of these Guidelines in primary schools, thus the
opening of the first Teacher Training School in Kragujevac (1871)
solved this problem to a great extent.
At the beginning of the academic year 1869/70, the
Minister Matić sent a Letter to the teachers, where he asked them to
organize the teaching of gymnastics "in order to make the body
development occur simultaneously with the progress of society" and
66
he highlighted that this kind of teaching must not be neglected
(Archives of Serbia, MPs, 1870, X, 2068, p. 6).
.In September 1871, the Ministry of Education issued
"The Timetable of Subjects in Primary Schools and the Instruction
on How They Should Be Taught", which actually was a curriculum,
with special didactic and methodological guidelines. At the end of
the Letter, a separate section stated: "In all four grades of male and
female schools, the physical exercises shall be taught", which
represented The introduction of compulsory teaching of physical
exercise (Archives of Serbia, MPs, 1871, VII, 102-1/2, p. 5).
Professional Training of the Teachers for Gymnastics
Instruction
Professional competence of teachers was the basic factor
of the successful implementation of the curriculum, so after the
opening of Teacher Training School in Kragujevac, before the
education of the first generation of teachers was completed, the need
for the teachers’ additional teaching expertise appeared. Therefore,
the Minister of Education, Dimitrije Matić, at the end of 1871,
decided that, during the summer school holidays in 1872, a onemonth course for selected teachers should be held in Kragujevac in
order to raise the level of the teachers’ professional qualifications.
The lectures in this course were held by the professors of
Teacher Training School in Kragujevac, and Petar Predragović, the
teacher of gymnastics at grammar school and Teacher Training
School in Kragujevac was selected for the teaching of physical
exercises i.e. gymnastics classes. For the purpose of this course he
had prepared a "Curriculum according to which Gymnastics should
be taught to the primary school teachers”, which was divided into 18
classes and included everything that was necessary to realize the
gymnastics curriculum in primary school.
This course, held in July 1872, was attended by 75
teachers, which represented 15% of the total number of the teachers
in Serbia. The same course was held in 1873 in Kragujevac, and
again it was held by Peter Predragović. Thus, both of these courses
played a significant role in raising the professional level of the
teachers for improved physical education teaching.
67
Based on the courses held, Peter Predragović wrote a
handbook "A Brief Guide for teaching gymnastics in primary
schools", whose publication in 1,000 copies was approved by the
Ministry of Education in 1873, and which was a valuable
professional assistance to the primary schools teachers in the
following decades. The held courses and the printed handbook
greatly improved the physical education teaching in the primary
schools of the Principality of Serbia in the following decades, since
the teachers taught gymnastics classes with the assistance of the
Handbook of Petar Predragović.
In order to improve the conditions for physical education
teaching, the Ministry of Education, under the Rules on school
construction and school furniture (1881) provided that a room for
gymnastics of a greater height than that of a classroom, which could
be illuminated from two sides and heated, should be built within
each school facility, and in the case of rural schools it should be an
open space between the school facility and the schoolyard. In
addition, these Rules provided that, in the schoolyards, the
gymnastics apparatus should be set up, where the students could
practice when the weather conditions allowed.
Physical Education in the Primary Schools of the
Kingdom of Serbia (1882-1914)
After the recognition of the state independence of the
Principality of Serbia by the Treaty of Berlin (1878), a strong
economic development of the young Serbian state began, which was
appropriately followed by the faster development of education and
schools in general.
Physical education as an integral part of the overall
process of education, developed and changed in accordance with the
relevant social changes i.e. ideas and programs, which were adopted
depending on the political and economic situation in the country.
In order to improve the work in primary schools, the
Ministry of Education passed the laws on their work repeatedly
(1882, 1891, 1892, 1898, 1904), and very often complemented and
modified the curricula, which was accompanied by a number of
guidelines and letters for the purpose of their more complete
implementation. In all of this, physical education teaching occupied
68
a certain place, and even was regulated by separate documents:
Regulations on apparatus design (1885), Guidelines for gymnastic
exercises (1885), Letters of the Minister regarding teaching
gymnastics (1905).
The Law on Primary Schools of 1882 for the first time
placed physical education in an equal position with other subjects,
since the list of subjects taught in primary schools included
gymnastics as well, and the Curriculum, adopted in the following
1883, specified that gymnastics should be taught two classes a week
in each grade.
A detailed curriculum for gymnastics teaching was
adopted in 1884 for all six grades and it included:
1. children’s games,
2. military exercises,
3. basic physical exercises,
4.
exercises with weights, rope skipping,
exercises on uneven parallel bars and rings, then rope
climbing, long jump and high jump and wrestling.
However, although well-designed and thoroughly
developed, this Curriculum could not be realized in practice because
the majority of teachers were not professionally trained enough to
implement it, and a lack of apparatus, devices, gyms and arranged
schoolyards prevented its implementation even when the teachers
were professionally trained.
In order to solve the problem of a lack of apparatus for
gymnastics teaching the Minister of Education prescribed The
regulations on designing apparatus for gymnastic exercise in
primary schools (1885), which described the apparatus for each
grade individually, such as racks for high jump, spring boards, rings,
horizontal bars, uneven parallel bars, climbing apparatus, balance
beams, hoops, throwing stones, weights and the like. In the same
year the Ministry of Education issued the Guidelines for gymnastic
exercises with illustrations for primary schools, which contained the
curriculum for gymnastics teaching in three separate sections with
drawings.
Surely, the adopted Regulations on designing apparatus
and the Guidelines for gymnastic exercises enabled that, in those
places and in those schools with adequate professional staff and at
least minimal financial resources, physical education classes could
69
be conducted according to the adopted curriculum. However, a very
small number of schools managed to get appropriate apparatus under
these Regulations, thus gymnastics classes usually included only:
children's games, simple exercises in place, rope skipping and
various forms of military exercise, as stated in the reports by the
supervisors visiting schools in all the areas of the Kingdom of
Serbia.
For these reasons, the Ministry of Education in 1891
adopted a new curriculum for lower grades of primary school, where
the curriculum for gymnastics teaching, especially in younger
grades, underwent major changes and amendments. The curriculum
no longer included any military exercise, which was the result of
numerous complaints and objections of teachers, parents,
pedagogues and supervisors, since the teaching of gymnastics
became exclusively military training, which was more adverse than
benefitting in relation to the education of the children of that age.
Some new teaching contents were introduced to the
curriculum of gymnastics teaching: swimming and tours, and
children’s games still occupied an important place. Specific
children’s games which should be realized according to this
curriculum were determined for all grades, such as the wolf and the
lamb, hide and seek, peek-a-boo, catching games, tugging, tag, target
shooting, leapfrog and others.
In addition, the competition as a compulsory teaching
content was introduced, which provided new opportunities for the
teachers engaged in these classes. Such a curriculum, without
exercises with gymnastics apparatus provided greater opportunities
for its implementation, and new teaching contents were closer and
more acceptable to children.
The introduction of children’s games into gymnastics
teaching created an opportunity of education through playing and
games, since they brought joy and happiness to these classes by their
spontaneity and comfort. The envisaged curriculum could be
realized to a greater extent providing a significant impact on the
students’ physical development.
In order to carry out more complete control and obtain
trustworthy insight into the manner and the volume of the curricula
implementation, the Minister of Education appointed permanent
school supervisors, whose task was to inspect schools when they
70
deemed it necessary. Thus, the insight into the teachers’ work was
more complete, because they were controlled by both the supervisors
and the school principals and the ministerial delegates, who assessed
their work at the end of each school year.
In order to provide conditions for teaching gymnastics,
when the weather conditions did not allow practicing outside, the
Minister prescribed the Regulations on school construction and
school furniture (1899), similar to the Regulations of 1881, which
stated that larger schools, especially in towns "should also have a
hall for gymnastics and ceremonies which can be heated", of the
height of five meters at least.
In the field of physical education teaching there was a
constant need for methodological reference books so that the
"Textbook of Gymnastics" by Atanasije Popović, published in 1898,
represented a valuable professional assistance in the work of many
teachers. Thus, it enabled this kind of teaching to be carried out at a
higher professional level.
However, despite all of this, the condition of physical
education teaching in primary schools in the last decade of the 19 th
century, according to the assessment and the opinion of the
supervisors of primary schools was not satisfactory. A lack of
funding resources for the needs of gymnastics teaching was the
actual reality of that period as well as a lack of understanding and
appreciation of the importance and the value of educational areas on
the other hand. For Serbia of that time, physical education teaching
was something superfluous, unnecessary luxury or a fad.
The curriculum (1899) changed the name of this subject
in: gymnastics and children’s games, which even more emphasized
the commitment to this program content. According to it, a greater
part of the contents whose performance required special facilities
and gymnastics equipment for physical training (exercises on
horizontal bar, uneven parallel bars, rings and various climbing
apparatus) was exempted from gymnastics instruction, and more
contents in the field of children's games were provided. Thus, the
curriculum for gymnastics teaching no longer required greater
financial investments in providing the conditions for its performance.
However, this curriculum, in its concept, was still onesided and limited the choice of means and forms of physical
exercise. Gymnastics teaching gradually turned into a field of games
71
and entertainment, very often into children's play without the
teachers’ supervision, usually before or after school. By such a
unilateral approach and limited choice of the program contents, the
set objective could not be achieved, so that we could not even talk
about successfully accomplished tasks of this kind of teaching, as
was often stated in the reports of the school supervisors.
This condition was still present in the early 20th century,
and even in the "Law on Public Schools" of 1904 this subject was
named only: children's games.
Gymnastics teaching at that time belonged to the group of
subjects which were called: skills and which unfortunately belonged
to the subordinate group of subjects, so they were paid less attention
in schools, and therefore were neglected. Thus, the Minister of
Education, by his special letter (1905), demanded a change of such
an attitude which was a result of the behaviour of school authorities,
who, for a long time, emphasized that the most important subjects
were Serbian and Maths, so the basic school principle then was that
the task of any school, above all, was: to teach children how to write,
read and count. Therefore, the teachers’ attitude towards this
teaching area ranged in the following relations: if you can, if you
want, and if you are able to.
The Minister emphasized that this approach to gymnastics
teaching in primary school was basically wrong and that it had to be
changed, pointing out that was an important area of students’
education, which was neglected in primary schools, and therefore in
the end of the Letter he wrote: "From now on, this can never be like
this. There are no major and minor subjects in primary schools.
They are all important, so that equal attention has to be paid to all of
them.” (Archives of Serbia, MPs, 1905, II, 301, p. 2).
He also emphasized that the teachers had to change their
attitudes and that the supervisors during their visits should verify
whether they complied with the suggested or not.
On the basis of this attitude of the Minister of Education, a
part of the teachers and the schools gradually changed the attitude
towards this kind of teaching, so that, in addition to children's games,
other contents were provided, such as: nature tours, various kinds of
competitions, which were called chivalrous competitions: in running,
throwing stones, jumping, wrestling, and even in some modern
sports.
72
The teachers who understood the importance of this
subject and also were practitioners of a civil gymnastic society,
organized also other forms of physical exercise with children, such
as swimming, skating, and sometimes apparatus exercises as well.
However, the teachers’ inadequate qualifications for
conducting this kind of classes was due to the condition present in
the gymnastics instruction in the teacher training schools in
Kragujevac, Aleksinac, Niš, Jagodina, Belgrade, which occasionally
organized these classes, and even more rarely appointed the
gymnastics teachers. Therefore, it is understandable that the teachers
who graduated from them did not acquire the qualifications
necessary for teaching physical education.
A faster and more significant development of this teaching
area was prevented by turbulent political changes and events,
although the preparations for the war conditioned gymnastics
teaching to be assigned a defensive task in order to better prepare the
young people for defending the country. Therefore, greater attention
was paid to military exercises, which were introduced into schools
and often became the only content of those classes.
But despite all of this, gymnastics teaching occupied a
significant place in primary schools, which is proved by a great
interest of ministers, pedagogues, teachers and doctors, who wrote
about it, proposed the measures to address these issues and warned
the state institutions and the cultural public about it, which
contributed to its continuous, faster and more successful
development.
THE PERIOD FROM 1914 TO 2014
After World War I and by carrying in its sovereignty and
statehood, Kingdom of Serbia initiated the establishment of the
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, a state which in 1929 was
renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After World War II and a
change of polity, the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia was
formed in 1945, a state that changed its name to the Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia by the 1963 Constitution. After 1992 and its
dissolution, Serbia and Montenegro make the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia until 2003, when they change the name in the State
73
Union of Serbia and Montenegro. Since 2006, Serbia has been
operating as an independent and sovereign state.
The curricula of physical education set forth by the
Ministry of Education laid the foundation for quality physical
education in elementary schools in Serbia. By opening the higher
education institutions for training physical education teachers, the
prescribed number of physical education classes could be held
successfully.
Physical Education in Primary Schools from 1918 to
1941
After World War I, in the newly formed state there was a
wide range of schools (Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Muslim,
Protestant, Evangelical, Jewish, Hungarian, German, etc.), which,
among other things, had different curricula (M. Tubić, 2005, pg.
105).
Curricula were harmonized in 1920 for the whole country.
Physical education was mandatory in all schools. Ministry of
Education and Religions occasionally corrected the curriculum using
regulations and amendments, and they were related to physical
exercise in the winter, female physical exercise, equipment,
application of the Sokol system of exercise, and so on.
During this period, the instructions from the Ministry that
were related to physical education implied that it be based on the
Sokol program. However, the demands of the school youth and
emerging educators were aimed at sports games, i.e., competitions.
In 1925, Ministry of Education passed the curriculum for
teaching physical education in primary schools (Grades 1-4).
According to the curriculum, the subject was called Gymnastics and
Children's Games and was held once a week in all four grades (S.
Ilić and S. Mijatović, 2006. pg. 555).
In 1929, at the time of political crisis caused by the
dissolution of the National Assembly and the introduction of 6
January Dictatorship, the decisions were made in the state that led to
the regression of physical education instruction, which in primary
schools was reduced to two half-classes a week (Tubić, 2005, p.
107). That same year, the Act on Public Schools was passed,
74
exclusively determining the Sokol gymnastics system as the base of
physical education in schools.
The new curriculum for primary schools was passed in
1933, and began to be implemented starting from 1935. Number of
physical education classes was as follows: Grades 1 and 2 - 4 classes
a week for half an hour; Grade 3 - 2 classes a week; Grade 4 - 1 class
a week.
Based on official data, about 40% of primary school
children were covered by physical education before World War II.
However, because in many schools there were no conditions for
teaching physical education, it is assumed that the percentage of
primary school children who practiced physical education was much
lower.
At the time, the program did not set forth mandatory
organization of sports activities during free time. Extracurricular
sports activities only existed thanks to the self-organization of
students and engagement of physical education teachers who
supported sports competitions (M. Tubić, 2005, pg. 108).
The first impetus by the state for the development of
sports was given in 1932 by the Ministry of Physical Education of
the People, which recommended and supported the establishment of
students' sports associations and their competitions with a special
Act. Although the students' clubs were legalized with an Act from
the Ministry of Education in 1938, the law of 1924 was still in effect,
which forbade the students from taking part in operations and
competitions in sports clubs. Violators were expelled from school.
The problem of qualified teachers was also present during
this period. Classes were mostly held by the Sokol leaders who had
completed professional training courses. As the courses were
organized in a three-day period, the idea of teacher education at
higher education institutions arose among the experts. Although in
1935 the Ministry of Physical Education of the People passed a
decision on the establishment of a one-year school, the decision had
not been implemented until 1938.
75
Physical Education in Primary Schools after World
War II
During World War II, a large number of school buildings
were destroyed. By 1990, the reconstruction of old and construction
of new school buildings had doubled the number of students
compared to 1941, and according to official statistics, the primary
school education covered 98% of the students (M. Tubić, 2005, pg.
297).
In order for the schools to use the intensity and quality of
physical education to give what is expected of them, they had to
provide good programs, a lot of good professionals, the required
number of regular classes and extra-curricular sports and recreational
activities, organization of student sports associations and their
competitions, and facilities for physical exercise and sports.
In December 1945, relevant governmental and educational
authorities introduced a nationwide mandatory seven-year primary
education system. Four years later, it was extended for another year,
and it became an eight-year education system.
Curricula that were passed by the Ministry of Education
set forth mandatory physical exercise classes, organization of student
sports competitions, taking students on fieldtrips interwoven with
sports and competitive activities, and organization of sports and
physical exercise events in all schools. According to M. Tubić
(2005) in the first three grades, the primary schools had to set aside
half an hour each day for physical exercise. From Grades 4 - 8, they
had to have 3 physical education classes per week. For students who
had certain physical disabilities, according to a medical report, the
school was suppose to organize remedial gymnastics for half an hour
each day (p. 298). Primary schools were also obliged to organize
extracurricular student sports activities at least once a week, which
was usually accomplished through special sports afternoons.
School programs specified camping trips for students once
a year, taking students on six trips a year, encouraging and
supporting activities in students' gym and sports clubs, and since
1958 in student physical education societies.
In addition to the joy of participation, school competitions
stimulate students to exercise systematically, contribute to bringing
young people together, and develop fair play. School competitions
76
have an educational and training role. The system of school
competitions in Serbia, which has a 40-year tradition, is conducted
under the name "School Olympics Serbia". Competitions are held
under the aegis of the Government of the Republic of Serbia,
Ministry of Education and Sports, and the Directorate of Sports.
Olympic sports games represent a constant system of
sports competitions organized for primary and secondary school
students in 12 sports branches: swimming, archery, table tennis,
gymnastics, volleyball, basketball, handball, miniature football,
rhythmics, skiing, athletics and spring cross. "School Olympics
Serbia” are organized every four years. So far, 9 Olympic Games
have been held as follows:
1 – Kragujevac (1980),
2 – Kruševac (1984),
3 – Belgrade (1988),
4 – Aranđelovac (1992),
5 – were not held,
6 – Zrenjanin (2000),
7 – Zaječar (2004),
8 – Niš (2008) and
9 – Sremska Mitrovica (2012).
Winter Student Olympics have so far always been held on
Mount Kopaonik, with the exception in 1992, when they were held
in Mount Brezovica.
Competitions are managed and organized by the
Association of School Sports and Olympic Education of Serbia.
Association of School Sports and Olympic Education of Serbia
adoptes and implementes developmental programs for school sports,
cherishes and respects sports spirit and sports morale, and works on
spreading the Olympic ideas and spirit. Physical education teachers
play a significant role when it comes to the implementation thereof,
as they are directly involved in the competition system with their
students. Number of students in one school year at all levels reaches
of 350,000 participants.
The competition system is divided into five levels:

school (inter-class)

municipal,

inter-municipal (district - city),
77


inter-district (regional) and
republic competition (V. Šiljak, 2013, pg.
232-234).
Physical Education in Primary Schools at the
Beginning of the 21st Century
Following the curriculum of physical education in primary
schools today, it is necessary to ascertain that a recent reform of the
curriculum abolished the third compulsory class. Ministry of
Education gave the primary school students an opportunity to use a
spare class called Free Activities, and to engage in sports or other
(arts) activities of their choosing. In the age of modern
technology/computers and established reduced motion activities of
children, the Ministry did not recognize the necessity of a greater
number of compulsory physical education classes.
By 2002, according to N. Rodić, eight curricula for
physical education had been officially adopted, which the author
considers pedagogical and the educational failures because they did
not understand the importance of physical education classes for
children in this age group (p. 82). In 2002 and 2003, co-author of the
study, V. Šiljak, was a member of the commission for the
educational field of "Physical and health education" formed by the
Ministry of Education and Sports of the Republic of Serbia, in order
to determine the main strategic direction of education reform in the
Republic of Serbia. As the team of ten people consisted of only two
physical education teachers, it was expected that this reform would
not yield results in favor of increasing the number of physical
education classes.
Conclusion
Physical education in Serbia in the nineteenth century
owes its emergence and development primarily to the develop of the
Sokol movement and the learned men who recognized the
importance of the introduction of physical education in elementary
schools. Since its beginnings in the late twentieth century, teaching
78
physical education and its improvement were worked on intensively
until the end of the 20th century.
Over the last one hundred years of teaching physical
education in schools in Serbia, we can see periods of development,
stagnation and even regression. The socio-political conditions have
certainly affected the overall situation in Serbia, and thus the
development of education in Serbia. The formation of the new state,
Yugoslavia, where Serbia was only a part of it, two world wars, and
the collapse of Yugoslavia are events that indicate a very turbulent
20th century.
The education system in Serbia has been changing
according to its polity. Serbia as a kingdom, then as part of a
socialist state, and today as a parliamentary state has during this
period had different forms and approaches to the system of physical
education in schools.
REFERENCES AND SOURCES:
a) References
Grupa autora. (1889). Prosvetni zbornik zakona i naredaba,
Beograd.
Đorđević, Ž. (1958). Istorija vaspitanja u Srba, Beograd.
Ilić, S. (1981). Školsko fizičko vaspitanje u Srbiji (1830-1914),
(Doktorska disertacija. Beograd, FFV.
Ilić, S., Mijatović, S. (2006). History of Physical Education,
Belgrade: D.T.A. Trade.
Jovanović, B. Povodom stogodišnjice organizovanog fizičkog
vaspitanja u Srbiji. Fizička kultura - Vol. 7-8.
Predragović, P. (1873). Kratka uputstva za predavanje
gimnastike u osnovnim školama, Beograd.
Rodić, N. (2002). Former reforms of physical education in
primary schools of the Republic of Serbia, Sombor:
Norma, vol. 8, no. 1-2, pp. 79-88.
Šiljak, V. (2013). Olympism, Belgrade: Alfa University.
Tubić, R. M. (2005). Yugoslav sports, Novi Sad: Museum of
Vojvodina.
79
b) Sources
1.
Archives of Serbia Fund of the Ministry of Education of
Serbia (MPs)





2.
Archives of Serbia, MPs: 1868,IV, 515, str. 3.
Archives of Serbia, MPs: 1868,IV, 518, str. 4.
Archives of Serbia, MPs: 1870, X, 2068, str. 6.
Archives of Serbia, MPs: 1871,VII,102-1/2, str. 5.
Archives of Serbia, MPs: 1905, II, 301, str. 2.
Archives of the Museum of Physical Culture of Serbia,
Faculty of Physical Education, University of Belgrade.
80
SLOVAKIA
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL PHYSICAL
EDUCATION IN THE TERRITORY OF
SLOVAKIA
Branislav Antala, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports,
Comenius University in Bratislava
František Seman, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports,
Natália Smolenáková, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports,
Correspondence
Branislav Antala
[email protected]
Phone: +421 905 887575
The development of school physical education on the
Slovak territory can be divided into the following stages:
1. School physical education since its creation until 1918.
2. School physical education between two wars (1918 – 1939).
3. School physical education during World War II (1939 – 1945).
4. School physical education in the years 1945 – 1992.
5. School physical education since 1993 until today.
In our treatment, we will focus on the most important
features of each period only. For the purpose of a more detailed
study, this issue is further elaborated in the works of Píschová
(1979), Grexa (1995), Sýkora (1996, 1999), Antala (2001), Bobrík
and Seman (2010) and others.
81
School Physical Education since its Creation until 1918
In the feudal period, in relation to the monopolization of
culture and education from the church, the physical education within
the church schools (for example monastic, parish, and cathedral) did
not occur. Later, with the emergence and development of cities are
emerging urban schools and universities. Here, students devote to
physical education in leisure time, but not under the supervision of
teachers. However, Trnava University had its own teacher of fencing
and dancing and Jesuit school in Banská Bystrica had its own gym.
In connection with the establishment of schools in Slovakia
we highlight in particular Mining and Forestry Academy in Banská
Štiavnica, which was founded in 1762 as a Mining Academy and
was essentially the first technically oriented university in the world.
Within the same school, students set up their own Academic
Shooting Association (in 1874) and the shooting was a sporting
discipline also.
Physical education is getting into the school environment
with the advent of humanism and the Renaissance in the 16th
century. It exists only in the form of extra-curricular. The most
important figure of this period was Johann Amos Comenius (15921670), which exercises, games, hiking, diet and hygiene regarded as
an organic part of education. Significant changes in favor of school
physical education occurred in Hungary thanks to Johann Ignatius
Felbigerovi (1724-1788) and Adam František Kollár (1718-1783).
They were authors of the Enlightenment reform of education and
training named Ratio Educationis in the second half of the 18th
century (1777). This reform has interpreted the care of physical
education as one of the goals of the school and also contained
standards for physical education. Thoughts of this reform in Slovakia
were developed by national revivalists Samuel Tešedík (1742-1820),
Daniel Lehocký (1759-1840), Bohuslav Tablic (1769-1832), who for
example recommended physical exercise twice a day, and others.
The poet Ján Kollár (1793-1852) as the first in our countries raised
the requirement of compulsory school physical education in 1849.
He was based not only on sports traditions, but took into account the
modern sport that began to develop in England. Ján Kollár drew up
at the request of the Vienna government reform proposal Slovak
schools. He proposed physical education for all types of schools and
82
also demanded that schools have gymnasiums and vocational
teachers.
Based Bonitz-Exner reform, physical education gets to
school in 1851 is an optional subject. Physical education in this
period also developed three Slovak non-state grammar schools in
Turčiansky Svätý Martin, Revúca and Kláštor pod Znievom.
Students attended physical education voluntarily and teaching was
paid. The highest level had physical education in Revúca. The
teacher was Ivan Branislav Zoch (1849-1921), author of the first
Slovak physical education textbook "Krátky návod na vyučovanie v
telocviku hlavne pre školy národnie (“Short Instruction for Teaching
Physical Education especially in the National Schools”) (1873).
Compulsory physical education was enacted after the defeat
of Austria by Prussia, firstly at the municipal schools (1868, 1869)
and later in secondary schools (1874 at grammar schools, in 1883 at
high schools). Physical education should ensure better preparation of
young people for the needs of the army. Core curriculum was Spiess
system, but at the end of 19th century the content was supplemented
by sports games and before World War I by the pre-military training
for boys.
Physical education came into schools, but at the same time
was the lack of qualified teachers who could teach physical
education. Preparation of vocational teachers started first in Vienna
and Budapest (since 1871) and later, since 1891 also in Prague.
Physical education generally taught graduates of philosophical
faculties, who during her studies as a subject did not attend. Eötvös
reform (1868) of teacher training institutes provided training of
qualified physical education teachers. Equipment for the preparation
of a small number of professional "preparers" for future physical
education teachers, however, proved to be major problems progress
in preparing physical education teachers.
School Physical Education between Two Wars (1918 –
1939)
The establishment of Czechoslovakia had a positive impact
on the development of Slovak education and pedagogy, although the
development of school physical education was not so significant.
Greater development of school physical education hindered several
factors persisting from the past or arising from the current political-
83
economic situation - poor material equipment of schools, lack of
compulsory physical education in vocational, technical and higher
education, insufficient training of teachers. Plight in the number of
physical education teachers helped Slovakia Czech tackle action
sports professionals and teachers.
In the Czechoslovak state, university teacher training
conducted at universities in Prague and Brno (but not on individual
faculty of physical education). The oldest Physical Training
magazine focusing on school physical education "Physical education
of youth" (in the Czech Republic today it is entitled "Physical
Education and Youth Sport") began. Compulsory physical education
is also introduced for girls. By treatment of Czech teachers in
Slovakia, in addition of Tyrs system, which was the basis for the
curriculum, penetrated the ideas of the French system of gymnastic
of Georges Hébért (1875-1957) (natural methods in physical
education) and New Austrian system of Karl Gaulhofer (1885-1941)
and Margarete Streicher (1891-1985). Physical education
organizations as Sokol (Falcon), Orol (Eagle) and worker’s physical
education movement have sought to influence on school physical
education. Regarding physical education organization Sokol, from its
ranks in 1918 published a call for the establishment of a separate
faculty, which would prepare specialists in physical education:
“When physical education should be guaranteed outcome, it must be
organized by state. It must have the highest status of scientific
management, which is the faculty of physical education at the
university.” Sokol simultaneously recommended that future physical
education teachers will prepare in the medical, psychological,
physical education subjects and in foreign languages also. It is
necessary to underline that in this preparation would be crucial Sokol
gymnastics, based on Tyrš system. In Tyrš system absented sport,
because the organization Sokol had, in the period immediately after
World War I, negative attitude towards sport. This relationship Sokol
reconsidered in the 20-ies of the 20th century.
Although the Ministry of Public Health and Physical
Education has submitted a proposal to the Government of the
Czechoslovak Republic for the preparation of physical education
teachers, whose concept was based on the French system.
In 1937, Institute for Physical Education and Sport was
established at Comenius University. After a short time, however,
84
institute showed no activity. In 1939, Czechoslovakia ceased to exist
and the Comenius University changed its name to the Slovak
University. In October, 1939, at the request of the Ministry of
Education, it was established Physical Education Institute. It was due
for Slovak students to end studies of physical education, who
previously studied in the Czech Republic.
With the approaching World War II in 1938, physical
education was introduced, as a compulsory subject, into the
professional schools and universities. This process was preceded by
the introduction of the pre-military training in schools linked to the
increase of German militarism. In Slovakia it was the Faculty of
Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, which is not
pronounced for the implementation of the pre-military training, but
for implementation of physical education, because the pre-military
training doctors considered as part of physical education.
School Physical Education during World War II (1939 –
1945)
The breakup of Czechoslovakia, the emergence of the socalled Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, and so-called Slovak
State, beginning World War II, influenced the level of school
physical education. In Slovakia it was negatively commented by
forced departure of Czech teachers and professors of physical
education. The then Slovak state else highlighted the importance of
school physical education, but practical steps were not sufficient –
lagging construction of sports facilities multiplied by small social
valuation of physical education teachers.
The physical education curriculum for secondary schools
(1939, 1943) enshrined the mandatory requirement of three hours of
physical education per week. The educational objectives of the
curriculum were conditioned to state ideology and inspired by the
Nazi-education. It emphasized the health, the army training and strict
discipline. During this period the non-school physical education
played an important role. Young people are given extra-curricular
physical education in youth organizations, created by German model
(Hlinka Guard and the Hlinka Youth).
A positive step in this period was the introduction of
preparation for future teachers of physical education at Slovak
University in Bratislava, where the said Physical education Institute
85
started working from October 23, 1939. A model for the
development of materials for his work was the proposal to establish
schools for preparing teachers of physical education in 1926, which
we have already mentioned. Thus, it was possible in Slovakia to
bypass proposals requesting to organize the study of physical
education along the lines of Germany, Hungary and Italy. The
Commission of Slovak Experts also visited Germany and on the
basis of the resulting report this commission rejected the
organization to prepare the teachers of physical education by
German model, which was not suitable for the conditions of
Slovakia.
In this period a number of sports publications were released.
Most valuable publication was "Physical education Practice on Folk,
Townhouses and Lower Secondary Schools with a Hundred
Examples of Physical Education Classes" (1942) by Karol Stráňai
(1905-1999).
School Physical Education in the Years 1945 – 1992
After World War II it was built up in Czechoslovakia the
socialist society on the basis of Marxism-Leninism. For this
company, sport and physical education becomes one of the important
tools in comparison with the outside world. We have objectively
conclude that school physical education during this period gets,
despite some shortcomings, arising mainly from mainly essential
philosophical approach to the understanding of man in society, the
level as in previous periods certainly not.
After 1946, physical education becomes equivalent to a
compulsory subject in all types of schools, including vocational and
university and was abolished wage discrimination of physical
education teachers. At universities were established departments of
physical education, respectively of sports medicine. In the following
period a range of curricular of physical education for different types
of schools was elaborated on a scientific basis (for grammar schools
in 1949, for general education schools in 1954, the uniform
curriculum, including curriculum for students with impairments in
1960, the curricula of 1970, 1976, 1984). Some of them but failed to
avoid such shortcomings, such as it was their oversized, orientation
to best physically gifted pupils or inadequate consideration of the
86
interests of students. In the 80s, the greater ideas and concepts of
teaching form democratic states began to penetrate much to physical
education. Significant change in the approach to teaching is apparent
in the curriculum of 1990, issued after a major socio-political change
in our society in 1989, even though they have yet no significantly
change the content of education.
From the first curriculum of 1948 is becoming linked
compulsory school physical education and physical education in free
time. Gradually emerging optional subjects like movement and
sports games, hobby groups, pre-military circles, with introducing
education and training courses, stays in nature and different types of
school and interschool competitions.
Preparation of physical education teachers got a
qualitatively higher level. In 1960, Institute of Physical Education
and Sports was established in Bratislava and in 1965 was renamed
the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University
in Bratislava. This, together with faculties of education provides
preparation of physical education teachers and other sports
professionals. Problem teaching qualifications but even this could
not be resolved satisfactorily.
On the optimization of school physical education also
participated in the scientific and research work best workers in the
field of Science Physical Culture. In 1965, it was established in the
Faculty of Physical Education and Sports the independent scientific
body Workstation for the Research of Physical Education of Youth,
later renamed the Research Institute of Physical Culture, today
Institute of Sport Science. The results of scientific work were
regularly presented at scientific conferences and seminars organized
throughout the territory of Czechoslovakia. The results were also
presented in the scientific journal "Theory and Practice of Physical
Culture," which along with journal "Physical Education of Youth"
and with magazine "Coach" have been a source of new knowledge
for physical education and sports movement in Slovakia. Some of
them, although after 1989 for financial reasons no longer exist, but in
1991 began to build a new journal "Physical Education and Sport",
which launched a newly established Slovak Scientific Society for
Physical Education and Sport. The establishment of sports schools,
sports classes and classes with extended teaching physical education,
contributed to the development of competitive sports of youth. These
87
services work on the basis of specific curricula, scientifically
substantiated.
Many Slovak sports experts contributed significantly with
results of research to the development of school physical education
in this period: František Sýkora (1927-2002), Jaroslav Frano
(*1925), Želmíra Píschová (*1929), Ivan Varga (*1935), Gabriel
Varga (*1941), Jela Labudová (*1944), Xénia Rovná (1929-2014),
Ivo Havlíček (1931-2005), Miroslav Rovný (1921-1991), Michal
Belej (*1934), Milan Mikuš (1932-2012) and others.
The socialist system, despite the attention that school
physical education addressed, could not eliminate the primary source
of the lack of effectiveness of physical education – the lack of school
sports facilities and skill shortages, which is reflected in the
stagnation of physical fitness of schoolchildren.
School Physical Education since 1993 until Today
By dividing the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic and the
establishment of the Slovak Republic in 1993, began the new school
physical education period, particularly in terms of the management
and organization of public authorities in an independent state.
Physical education continues to focus on the changes initiated after
1989. To classes, new ideas enter increasingly, but still remains
partially conservatism of previous years. Curriculum Physical
Education (1995 for primary schools and 1997 for secondary
schools), although already a bit more modern, but in many ways still
remain traditional. Following these curricula in the next years, the
educational standards were created.
Great contribution to science, research and qualification of
professionals in the field of physical education and sport was, in
1996, recognition of a separate scientific discipline of Sport Science
(in the nomenclature of sciences in Slovakia are assigned to number
74), which have the three branches: Sports Kinantropology, Sports
Educology and Sports Humanities.
In the following period, fails to maintain a range of teaching
3 hours a week and there is a reduction in the number of hours in the
curriculum for various types of schools at the expense of emerging
subjects. It is increasing the number of children exempted from
physical education and reduces the number of children involved in
88
the hobby of physical education and sport. To change this state is
making significant efforts and Slovak School Sports Association,
which organizes mainly interschool sports competitions and School
Sports Clubs, creating the conditions for participation of students in
physical education in free time. Poor social conditions of teachers
and the resulting low motivation and interest in teaching course of
study for graduates to work in the profession, stagnation and
deterioration of conditions for learning to be a transient
phenomenon, but also do not add to the quality of teaching.
A new impetus for the development of physical education
was the adoption of the new Law on Education and Training No
245/2008 in 2008, replacing almost 30 years old Education Act. This
legislation reforms the existing system of education and training. The
basic ideas of the new law were particularly decentralization and
greater school autonomy, their greater share in decisions about the
curriculum, greater activity and responsibilities of teachers, their
greater authority and emphasis on educational activity in the
educational process aimed at developing the competence of the
pupil. Of the established structure of the school system is passed to
the international system ISCED. It introduces two-level curriculum
and curriculum framework. Mandatory part of the training was
divided into public education program (mandatory hours) and school
education programs (optional hours). Since 2011, the time devoted is
defined over the level of education only. Schedule time to be
allocated to individual grades is the responsibility of the school, like
the inclusion of the curriculum in grades above but the adequacy of
age. In order to improve the educational process, in 2008 was
adjusted number of pupils in the classes. This was a reduction in the
number of pupils on average to 10% (1st year of primary school
max. 22 pupils; second to fourth year – 25; 5th to 9th year of primary
school – 28). Learning objectives are pursued in the framework of
new educational areas where separate educational field is the area of
"Health and movement" in which ISCED 1 is a subject "physical
education" and in ISCED 2 and 3 subject "physical education and
sport". Some areas of learning that are interdisciplinary character are
not taught as separate subjects, but as sectional themes. Sectional
theme "Protecting life and health", is provided by teachers of
physical education and sports.
89
In the career development of teachers in 2009 were adopted
two new acts – Act on educational staff and specialists No 317/2009
Act on lifelong learning No 568/2009. These acts defined the career
system based on career levels, career positions and career paths.
Changes have also occurred in the teaching of physical
education in schools. Within hours of mandatory training programs
of schools (public education program) changed the name of the
subject. Name of the school subject has been modified from
“physical education” to "physical education and sport" at ISCED 2
and 3; ISCED 1 remained unchanged. A change was also in terms of
focus and purpose of physical education and sports. The focus of
physical and sport education is reflected significant departure from
the performance-oriented teaching towards developing competences
of pupils and the formation of values and attitudes. In the objectives
is a more significant link to health care and the creation of a healthy
lifestyle. Physical education and sport must combine knowledge,
habits, attitudes, skills and abilities of movement, sport, health and
healthy lifestyles, which are realized through designs configured
forms of teaching physical education and sports, health and physical
education through integrated physical and sport education. Another
change was the openness and variety of content. The content
presents a wide range of knowledge and physical education and
sports activities offered to pupils. The content is divided into the
following four thematically oriented modules: Health and disorder;
Healthy lifestyle; Physical fitness and physical performance;
Sporting activities of movement regime. Each module has its own
internal structure and in the various levels of education it transforms
into separate thematic parts of the educational program. Furthermore,
new programs allow the adaptation of teaching content to the
conditions of the school, pupils' interests and give freedom and
responsibility to the teacher of physical education and sport for the
creation of the program for different groups of students. Support and
mentoring of teachers to continuous learning has also been one of the
innovative elements of the project focus of teaching physical
education. In this respect, in addition to programs of continuing
education for teachers organized by Methodical Centers is
particularly important implementation of a national project of
continuing education teaching physical education in the 1st level of
primary schools and unqualified teachers in 2nd stage of primary
90
schools' “Upgrading qualification of teachers of physical education
and sport "in the years 2012-2015 which carries the National Sports
Center. In cooperation with Faculty of Physical education and Sports
and other physical education faculties, the projects will refresher the
training of 3,400 primary school teachers. The project is co-financed
by European Union funds within the program "Education".
At all levels of schools since 2008, physical education and
physical education and sport within hours of mandatory training
program is taught in all classes of 2 hours per week and through
courses. Schools can raise the weekly number of hours of physical
education and sport through optional hours of educational programs.
This is realized in a minimal extent only.
To assist the teaching of physical education in schools, the
Association of Physical Education Teachers is created in 2012. This
association is the professional organization of teachers of physical
education and sports. Subject Commission of Physical Education and
Sports in the National Institute for Education, performs a supporting
and coordinating activities. Commission approves all training
materials related to physical education and sport in schools and is the
highest professional body in this area also. In 2012 was established
at the Ministry of Education the Curriculum Council also, which
includes the president of the Subject Commission of Physical
Education and Sports. The Council is the highest advisory body to
the Minister of Education in the curriculum of training issues. To
help manage physical education have been developed several
electronic portals as an information portal www.skolskysport.sk or
portal www.telesnavychova.sk.
To the development of school physical education in recent
years significantly contributed many Slovak physical education
specialists with research and teaching: ako Ján Slezák (*1945),
Alexander Melicher (*1943), Michal Modrák (*1953), Branislav
Antala (*1963), Jaromír Šimonek ml. (*1958), Jela Labudová
(*1944), Viera Bebčáková (*1945), Soňa Kršjaková (*1958), Elena
Strešková (*1947), Gustáv Argaj (*1956), Janka Peráčková (*1958),
Ľudmila Jančoková (*1953), Pavol Bartík (*1959), Ivan Čillík
(*1958), Dana Masaryková (*1980), Mária Roučková (*1952) and
others.
91
Physical Education Development of Pupils with Special
Needs
If we want to complete the characteristic and analysis of the
school physical education development in Slovakia, it is necessary to
mention about the physical education teaching of pupils with health
impairments, respectively disabled pupils, or disadvantaged pupils
with special educational needs. The beginning of contemplation
about segregation teaching of disabled pupils and healthy pupils is
dated since year 1883, when doctors classified them into 3 groups:
exempted from physical education, actively participating with certain
limits and healthy pupils. The curriculum from 1911 and 1913 years
did not include special content for the treatment of health disorders;
it merely highlighted the need of building the habit of correct
posture. But in 1948/49 were published precise health requirements
and teaching of pupils with posture errors and asthenia begun at
ordinary schools. Since 1951 the guideline of the Ministry of
education officially laid the foundation for the development and
regular teaching of adapted physical education (APE). The beginning
was associated with teaching of pupils with orthopaedic
impairments, first at primary schools later then at all secondary
schools and universities.
All the following period since 1960 up to 2003 year were
associated with the extension of the teaching objective, which
signified not only healthy goals, associated with the correction of
impairment´s problems, but also formation of concrete educational,
later social goals of the APE lessons for orthopaedic, internal and
nervous system disorders. It means a significant expansion of the
space for compulsory lessons of disadvantaged pupils at schools. On
the one lesson in duration 45 minutes there were 12 - 15 pupils with
various impairments and every lesson is managed with qualified
APE teacher. In present days in APE lessons are included pupils with
significant health impairments, with problems of physical, body
construction and composition, or with continued temporary
problems, which are not barrier of the school lessons, but they are
the contraindication of the physical load. The teaching is realised
across the separate APE curriculum, which was prepared on the basis
of a number of completed surveys.
92
In 2003 and 2004 was completed last comprehensive APE
curriculum for primary and secondary schools with specific physical
and sport content, for different types of impairments in the
following classification: visual impairment, blindness, deafness,
defective hearing, mobile and immobile pupils, impairments of the
upper extremities, anterior-posterior and lateral spinal faults,
disorders of cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, metabolic,
gynaecological and neurological system, psychological and
intellectual impairments. For the first time was APE teaching
consolidated at standard and special schools, which it means for
pupils attending integrated or segregated physical education and
APE (Labudová, 2010).
It is necessary to mention, that the beginning of targeted
care for pupils with physical, hearing, visual and mental disabilities
goes back to the 20th century when in pursuance of education law,
since 1953, was allowed to establish special schools. Segregated
educational environment, in which was the teaching of physical
education in kindergartens, primary and secondary schools realized,
was created. Since 1990 were also private and church special schools
established. The trend was to establish the special schools with
region-wide or nation-wide competence, what required from pupils
to stay in the dorm. Up to the present days pupils education at special
schools is equivalent to education at standard schools. The special
school has its advantages and justification, allows the transferring of
the pupils to the integrated teaching.
We can conclude, that the transformation of the education
system and the introduction of a State education programme for
schools in year 2008, established a basis for equality education of
pupils at different types of schools and levels of education in the
curriculum field ”Health and movement” through the teaching of
physical education and sports, APE and integrated physical and sport
education. Research has indicated that 32-52% of primary and 34%
secondary schools would like to apply an integrated physical
education (Labudová, 2008), but this process continue very slow. To
apply the regulation, that maximum 3 pupils with disability, or with
special educational needs can be integrated in one study class. For
each such pupil the number of pupils per class is reduced by two. In
2009/2010 were registered over 22 000 individually integrated pupils
with special educational needs into normal schools (Tab. 1).
93
Tab.1 Individual integration of pupils by type of health impairment
or disability (number)
Type
of
health
State
Church
Private
impairment, disability
schools
schools
schools
Autism syndrome
188
11
38
Mental disability
3 733
120
35
Hearing disability
489
41
38
Visually impairments
475
34
17
Impaired communication
775
36
23
ability
Physical disability
1 367
116
41
Behavioral disorders
1 176
80
39
Developmental
learning
12 106
627
446
defects
Sum
20 309
1 065
677
Actual elevated occurrence of pupils health impairments can
confirm the necessity of gradual integration teaching trends. Current
efforts to enhance teaching pupils with disabilities and with the
socially disadvantaged should be based on creating optimal school
conditions at all school levels (especially accessibility, material
support, fulfilment of teachers obligations) that every pupil has the
opportunity to actively participate in adequate APE lessons, or
integrated physical education and sports education lessons. This can
also reduce a large number of inactive pupils in physical education
lessons, but also increase pupil´s motivation for physical activity and
care for their health and their involvement in physical and sports
activities in leisure time.
Conclusion
Physical education, as in the past, and now needs of
regeneration and innovation towards higher quality and
attractiveness to become more interesting and attractive to pupils and
the teachers themselves and to fulfill all the important functions that
human development has undoubtedly. It will not pass without state
support, which it must create adequate conditions. The adequate
conditions, however, is not only the material and technical
94
equipment in the spirit of the times, but also provide extensive
support for teachers of physical education, not least agitation among
parents to realize that adequate development of their children their
lack of interest in physical activity fails.
REFERENCES
Antala, B. (2001). Vývoj, súčasný stav a nové trendy vo vyučovaní
telesnej výchovy v školách. In: Didaktika školskej telesnej
výchovy, END, Bratislava, 17-40.
Antala, B. (2008). Školská telesná výchova a kurikulárna
transformácia výchovy a vzdelávania. In: Sedláček,
Jaromír – Antala, B. et al. Hodnotenie telesného rozvoja
a motorickej výkonnosti žiakov v procese kurikulárnej
transformácie výchovy a vzdelávania, ABL Print,
Bratislava, 9-34.
Antala, B. et al. (2012). Telesná výchova v názoroch žiakov
základných a stredných škôl. END, Bratislava.
Antala, B et al. (2014). Telesná a športová výchova a súčasná škola.
END, Bratislava,.
Bobrík, M. & Seman, F. (2010). 90 rokov vysokoškolského športu na
Slovensku, Slovenská asociácia univerzitného športu,
Bratislava.
Grexa, J. (1995). Dejiny školskej telesnej výchovy na našom území.
In Perútka Jaromír – Grexa Ján Dejiny telesnej kultúry na
Slovensku, FTVŠ UK, Bratislava,111- 126.
Labudová, J. (2008). Niektoré aspekty vyučovania telesnej výchovy
v základnej strednej škole. In Antala, B. at al. Školská
telesná výchova z pohľadu výsledkov vedeckého výskumu.
Bratislava : FIEP, UK FTVŠ, s. 6–13
Labudová, J. (2010). Zdravotná telesná výchova. In Labudová, J. a
kol.: Edukológia zdravotnej telesnej výchovy a športu
postihnutých. Bratislava: SZ RTVŠ, 6–14.
Píschová, Ž. (1979). Školská telesná výchova v ČSSR a v iných
socialistických krajinách. In Sýkora, F. et al. Didaktika
telesnej výchovy, UK, Bratislava, 78-106
Sýkora, F. (1996). Genéza tvorby učebných osnov telesnej výchovy
v našom školskom systéme. In Inovácia projektov telesnej
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výchovy v základných a stredných školách SR, FTVŠ UK,
Bratislava, 7-17.
Sýkora, F. (1999). Školská telesná výchova v Slovenskej republike
po roku 1989 a jej ďalšie perspektívy. In: 60 rokov
prípravy telovýchovných pedagógov na UK v Bratislave,
FTVŠ UK and VS TVaŠ, Bratislava,184 – 188.
Seman, F. et al. (2010). 50 rokov Fakulty telesnej výchovy a športu
UK 1960 – 2010. Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu UK,
Bratislava.
96
SLOVENIA
ANALYSIS OF EXEMPT ABSENCES FROM
PHYSICAL EDUCATION LESSONS IN SLOVENIA
IN THE PAST AND TODAY
Gregor Jurak, Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana
Marjeta Kovač, Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana
Correspondence
Gregor Jurak
[email protected]
Phone: +386 1 520 77 83
Abstract
A comparison of recommendations from 1911 curriculum
with modern legislation today revealed that in the last 100 years in
Slovenia there has been no significant professional change in
approach to exempt absences from physical education (PE) lessons.
Recommendations in the last PE curriculum have not yet found their
place in legislative practice; namely, the option to be exempt from
the entire PE subject still exists despite the contrary guidelines in
curriculum. Precise definition of procedures for exemptions and
activities, which schools organise for pupils instead, form a part of
school regulations. These regulations reveal that their authors do not
understand PE curriculum, which include both practical and
theoretical contents. A comparison between documents from 1911
and today indicates very similar formulations in contents and length
of exempt absence as well as in procedures followed in exemptions.
Furthermore, it can be noticed that although PE teachers in the old
days did not hold any formal education in comparison with doctors;
nevertheless, they had larger competency in exempting pupils and
modifying lessons than highly educated PE teachers today.
Key words: physical education, exemption, legislation,
curriculum, history, comparison
97
INTRODUCTION
As a result of various positive effects on growth and
development every young person should partake in at least one hour
of quality physical activity a day; therefore, physical education
should be organised in a way that all young people could participate
in school programmes (Hardman, 2008). Despite the media
presented stereotype about the frequency of exemptions from
physical education (PE) during adolescence, data from recent studies
in Slovenia show that approximately 0.5% of primary school and 2%
of high school pupils present medical letter of exemption (Kolar,
2010), with a third of them being short term exemptions. Pupils are
also exempt from practical PE lessons when they are at school in
other lessons; the most frequently listed reason being illness or its
consequences (Jurak, Kovač, Strel and Starc, 2005a). The
introduction of more suitable procedural criteria would reduce the
frequency of such cases when pupils ask for exemption (Jurak,
Kovač, Strel and Starc, 2005b).
The problem of exemptions from PE lessons is in different
countries approached in various ways, depending whether a subject
is compulsory or not, characteristics of the curricula and the
autonomy of schools; in the majority of western world countries
exemption from PE lessons is possible only with doctor’s letter of
exemption (Himberg et al., 2003; Pangrazi, 2001).
Slovenian primary school PE curriculum states in a chapter
Special-didactic recommendations that no pupils should be exempt
from lessons. Teachers should modify the process to the limitations
of individual pupil as the experts share an opinion that exercise can
be an important therapeutic and rehabilitation tool (Kovač and
Novak, 1998, str. 55). Nevertheless, pupils in Slovenia can legally be
exempt from various types of education work due to health reasons.
Exemptions can be granted for the entire or only a part of the subject
and for short or long periods of time.
Always interesting problem of exemptions led the authors in
the present study to analyse recommendations from 1911 curriculum
for gymnasia and real-gymnasia and then compare them with
98
modern legislation. It was expected for recommendations to differ
significantly; therefore, the analysed parameters were listed reasons
for exemptions, the contents and length of exemptions, procedure
followed in exemptions and the role of PE teacher then and now.
GUIDELINES FOR EXEMPTIONS FROM PHYSICAL
EDUCATION HUNDRED YEARS AGO DID NOT DIFFER
SIGNIFICANTLY FROM LEGISLATION TODAY
At the beginning of 20th century so-called physical activity
was compulsory for boys but not for girls, duration of education in
gymnasia lasted eight years and in real-gymnasia seven. Pupils had
45 minutes of physical activity per week and they were taught by
physical activity teachers who only had to undertake a short training
course. Exercises were carried out following the Sokol system.
Curriculum included different contents and recommendations for
their realisation, so-called instructions. The way exemption was
defined in curricula for all types of gymnasia and real-gymnasia is
presented below (Vestnik, Ministry for education and religion, 1911,
part XIV., no. 21, pp. 213–249, in Kompara, 2006).
Instruction.
VIII. Exemption from physical activity should be granted to
all pupils who could otherwise benefit from spiritual education
wished upon the school, yet are due to physical errors permanently
or temporarily unable of physical effort. Regardless of that, physical
activity cannot be exempted due to unjustified small-mindedness of
parents, laziness or resistance of individual pupils, especially after
executed disciplinary procedure.
The repute of school demands that in cases, when the real
reason wishes to be hidden with imaginary illness, decision is taken
with required conscientiousness and factually. In contrast, teacher
can find himself in a position when participation in physical activity
depends on given permission of a doctor. Doctor needs to decide in
all cases where a physical defect is stated by the pupil or observed
by teacher himself.
99
Exemptions from physical activity require following
procedure:
1. At the beginning of each course, all pupils from same class
should assemble at first lesson. Pupils wished to be exempt
from physical activity need to contact physical activity teacher,
who will instruct them about the following actions.
2. Exemption is executed upon the presented letter from school or
local doctor, who works in the area of institution (after a
thorough examination). In a letter of exemption doctor should
explain in understandable manner the illness of a pupil and
simultaneously refer to the length and content of exemption. In
certain cases, particularly in illnesses requiring longer
monitoring or after long illness, letter of exemption from family
doctor is suffice, although the opinion of official doctor can be
called upon.
3. Letter of exemption should without an exception be presented to
the physical activity teacher, who then forwards them to
headmaster together with his personal opinion, reliant on the
referral of the doctor. Against the judgment of headmaster an
appeal can be lodged to provincial educational authority.
4. Until the request for exemption is not granted, pupils can be
required to participate at lessons, but they cannot be allowed
or even forced to perform the exercises.
5. Exemption from physical activity lessons can be requested at
any time, even during the lesson. Exemptions can take various
forms; depending on the contents: a) entire or b) partial;
depending on duration: a) permanent, b) annual, c) for one
course, d) for several months or weeks, or e) for individual
lessons. Full exemption on a permanent basis or for the
duration of one year or course also allows pupils to be exempt
from their duty to participate at the lessons. In partial
exemptions, pupils can be required to participate at lessons and
be ranked.
6. Exemption from individual lessons can be granted to pupils by
teacher himself; whereupon for regular occurrences in one
pupil it is recommended to demand doctor’s letter of exemption
and a statement.
7. Physical activity teacher should keep a diligent record about
all the exemptions that were granted during the year, in order
100
8.
9.
to report about the status of pupils at any time. Physical
activity teacher has to hand over the transcript of the record,
together with stated reasons for letter of exemptions, to
headmaster.
When a pupil is exempt from physical activity temporarily, in
his return to activity the severity of the illness has to be
considered. In certain circumstances, when the illness could be
a reason for permanent exemption, doctor’s letter of exemption
can be required in order to allow return to physical activity.
In some situations, e.g. insufficient nutrition, particularly after
illnesses, school has to apply exemption from physical activity
even without parents demanding it or else ask for doctor’s
letter of permission. Physical activity teacher has a
responsibility to inquire about the quality of pupil’s illness after
long-lasting exemptions and the participation cannot be
granted immediately. Particular attention should be paid to
diseases of heart and lungs, inflammations of thoracic and
stomach areas, appendicitis, rheumatism and bone fractures.
Additionally, the responsibility of physical activity teacher is
also monitoring, whilst performing strenuous exercises (see
paragraph V, point d), the degree of respiration needs and the
facial colour changes; pupils should be removed from activity
when the stated functions are abnormal and further doctor’s
examination has to be facilitated.
In all dubious cases teacher has to demand doctor’s letter of
permission in order to allow the participation of pupil in physical
activity lessons.
LEGISLATION AND GUIDELINES IN MODERN
CURRICULA
Exemption due to health reasons is only generally defined in
school legislation, as it does not particularly state individual subjects,
from which a pupil could be exempt. Detailed procedures are defined
in the Regulations on rights and responsibilities of pupils in primary
schools and the Regulations on school order in high schools. PE
curricula in the chapter Special-didactic recommendations state that
101
no one should be exempt from PE lessons. When a pupil has health
problems, teacher should modify the practice according to the
recommendations from the doctor.
Abovementioned regulations define the rights of pupils to
attend lessons as well as their responsibilities, procedures related to
exemptions at times of absence and particularly the way doctor’s
letter of exemption can be issued. Additionally, regulations define
responsibilities of pupils, parents, form teachers, physical education
teachers, headmasters and doctors.
Regulations on rights and responsibilities of pupils in primary
schools state that attending the lessons is a right of a pupil and the
teachers should consider his or her individual particularities.
Similarly, Regulations on school order in high schools define that the
pupils have a right to be present at quality lessons, where their
individual and developmental specifics should be respected. At the
same time, regular and punctual attendance at lessons and fulfilment
of learning and other commitments is a responsibility of pupils both
in primary and high schools. According to the Regulations on rights
and responsibilities of pupils in primary schools, all pupils have to
attend the lessons and activities from compulsory programme,
whereas Regulations on school order in high schools give pupils a
right and responsibility to participate at lessons according to the
educational programme, academic calendar, annual school work
plan, pedagogic contract, Regulations on modification of academic
commitments and other regulations.
When a pupil is absent from school, parents are required to
notify a form teacher about the absence; the absence has to be
explained in oral or written manner no later than five days after a
pupil returns in primary school and in written manner three days
after return in high school.
If a pupil is absent from school due to illness for more than
five days, form teacher can ask for an official doctor’s letter of
absence (set form), justifying the absence. When a form teacher in
primary school doubts the authentication of letter of absence, he
informs the parents or the doctor issuing the form. If it turns out for
102
the letter of absence to be false, the pupil faces a punishment. In high
school, headmaster sets specific rules on mutual notification about
absences of pupils from lessons. In high school, a class teacher can
exceptionally allow absence from individual lessons although the
absence need to be later justified in a written manner.
Pupils in primary school can be exempt from certain lessons
due to health reasons. Parents are required to present form teacher
letter of exemption and guidelines from health service. Form teacher
has to notify a teacher who teaches individual lessons. Pupil is
required to participate at these lessons and perform tasks that do not
endanger his or her health status according to the guidelines from
health service. If a pupil cannot perform any tasks, school has to
organise supplementary activities instead (Regulations on rights and
responsibilities of pupils in primary schools, 2004).
When a pupil in high school cannot participate in certain
types of lessons due to health reasons, he or she has to present the
form teacher a letter of exemption with guidelines. Form teacher in
cooperation with school counselling service recommends to
headmaster exemption from lessons and the headmaster has the final
say in the matter. When a pupil is entirely exempt from participation
in lessons at one subject due to health reasons, school can include
him in another activity. When the exemption is only partial, teacher
in accordance with the guidelines from doctor directs a pupil into
individual activity that does not endanger his or her health. Form
teacher keeps track about the type and length of exempted absences
in prescribed documentation and informs about the case class
teachers and other co-workers (Regulations on school order in high
schools, 2004).
COMPARISON
OF
GUIDELINES
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY CURRICULUM IN
MODERN LEGISLATION
BETWEEN
1911 AND
Incidence of guidelines
In 1911, the guidelines on exempt absences were written at
the end of curriculum as instructions or nowadays called didactic
103
recommendations. In 1998, curriculum guidelines are also given in
the last chapter – Special-didactic recommendations, although they
are very short as the exemption is defined in various regulations.
These regulations are directed merely into formal procedures and not
into contents and didactic definitions on how the teacher should act
when working with exempt pupils.
Reasons for exempt absences
Curriculum from 1911 states that exempt absences are
possible as a result of physical defects, which do not allow strenuous
physical effort, whilst small-minded parents (not clear definition),
laziness or resistance of pupils, particularly after disciplinary
procedure (presumably physical punishment) were not considered as
justified reasons for exemption. These cases are listed in curriculum
as false exemptions, which are also known in present day although
with different reasons for their abuse (Jurak et al., 2005a).
Modern legislation lists illness as a reason for exempt
absence. It does not have be seen as a physical defect, as today many
known illnesses were not thought of or recognised hundred years
ago. Furthermore, modern life instigated numerous new illnesses.
Pupils can nowadays practice with lesser effort and the teachers can
monitor exercising with heart rate monitors. Today, some parents are
still not open-minded about the importance of physical activity. As a
result, parents of some children with certain malfunctions in
development or long-term illnesses prefer to present health
certificates, thinking that they are protecting a child and not
understanding that they are causing him or her damage. Laziness and
resistance against authority are today, similarly to those in the past,
reasons for absences in some young people.
Volume and length of exempt absences
Over a period of hundred years the understanding of the
volume of exempt absences has not changed at all (entire, partial),
whereas the duration is treated differently today. Namely, pupil
cannot present »permanent« letter of exemption; rather, the
procedure has to be repeated every year.
104
Procedures regarding exempt absences
In 1911, pupils had to visit physical activity teacher and
present him a letter of exemption, who forwarded it to headmaster
together with his and reliant on doctor’s opinion. Today, exemptions
are administratively more complex; however, despite larger
knowledge of PE teachers, they do not have any part in the process,
as their opinion is not required anywhere. Exempt absences are
namely a matter between the parents and form teacher, whereas
headmaster decides about absences (when a pupil is listed as exempt
from a certain subject) and only then a form teacher informs the PE
teacher about the exemption. PE teacher has to follow doctor’s
guidelines although often he is more familiar with a pupil than the
doctor.
Nowadays, regulations do not foresee a right to appeal the
headmaster’s decision, whereas hundred years ago the appeal could
be lodged to then the highest provincial educational authority.
Similarly to hundred years ago, pupils can be exempt only on
the basis of doctor’s letter. If in the past letter of exemption was
issued by a school or local doctor and in special cases also family
doctor, today personal or school doctor can certify the absence of a
pupil.
Hundred years ago doctor had to state the illness of a pupil
and determine the length and volume of absence. Nowadays, due to
the data protection act, letters of absence do not contain diagnosis,
which can cause unwelcome complications and can in some cases
even be dangerous, if for example teacher does not know about the
epilepsy of a pupil.
Hundred years ago, entirely exempt pupils did not participate
at lessons whereas partially exempt had to attend when required by
school. Today the regulations are contradictory in some cases.
Schools can organise another activity for entirely exempt pupil,
which is in contradiction with PE curriculum. Namely, in PE pupil
105
can be due to health reasons exempt from practical lessons but not
from theoretical contents, which form an important part of lessons.
Over hundred years, there are no significant differences
noticed in participation at individual lessons, as documents in both
periods state that the organisation of individual lessons and inclusion
of partially exempt pupil is the autonomy of a teacher. School
practice also indicates different understanding of a term partial
exemption. Regulations in both primary and high school do not
allow a PE teacher to judge independently how to treat a pupil who
is partially exempt, but rather has to acquire doctor’s guidelines and
act accordingly. In such cases, it is necessary for a doctor and PE
teacher to cooperate in treatment of individual pupil.
Legislation today is empowering parents to write a letter of
absence for absences lasting less than five days. Similarly, doctors
should add opinion and recommendation for PE teacher on the letter
of absence, however in practice this is most often not a case (Jurak et
al., 2005b). PE teacher has to unconditionally respect doctor’s letter
with guidelines due to health reasons, whereas in cases when pupil
presents a letter from parents, he can decide on modification of
practice according to his professional competencies. Parents or
pupils can only subjectively and with professional limitations detect
justification for absence from physical activity due to health reasons,
as they are not aware of the ways a teacher can adapt the practice to
temporarily limited abilities of pupils (e.g. feeling sick).
As in the past, PE teacher nowadays also has to record
absences and types of letters of absence, although they do not need
to be presented to the headmaster. In both studied cases, guidelines
state that teachers should during and after the illness consider the
condition of a pupil and doctor’s guidelines. At least some of the
listed illnesses from hundred years ago are today not present
anymore, the role of a teacher in detecting illnesses in pupils was
emphasised hundred years ago.
106
CONCLUSION
Analysis of recommendations about exempt absences from
physical activity in 1911 and legislation as well as didactic
recommendations in PE curriculum today indicate that in hundred
years there have been no significant changes. It can be also noticed
that the role of a PE teacher is today lesser than a century ago.
Modern school legislation defines that a pupil can similarly to
hundred years ago be entirely exempt from educational work due to
the health reasons, which is contradictory to the recommendations of
PE curriculum and the guidelines from health organisations, stating
that movement can be a suitable tool of rehabilitation and
prevention.
Similarly to hundred years ago, pupils can in PE be exempt
entirely or only partially (some contents only), depending on the
doctor’s certificate. Entirely exempt absence is also in contradiction
with curriculum, which defines that pupils in PE lessons in addition
to practical learn also theoretical contents. As a result, dealing with
pupil in PE lessons according to the existing regulations is
controversial. Both regulations for primary and high school define
that primary schools can organise supplementary activity for a pupil
who could not perform any tasks, whereas high school can include a
pupil exempt for health reasons into another activity. Health letter of
exemption namely define absence from practical lessons and not also
from theoretical parts, which form an important part of both primary
and high school PE curricula.
As a doctor had to write a diagnosis on a health letter of
exemption, it is incomprehensive but not infrequent today that PE
teacher does not know about a chronic illness of a pupil. In these
cases, parents have to be aware of the risk and responsibility for
potential negative reactions of pupil to practical lessons.
It has to be warned about the occasional practice when pupils
bring health letter of exemption for the entire academic year at the
end of the year (particularly in high school). Regulations namely
precisely define that a semi-annual or annual health letter of
107
exemption, listing an exempt absence from PE lessons, has to be
presented at the beginning of academic year. This instruction was in
force already one hundred years ago.
It can be concluded that after hundred years the time has
come for legislation to remove entirely exempt absences from PE
lessons, at the same time giving the PE teacher larger role in
deciding what a pupil can and cannot perform in lessons and how
pupils can be helped in cases of certain health limitations.
REFERENCES
Hardman, K. (2008). Physical education in schools and PETE
programmes in the European context: Quality issues. In M.
Kovač, G. Starc in K. Bizjak (eds.), 4th International
Symposium Youth Sport 2008 – The Heart of Europe, pp. 9–26.
Ljubljana: Faculty of Sport.
Himberg, C., Hutchinson, G.E., Roussell, J.M. (2003). Teaching
Secondary Physical Education. Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics.
Jurak, G., Kovač, M., Strel, J., Starc, G. (2005a). Analiza
opravičevanja pri športni vzgoji [Analysis of the excuses from
Physical Education classes atendance] In Slovenian. Šport,
53(3), 13-20.
Jurak, G., Kovač, M., Strel, J., Starc, G. (2005b). Kako zmanjšati
opravičevanje pri športni vzgoji [How to reduce requests to be
excused from attending Physical Education] In Slovenian.
Šport, 53(3), 21-27.
Kolar, B. (2010). Opravičila od pouka športne vzgoje [Excuses from
Physical Education classes]. In J. Dolinšek (ed.), Proceedings
of international congress Child in motion and XX. symposium
of paediatricians, pp. 65–66. Maribor: University Medical
Centre.
Kompara, A. (2006). Gimnastika v učnih načrtih športne vzgoje
osnovnih in srednjih šol do leta 1941. Diplomsko delo,
Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport.
Kovač, M., Novak, D. (1998). Učni načrt: program osnovnošolskega
izobraževanja. Športna vzgoja. Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za
šolstvo, znanost in šport in Zavod RS za šolstvo.
108
Pangrazi, R. P. (2001). Dynamic Physical Education for elementary
school children. 13th edition. Toronto: Allyn and Bacon.
Pravilnik o pravicah in dolžnostih učencev v osnovni šoli
[Regulations on rights and responsibilities of pupils in primary
schools]. Uradni list RS, št. 75/2004.
Pravilnik o šolskem redu v srednjih šolah [Regulations on school
order in high schools]. Uradni list RS, št. 82/2004.
109
SPAIN
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN
CONTEXTS OF DEMOCRATISATION: THE
CASE OF SPAIN DURING THE POLITICAL
TRANSITION (1975-1982)
Sixte Abadia i Naudí, Blanquerna Faculty of Psychology,
Education and Sport Sciences, Ramon Llull University
Enric Maria Sebastiani i Obrador, Blanquerna Faculty of
Psychology, Education and Sport Sciences, Ramon
Llull University
Correspondence
Sixte Abadia i Naudí
[email protected]
Phone: 0034 606126256
Introduction
As an expression of modern society, historical research into
the phenomenon of sport and physical education is necessary in
order to understand the social, political and cultural context in which
they take place. In the case of Spain, an analysis of the political
transition (1975-1982) as a period characterised by political and
social instability is particularly interesting as a way to interpret the
evolution and current status of sport and physical education in this
country.
The status of sport during this period has barely been
studied from the historiographic standpoint, with the exception of
contributions by authors like Núria Puig (1993, 1995), Xavier
Pujadas and Carles Santacana (1995, 1999), Conrad Vilanou (1994)
and Abadia (2011). This article aims to rectify the lack of studies
focusing on sport and physical education during a period of change,
as was Spain’s political transition.
After the 1960s, the phenomenon of sport became a mass
social activity and habit of the citizens of this country (García,
110
2006), so the political transition was a crucial period in this
transformation. That was when the notion of sport for all emerged
and the ideal conditions to start a process of sport democratisation
were put into place (Puig, 1995) as a consequence of the promotional
actions spearheaded by sport entities, social movements and
especially the public authorities.
In this reflection, we shall try to show how the process of
political democratisation that occurred during Spain’s political
transition prompted a series of profound transformations in the
spheres of physical education and sport in terms of both the stance of
the government bodies and the gradual regulation of both fields.
In terms of methodology, this study has been approached
from a hermeneutic standpoint based on the analysis of secondary
sources focused on studying the political transition, sport and
physical education, as well as periodical sources on sport topics.
The gradual restructuring of Spanish sport
The death of the dictator Francisco Franco signalled the end
of the dictatorship imposed after the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
and the beginning of a new period characterised by uncertainty and
profound social, economic and political transformations in Spain. At
the start of this period, which is called the political transition, the
status of sport in this country was quite lacking, as stated in a 1975
study conducted by ICSA-Gallup: even though people considered
sport a social necessity, there were major hindrances to accessing
sport and little interest by the authorities in changing this (ICSAGallup, 1975). Indeed, the shift in the mindset and basic values of
Spanish society towards modernity and democracy, coupled with
economic growth, made it possible for the Spanish people to access
sport despite the position of the Franco regime. This regime
continued to earmark so little money to this sphere – and what it did
earmark went primarily to competitive sport – that the collapse of the
Franco-era sport system was inevitable even the waning years of the
dictatorship (Pujadas & Santacana, 1995).
This paradoxical situation was also the norm during the
early years of Spain’s political transition, when there were serious
shortcomings in policies aimed at fostering access to sport and
physical education. Thus, by late 1975 the criticism of the
111
government’s approach to sport concerned not only the lack of sport
facilities but also the shortage of teachers and facilities and the
failure to enforce the 1961 Law on Physical Education (Se hace
camino al andar, 1974, 5).
In the course of the political transition, there was a series of
changes, initially with the political representatives becoming more
favourable to expanding policies in both spheres, and later with the
approval of a regulation that would allow the foundations to be laid
for a definitive impetus for both sport and physical education.
The advent of a new discourse on physical education and sport
early in the political transition (1975-1978)
Despite the increase in the budget earmarked for sport in
Spain in 1976, 5.238 billion pesetas, the most significant aspects of
this new stage was the appearance of a discourse around sport and
physical education which advocated restructuring and democratising
them. These came from Tomás Pelayo Ros, the head of the National
Delegation of Physical Education and Sport (Delegación Nacional
de Educación Física y Deportes, DNEFyD) from mid-1975 until
September 1976. This restructuring perspective was influenced by
several initiatives – seminars, working groups, etc. – launched in
1974 and by international positions on sport, as shown by the First
International Conference of Minister and Senior Officials for
Physical Education and Sport organised by UNESCO in April 1976,
and the European Sport for All Charter approved by the Council of
Europe in 1976.
This shift in position was accentuated after September 1976
when Pelayo Ros was replaced by Benito Castejón, the mastermind
behind the restructuring of Spanish sport during the two-year period
from 1977 to 1978. Some of the programmatic points he mentioned
when he took over the position included the unity and social and
political importance of sport, the need to plan Spanish sport and
encourage it to spread as a right of all citizens, and the desire to call
an assembly on sport to establish the avenues of this restructuring.
Castejón, who was still the head of the DNEFyD, stated that “from
now on, physical education and sport for all are basic objectives in
accordance with the Council of Europe’s Charter on Sport”
(programmatic declaration of the National Sports Delegation,
112
D.N.D., 1976, 3). Shortly thereafter, as the director of the National
Sport Council (Consejo Superior de Deportes, CSD), a body created
in August 1977 after the disappearance of the DNEFyD, Castejón
posed three avenues of action corresponding to “an area of physical
education and promotion, a second area of technification and a final
competitive area” (Astruells, 1977, 32). However, they were
conditioned by the concurrent context of economic instability
worldwide after 1973, which only served to aggravate the sociopolitical uncertainty in the country. Some examples of this shift that
started with the disappearance of the DNEFyD and were fostered by
the creation of the CSD were three courses held in the city of
Barcelona in the months of December, 1978, to January, 1979, two
revolving around school sport – the “Course for School Sport
Directors” and the “Retraining Course on School Physical
Education” – and one around sport for all – the “Monographic ‘Sport
for All’ Course” (Cursos del CSD en Barcelona, 1978, 30).
In the case of physical education, this model upheld by
Castejón of attaching more importance of citizens’ gaining mass
access to sport translated into the desire for “physical education and
sport to be an area of specialisation for all legal purposes, just like
the other areas in general basic education” (La educación física debe
ser materia de especialización a todos los efectos legales, 1977, 30).
Unfortunately, these approaches did not seem to satisfy the students
and teachers at the National Physical Education Institute (Instituto
Nacional de Educación Física, INEF) in Madrid and Barcelona, who
decided to halt their activities in order to resolve the main problem in
the sector: recognition of degrees and their equality with the other
degrees in the field of education (Massó, 1977, 13). The differences
of opinion in the negotiations with the public administration and the
impossibility of reaching an understanding led to a total indefinite
strike started by physical education teachers in the province of
Barcelona in late 1977. Their goal of standardising their professional
status received the support and solidarity of students at Barcelona’s
INEF, who shut down the centre’s facilities for 24 hours.
One of the spheres of sport that reflected and highlighted
certain shortcomings after 1977 was physical education. The fact that
sport education in childhood “was hobbled” as a result of the fact
that “at general basic education schools, not only is there one teacher
for all the classes, who can therefore spend little time with each of
113
them, but these teachers also lack the right degrees” (Tarín, 1977, 2)
also revealed the need to consider establishing degrees that would
bring these professionals’ status in line with that of their counterparts
in other disciplines.
Indeed, from 1977 to 1978, the field of physical education
was characterised by increased claims by professionals for better
regulation of the sector and for agreements on this matter reached
with the public administration. Thus, in March 1977 an association
of physical education professionals was established which did not
work at odds with the National College of Physical Education
Teachers (Colegio Nacional de Profesores de la Educación Física)
but instead went further by asking this subject to depend on the
Ministry of Education and Science instead of on the General
Secretariat of Movement (Secretaría General del Movimiento), as it
did then, as well as this Ministry’s recognition of the degree and
salary parity with the other teachers. Its bylaws were approved by the
Council of Ministers on the 3rd of November 1978 under the name of
the Official College of Physical Education Teachers (Colegio Oficial
de Profesores de Educación Física).
As we shall see below, as Law 13/1980, the General Law on
Physical Culture and Sport was being drafted, once again the
teachers and students at the INEF in Barcelona and Madrid called for
improvements in the job status of physical education professionals.
Therefore, Spanish citizens witnessed how not many
changes took place in the early years of the transition, nor did the
transformations needed to overcome the shortcomings that would
make possible massive participation in sport and the ideal conditions
for high-quality physical education. Even though there were changes
in the discourses and political positions around these matters,
Spanish citizens would have to wait until the second half of the
transition for a clear sport policy to get underway, one that therefore
signalled a break with the previous approaches.
The regulation of physical education and sport in Spain, a slow
road towards normalisation begun during the political transition
(1978-1982)
Two of the most important milestones towards promoting
and regulating sport and physical education were the approval of the
114
Spanish Constitution and Law 13/1980, the General Law on Physical
Culture and Sport. Prior to this, we should highlight two initiatives
with the characteristic widespread participation of the era, which
were also important in the democratising process of the country and
which conditioned the government’s position on sport and physical
education: the Congress of Catalan Culture and the General
Assembly on Sport.
The course on Sport and Leisure at the Congress of Catalan
Culture ended on the 9th of October 1977 with a series of conclusions
regarding school, social and competitive sport. They identified the
need to consider sport as a citizen right whose educational and
recreational facets could influence the citizenry’s physical and
psychological wellbeing (Congrés de Cultura Catalana, 1978). At the
same time, with regard to physical education and school sport, these
conclusions noted virtually no practice of sport at schools, the
enormous difficulty finding physical education teachers and
therefore the need to intensify physical education taught by
specialists at schools. Broadly speaking, the conclusions of this
course on Sport and Leisure concurred with the position of the
official bodies. The need to encourage a wider practice of sport both
educationally and recreationally and to stop overstating the
importance of professional sport – until then the sole focus on public
policies – was characteristic postulates of the discourses of most of
the sport agents in the country during the early years of the
democratic transition.
On a statewide scale, in late 1977, too, the 1st General
Assembly on Sport was held in Madrid, which was organised into
seven courses (Alfil, 1977a) and was closed by Benito Castejón on
the 17th of December of that same year. At this gathering, which was
condemned by seven political parties because of a lack of
representativeness and internal manipulation (Alfil, 1977b), the
conclusions included the need to have a law on sport that fit the
current needs and to regulate and organise physical education in the
educational system. It also offered important insights on the need for
the state to make a massive contribution to the phenomenon of sport,
since “the contribution should not only be moral or legal but also
economic” (Esto es una apertura al futuro del deporte, 1997, 14). It
further concluded that independence should govern sport policy and
that “facilities for ‘sport for all’, to which spectacle sport and high-
115
performance sport should be subordinated” were urgently needed
(Alfil, 1977c, 20).
In short, the positions of the Congress of Catalan Culture
and the General Assembly on Sport dovetailed with those of the
representatives of state sport in the sense that they both revealed
virtually endemic shortcomings in sport and physical education in
Spain. Therefore, beyond the change in discourse and position
towards this matter, the government bodies had to take greater
responsibility in order to contribute to the definitive expansion of
sport and physical education, which had primarily been the
responsibility of associations until then. To this end, the approval of
the Spanish Constitution and the General Law on Physical Culture
and Sport served as the underpinning of subsequent sport and
physical education policies in Spain.
Specifically, the Spanish Constitution was passed on the 31st
of October 1978, and shortly thereafter, on the 6 th of December, it
was approved by citizens with 87.9% of votes in favour (Segura,
2000). This text was grounded upon five principles, namely the
democratic state, the rule of law, the social state, the parliamentary
monarchy and the state of the autonomies – the latter the most
controversial one, dovetailing with the approval of the draft Statute
of Autonomy in the Parliament of Catalonia on the 29 th of December
1978. Its approval led to the spread of the process of autonomy,
starting what was called ‘coffee for all’ which strove to dilute the
uniqueness of Catalonia, the Basque Country and Galicia. Regarding
sport and physical education, this constitutional text was crucial in
recognising citizens’ right to sport through article 43.4, which stated
that “the public powers shall encourage health education, physical
education and sport. They shall also encourage the proper use of free
time” (Martín, 1996, 107). Its approval on the 6 th of December 1978
came at a time of enormous sensibility towards collective
shortcomings (Puig & Heinemann, 1995).
After the approval of the Spanish Constitution, we should
stress the importance of Law 13/1980, the General Law on Physical
Culture and Sport. The purpose of this law, whose embryo was the
aforementioned General Assembly on Sport (1977), and which
replaced the 1961 Law on Physical Education, was to “spearhead,
guide and coordinate physical education and sport as crucial factors
in the education and holistic development of the individual” (Law
116
13/1980, dated the 31st of March 1980, the General Law on Physical
Culture and Sport). It also made sport for all a priority in general
sport policy. This text was “the first attempt to change the structures
of Spanish sport” (Puig, 1993, 98) and its main points included the
compulsory nature of physical education at different levels of
education, the organisation and competences of the CSD and the
Spanish Olympic Committee (COE), the assignment of no less than
22% of total proceeds from Mutual Sport-Charity Wagers to the
CSD, university status for the National Institutes of Physical
Education (INEF) and the declaration of the principle of
decentralisation in the government organisation to promote sport.
This last principle formed the underpinning of the actions of the
autonomous communities, the provincial councils and the island and
municipal councils (Pastor, 2000). Regarding the status of physical
education, the months prior to the approval of the law were tinged
with controversy since the teachers and students at the INEF in
Madrid (1967) and Barcelona (1975) believed that the status of
professionals in this field was not fully enough specified, nor were
the possibilities of accessing and converting degrees (Calatayud,
2002). Beyond the aforementioned law, some progress was made in
physical education and the status of professionals in this sector
during the transition, such as the creation of the Official College of
Physical Education Teachers (RD 2957/1978) and the approval of
Royal Decree 790/1981 on National Physical Education Institutes
and the education they provide.
Thus, the last years of the political transition were important
in the regulation of physical education and sport in Spain, forming
the peak of the democratisation of sport, which also came hand in
hand with a process of decentralisation and the assumption of
responsibility for sport matters by the autonomous communities,
provinces and municipalities of Spain.
Conclusions
Most of the organisational and structural changes in Spanish
sport came during the first few years after the dictatorship, and
despite the paltry progress in the statuses of physical education and
sport in the country during this period, they were extraordinarily
important in consolidating democracy and the process of expanding
117
sport. Most of these transformations, which took place between 1977
and 1980, fostered the democratisation and decentralisation of
government sport bodies, fostering participation in sport in line with
the postulates of the Council of Europe. The need to have a law on
sport and a regular, recognised physical education sector, as well as
the recognition of all citizens’ right to access sport expressed in the
articles of the Spanish Constitution were the outcome of the new
approaches to these issues.
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abadia, S. (2011). Deporte, ciudadanía y libertad: la transición
política en España y el deporte (1975-1982). In X. Pujadas
(Coord.), Atletas y ciudadanos. Historia social del deporte
en España: 1870-2010 (pp. 357-392). Madrid: Alianza
Editorial.
Alfil (1977a, 16 December). La Asamblea Nacional hacia un nuevo
concepto de deporte. El Mundo Deportivo, p. 3.
Alfil (1977b, 18 December). Siete partidos políticos no aceptan las
conclusiones. El Mundo Deportivo, p. 14.
Alfil (1977c, 17 December). Con el pleno termina la I Asamblea del
Deporte. El Mundo Deportivo, p. 20.
Astruells, A. (1977, 21 September). Benito Castejón, con las cartas
boca arriba. El Mundo Deportivo, p. 23.
Calatayud, F. (2002). De la gimnasia de Amorós al deporte de masas
(1770-1993). Una aproximación histórica a la educación
física y el deporte en España. Valencia: Valencia Town
Hall.
Congrés de Cultura Catalana (1978). Resolucions III. Barcelona:
Congrés de Cultura Catalana.
Cursos del CSD en Barcelona (1978, 26 November). El Mundo
Deportivo, p. 30.
Declaración programática de la D.N.D. (1976, 3 October). El Mundo
Deportivo, p. 3.
“Esto es una apertura al futuro del deporte” (1977, 18 December). El
Mundo Deportivo, p. 14.
118
García, M. (2006). Veinticinco años de análisis del comportamiento
deportivo de la población española (1980-2005). Revista
Internacional de Sociología, 44, 15-38.
ICSA-Gallup (1975). El Español y el Deporte: datos de una
encuesta. Madrid: Delegación Nacional de EF y Deportes.
La educación física debe ser materia de especialización a todos los
efectos legales (1977, 20 July). El Mundo Deportivo, p.
30.
Law 13/1980, dated 31 March, Ley General de la Cultura Física y
del Deporte.
Martín, L. (Ed.). (1996). Constitución Española. Pamplona:
Aranzadi.
Massó, J. (1977, 2 April). I.N.E.F., en paro, requiere urgente
solución. Dicen..., p. 13.
Pastor, J. L. (2000). Definición y desarrollo del espacio profesional
de la Educación Física en España (1961-1990). Madrid:
Universidad de Alcalá.
Puig, N. (1993). Revisión histórica de la política deportiva en
España, lecciones que se pueden extraer de cara al futuro.
At the 3º Encuentros de política deportiva (pp. 93-105).
Barakaldo: Instituto Municipal de Deportes. Barakado
Town Hall.
Puig, N. (1995). Esport i societat a Catalunya. In L’Associacionisme
i l’esport (pp. 251-264). Barcelona: Secretaria General de
l’Esport.
Puig, N. and Heinemann, K. (1995). Institucions públiques i
desenvolupament de l’esport a Catalunya (1975-1994).
Proposta d’un marc teòric interpretatiu. Acàcia, 4, 123143.
Pujadas, X. and Santacana, C. (1999). Esport, espai i societat en la
formació urbana de Barcelona (1870-1992). Barcelona:
Fundació Barcelona Olímpica.
Pujadas, X. and Santacana, C. (1995). Història il·lustrada de l’esport
a Catalunya. Vol. 2, (1931-1975). Barcelona: ColumnaDiputació.
Se hace camino al andar (1974, 24 November). Don Balón 4, p. 5.
Segura, A. (2000). Memòria i història de la transició. In R. Aracil
and A. Segura (Ed.), Memòria de la transició a Espanya i
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a Catalunya (pp. 11-66). Barcelona: Edicions de la
Universitat de Barcelona.
Tarín, M. (1977, 21 January). Benito Castejón: deporte sin
patetismos. El Mundo Deportivo, p. 2.
Vilanou, C. (1994). L’esport a Sants-Montjuïc. Una visió històrica
(1883-1994). Barcelona: Arxiu Municipal del Districte de
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120
TURKEY
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN
TURKEY
Giyasettin Demirhan, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Hacettepe
University, Ankara
Ferman Konukman, College of Arts and Sciences, Sport Science
Program, Qatar University, Doha
Correspondence
Giyasettin Demirhan
[email protected]
Phone: 90 532 382 5352
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to review the historical
development of physical education in Turkey up to modern times. In
the process, beginning from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic of
Turkey, the early physical education courses were offered in Military
High School in 1864 and in Navy High Schools since 1884.
Application of physical education courses into other program areas.
Teacher education accelerated by the foundation of the young
Turkish Republic. The first course to train physical education
teachers was offered at Çapa Girls Teacher Training School in
Istanbul in 1926. In 1932 Gazi Teacher Training School and Terbiye
Institution Physical Education Training branch were established in
Ankara. Recently, more than 70 higher education institutions have
begun providing such services. Physical education courses at
primary, secondary and higher education levels are being offered
two-five hours weekly including extra curricular activities such as
scouting and sport organizations among the schools.
Key Words: Physical education, physical education teacher
education.
121
Sports is the literature of the physical education, physical education
is a branch of public health, and gymnastics is language of the
physical education. Movement is a sort of nourishment for the body.
If less, it does not feed, if too much, it does harm.
Selim Sirri Tarcan (1932-1943)
Physical Education in Schools
It is known that in the period ranging from the Ottoman
Empire to the Republic of Turkey, early physical education courses
were offered in Military High Schools in 1864 and in Navy High
Schools in 1884 (Abali, 1974, pp. 95). In 1869, National Education
General Directorate listed “Gymnastics” as a course offering. Also
during this early period the Galatasaray High School offered a
physical education course that was taught by French teachers
(Kahraman, 1995, pp. 641).
The most significant figure in the organization of physical
education theory in Turkey was Selim Sirri Tarcan. Tarcan began to
work in the Military Forces after finishing his education in Sweden.
Then he was assigned to the Ministry of Education as physical
education inspector in July 14, 1910. But as there was no physical
education course, he asked, “What will I inspect?” The minister’s
reply was interesting: “You will be both founder and inspector. We
have improved the Male’s Teacher School. Now its program includes
physical education courses twice each week. You will give lectures
there and train teachers. We will consider Girl’s School later”
(Tarcan, 1946, pp.47). Consequently, physical education began to be
considered in terms of knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
In 1911, physical education courses began to be offered in the first
and second years of high schools as an optional course. In 1913,
“Physical Education and School Plays” courses appeared in primary
schools (Okan, 1975, pp.8). Tarcan was trying to achieve his goals
while fighting against two fronts: Conservatism and the proponents
of old gymnastics “(Asir, 1950, pp.68). Near the end of the Ottoman
Empire, around 1916 and 1917, two views were dominant regarding
physical education. The first was “John Amaros Gymnastics” that
appeared as result of the impact of the Amaros Gymnastics. The
second was the “Swedish Gymnastics” that was supported by Tarcan
122
and made widespread by Pehr Henrik Ling. In contrast to the
Amaros approach, the Swedish gymnastics was argued to be easer,
soft. Thus, it could be stated that Swedish Gymnastics approach aims
at health. Faik Ustunidman, one of the proponents of Amaros
Gymnastics and a physical education teacher, considered Swedish
Gymnastics to be for woman (Aray, 1959, pp. 80-81). However,
Tarcan (1940, pp. 85-88) stated that Swedish Gymnastics depended
heavily on training, physiology and anatomy. For Tarcan, its aim
was to provide coherence of the body. This view assumed that the
public should accept physical education and sports work.
Picture 1: From Selim Sirri Tarcan’s Album
In 1983, physical education courses began to be offered as an
optional course in universities. The policy is still in effect today. In
elementary, secondary and high schools, physical education courses
were required for a long time in Turkey, and are required today. The
courses are offered five hours during the first three years of basic
education, two hours in the fourth-eight grades and two hours in high
123
schools. In 2014, there were 17,532,088 students and 37,000
physical education teachers in 56,506 schools (TUIK, 2015). The
number of students per teacher is 438. The number of teachers per
school is 0,65. There are significant imbalance regarding the number
of teachers and their distribution among schools.
Today, especially in the western world, a standard-based
curriculum is more common than the traditional curriculum.
According to this approach, the curriculum standards are determined
and it is assumed that children and adolescents will achieve those
standards at the end of the education process. The following question
can be asked here, “What is the meaning of standard?” Standard is a
rule or principle that is teaches students what they need to know in a
quality physical education and sport program (NASPE, 2012). It can
be seen that there is not a big difference between the standards of
Physical Education Curriculum in different countries like Turkey as
follows (MEB, 2007; 2013):
 The students have certain competences in movement patterns
and kinesthetic skills in order to participate in physical
activities. While they learn and perform physical activities,
they acknowledge the concepts, principles, rules, strategies
and tactics related to movement.
 The students participate in and maintain physical activities
to an extent that will keep them healthy.
 The students participate in physical activities regularly.
 The students perform responsible personal and social
behaviors during the physical activities.
When implement the lessons, physical education teachers should
establish a relationship with the standards and conduct their lessons
taking into consideration the ages and developmental characteristics
of children and adolescents in light of the learning fields in physical
education. The main learning fields are movement skills, knowledge,
active participation and healthy life. Motor skills and knowledge
consist of athletic activities, gymnastics, dance, games, swimming
and outdoor-adventure activities. Active participation and healthy
life include regular physical activity related to health. The lessons
are conducted according to the weight of the mentioned fields; the
assessment and evaluation activities are conducted at the end of the
lessons (Demirhan and Saçlı, 2013).
124
The most important factor in conducting a physical education
lesson, with regard to the curriculum, is to enable participation and
to develop the skills of the individuals according to their own
capacities. Individuals with more developed skills will be more
participative. Being participant means having the basic physical
skills. According to Whitehead (2000, pp.16), the participative
individual has physical literacy and is considered physically
educated. An individual with the abovementioned characteristics is
assumed to participate in physical activities that s/he has learnt in the
physical education lessons at school, or in other activities related to
the physical education course after s/he has graduated. Therefore,
physical education lessons and extra-curricular activities should be
conducted on a quality basis. This is possible only with qualified
physical education teachers conducting quality lessons. As the
teachers are educated in higher education institutions, objectives and
contents of the physical education teacher education programs
should be consistent with physical education curriculums at schools.
Otherwise, the situation would be similar to restaurants with
fabulous cooks, but only a few customers (Demirhan and Sacli,
2013).
Physical Education Teacher Education
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the founder of young Turkey,
emphasized education as a main force to establish modern Turkish
society. During that time, teachers were key elements reform, and
they had better economic and moral living conditions (Karagozoglu,
1991). During this period, American Educator John Dewey was
invited by the Turkish government in 1924 to promote educational
reform. Dewey spent three months in Turkey and prepared a report
about the Turkish education system. He recommended that the
Ministry of Education follow leadership toward more progressive
and effective modern schools in order to promote the needs of a
contemporary nation (Brickman, 1984-1985). Dewey’s report
indicated that the main purpose of the Turkish educational system
was to achieve an independent Turkey in the contemporary world
(Bursalioglu, 1991).
During the early decades of the 20th century, physical
education was a field of men because of the previous socio-cultural
structure of the Ottoman Empire. Although some efforts were made
125
to include women in such activities, these efforts were unwanted by
religious authorities of the period. “The First Science Council” was
forced to delay its activities in 1922. It resumed work during July
and August of 1923. Tarcan was also a member of that council
(Yucel, 1994 pp.21). The fifth article of the council’s work
concerned “Scouting and Physical Education”. While designing the
activity program, the council considered “High School Scouting
Administration Principles” and a Physical Education Boys’ Teacher
School”. These were incorporated into the design of the program
(Dagli and Akturk, 1988, pp.16). After that it was planned to open a
physical education teacher school in 1926. A sports complex near
Çapa Girls’ Teacher School in Istanbul was completed and a
Gymnastics Teacher Program was started. It presented theoretical
and applied courses for both males and females for a one-year
period. Tarcan was the administrator of the program. Three Swedish
teachers were assigned to the program, Inge Neiman, Rangar
Johonson and Suen Alexanderson.
Picture 2: Selim Sirri Tarcan, Inge Neiman, Rangar Johonson, Suen Alexanderson
and Women Gymnastics Teachers
The training program included courses about the theory and
application of physical education, physiology, anatomy, rough
behaviors, public health, the sport theory, and applied courses.
Primary school teachers trained in physical education and with a
strong ability and desire were invited to participate. Those who
126
passed the professional ability test participated in three months of
theoretical and applied courses. After three months, the participants
take another exam. Those who passed the exam continued to
participate in the course for another three months. Those who
completed the course successfully were assigned as “Physical
Education Teachers” at the secondary school level (Guven, 1996,
pp.75).
From these courses, 148 men and 63 women graduated
(Bilge, 1989, pp.67). Those who successfully passed the final exam
were sent abroad for further education (Abali, 1974, pp.96). During
the beginning of the course, Tarcan wrote a guide for physical
education teacher. Tarcan discussed how to teach movements, how
to organize sports activities, and problems related to equipment in
this guide. Also, the guide argued the notion of “neither an ill
thinker, nor an unwise wrestler” (Karakucuk, 1992, pp.50). As a
result of the growing need for physical education teachers, “Gazi
Secondary Teacher School and Physical Education Department”
was founded in 1932 (Yucel, 1994, pp.83). This program was
chaired by German Kurt Dainas. The lecturers at the school were all
Tarcan’s students. The program, which lasted three years, could be
regarded as a continuation of the earlier program. Some of the
courses included in the second program were, theory of gymnastics,
methods of teaching, sports and games, anatomy, and foreign
language (Karatun, 1973). The program was re-designed to require
only two years of study in 1945 but it was changed back to three
years in 1948.
As physical education became more wide spread in Turkey,
more programs were founded The Atatürk Education Institution was
started in Istanbul in 1974. In 1975 and 1976, Youth and Sports
Academies were founded in Ankara, Istanbul and Manisa
respectively to teach sport managers. During 1978 and 1982, these
institutions were all converted into Higher Teacher Education
Schools. Also the Ege University School of Physical Education and
Sports was established in 1976 in Izmir and the Middle East
Technical University Physical Education, Sports and Recreation
Department was founded in 1979.
Parallel to these developments in higher education, the
academies were attached to the Department of Physical Education
and Sports in 1982. During this period, there were only four physical
127
education teacher training departments. In 1989, another department
was established at Hacettepe University in Ankara, the School of
Sports Sciences and Technology. By 1992 the number of physical
education teacher education schools had grown to 14. In 2000, there
are 47 such departments and school about physical education and
sport. Now, in 2015, there are more than 70. In the meantime, in
2014, six schools were established as Faculty of Sport Sciences.
Physical Education Teacher Education is one of the departments of
the new organization. The duration of all programs is four years. An
analysis of the curriculum of these programs showed that the courses
of general culture include, Turkish language, foreign language,
research methods, etc. Those of subject matter knowledge contain
physiology, anatomy, and psychology, as well as skill domain such
as soccer, basketball, educational games, health related fitness, etc.
The courses within the Teaching Profession Knowledge area are
teaching methods, class management, educational, psychology,
material development and design and school application etc.
Conclusion
When it comes to physical education and physical education
teachers, physical education activities, which will support the health
and holistic development of children and adolescents, and make
them happy as well as healthy, should be carefully designed, and
highly qualified physical education teachers should be educated in
their profession. Therefore, when children and young people
participate to the daily physical education in school regularly, they
will become a physically educated people. This is important because
physically-educated person has learnt the necessary skills for certain
physical activities, is physically fit, participates in and enjoys
physical education skills, knows the importance and advantages of
participating in physical activities, cares healthy life style,
understands the contribution of physical education to personal and
social development, and takes individual and social responsibility
during the physical education lessons. In this context, the estimation
of future physical education and PETE programs to be conducted are
given below:
128

Physical education teachers and teacher educators will
include health-related physical education and information
communication technology in order to improve student
learning.
 Physical education teachers and teacher educators will
improve and develop their teaching skills and knowledge
continuously.
 University teaching staff will be specialized even more in
physical education, physical activity, recreation, exercise,
and sub-disciplines of human movement and sports
sciences.
 Distance education will grow up in higher education.
 Teachers will be active in educating and leading instead of
being regular physical education teachers.
 Outdoor-adventure activities and swimming will gain more
attention because of complicated city life.
 Extra-curricular physical education programs will be
increased.
 Physical education teachers will want to have different
certificates related to physical activities and exercise.
 Physical education teacher education and adapted physical
education teacher education will increase.
 School practice will be more important for pre-service
teachers.
As a result, physical education should be explained in
relation to schools, students and physical education teachers.
Because, physical education curriculums in schools consist of basic
movement skills, specialized movement skills, sports skills and
health related fitness. Physical education teacher education program
is affected by the expectations and the culture of a society. Changes
in school practices and the contents of physical education within a
socially transformative period also shape the contents of a physical
education teacher education program.
129
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(Sport and youth in 50th Republic of Turkey). Ankara: T.
C. Genclik ve Spor Bakanligi.
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Galatasaray supporter). Izmir.
Asir, V. (1950). "Selim Sirri Tarcan". Dost goz ile 75 yasinda genc
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yetistirilmesi. (Physical education teacher training in
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Brickman, W.W. (1984-85). The Turkish cultural and educational
revolution: John Dewey’s report of 1924.
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governments and their programmes). Ankara: T.B.M.M.
Basimevi.
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Physical education and health global perspectives and
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ve spor ogretmeni yetistiren okullarin egitimini hazirlayan
calismalar (Preparing studies on education for training
schools of physical education and sports teachers during
the period of declaration of Turkish Republic). Journal of
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Kahraman, A. (1995). Osmanli devletinde spor (Sport in the
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date: 17 August 2015).
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(Teacher
qualification).
http://otmg.meb.gov.tr/belgeler/ogretmen_yeterlikleri_kita
bi/%C3%96%C4%9Fretmen_Yeterli
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NASPE (2012). National standards & guidelines for physical
education teacher education
Okan, K. (1975). Turk spor tarihi. (Turkish sport history). Ankara:
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Danimarka. (Three comprehensive countries of west).
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Yucel, H.A. (1994). Turkiye'de orta ogretim (Secondary school
education in Turkey).
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132
UKRAINE
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE
DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN
UKRAINE
Sergii Ivashchenko, National University of the Physical Education
and Sport of Ukraine
Correspondence
Sergii Ivashchenko
[email protected]
During the Middle Ages on the territory of modern Ukraine
was carried out the original system of physical education of young
people in the region of Zaporizhskaya Sich (Guba V., 2008).
This original system of physical training, designed for
Zaporizhsky Cossacks, was provided not only for the development of
some basic physical qualities of people, but also to instilling in them
the special moral and psychological characteristics necessary for
successful warfare (devotion to duty, endurance, courage, discipline,
resistance to torture , etc.).
The specificity of this training system was to use more and
more difficult exercises (in terms of intensity of physical activity and
the complexity of motor actions), as well as the rejection of any frills
and amenities, and the formation of habits to perform combat work
in extreme conditions (Pavlova Y. & Tulaydan V., 2012).
Much later, namely, during the period from 1899 to 1930 on
the territory of modern Ukraine there are numerous sports
associations, whose activities are based on the principles, that was
applied in Zaporizhskaya Sich (Vydrin V. & Pleshakov A., 2005).
During this historical period was beginning the process of
formation the Ukrainian national system of physical education,
designed for different categories of the population.
It was during these years in Ukraine is widespread sport for
all movement and created a large number of sports clubs specializing
in football, skiing, swimming, boxing, athletics and other sports. At
133
the same time, in rural areas of Ukraine were organized many special
sports courses and voluntary sports associations.
In the period from 1912 to 1930 in many regions of Ukraine
was spread so-called movement "Ukrainian scouts", which, in
principle, has much in common with the movement of "Scouts" in
other countries (Butyrskaya I., 2004).
In February 1917 was formed the Ukrainian National
Republic. Since that time, there were significant changes in the
system of education of the population, including a system of physical
training all his age (Andreeva A., & Krutzevich T., 2004).
In Kiev It was created a first national school of physical
education. The main purpose of this school was to provide education,
from the earliest childhood, physically strong young generation with
the harmonic development of physical and spiritual strength.
This required the full promotion of all kinds of mass sports
and physical education, particularly in schools and other educational
institutions, as well as engaging in physical culture movement of the
broad masses of the population, especially the youth.
In Kiev in 1963 was held a scientific conference on physical
culture and sports of all age groups. One of the major problems of
this event was to study physical education and recreation as a means
to combat premature aging (Yaremenko A., 2005).
In this period of time many professionals, working in the field
of physical education, work hard to promote the popularization of
physical culture among people of different age groups and teach
them a correct understanding of the importance of physical exercise.
In addition, their efforts are focused on the development of tourism,
as an extremely exciting and versatile sports activity, which affects
all aspects of human life: physical, moral, aesthetic and labor (Hodge
K., & Smellie L., 2008).
134
Number of schools in which the teaching of Physical
Education conducted
Number of schools
Academic years
1914 - 1915
1926 - 1927
1927 - 1928
1928 - 1929
1929 - 1930
1930 - 1931
1931 - 1932
Primary
schools
Secondary
schools
Total
number
19361
16713
17832
17487
17944
17496
13191
356
2066
2531
2958
3390
5845
8231
19717
18779
20363
20445
21334
23341
21422
After that time came a long period of headship in the sphere
of physical culture in Ukraine the soviet system of physical
education of different categories of population in the country.
Despite this, until 1920 the lessons of physical education in schools
and other educational establishments are present in the curriculum
sporadically. Based on the analysis of the structure and content of the
programs of physical education can be concluded that up to 1920, the
main aim of this programs was to develop the physical qualities
needed for employment. In 1924, there was developed approved the
first mandatory physical training program designed for all types of
schools and other educational establishments.
In 1925 it was set up a public sports society "Meadow",
which initiated the mass sports movement, aimed at the development
in various categories of the population those physical qualities and
skills, that are necessary for successful action in the process of
disaster management, as well as in the process of elimination the
consequences of all kinds of natural or technogenic disasters.
In 1926 and 1927 were created special training programs,
designed for physical education of students, who studies in labor
schools and teacher colleges. In 1927 for the first time in Ukraine
were developed some special programs of physical education, used
in auxiliary schools and designed for pupils with pathological
135
disorders of the central nervous system. This event can be considered
as beginning of development the adaptive physical education in
Ukraine.
Since 1928 was enacted official requirement for mandatory
recording in educational documents the results of physical training
control tests, that students are made twice during the school year (for
the first time at the beginning of the school year, and the second time
at the end of the school year).
It was also a mandatory requirement for the implementation
of physical training lessons according to three different training
programs depending on the age group of schoolchildren.
The first age group (schoolchildren’s age from 12 to 14
years):
1) running (boys - 50 meters, girls - 30 meters);
2) throwing the ball into the goal;
3) a running jump in length;
4) a combination of gymnastic elements.
The second age group (schoolchildren’s age from 15 to 16
years):
1) running (boys - 100 meters, girls - 60 meters);
2) shot put (boys), throwing the ball with a handle (girls);
3) a running jump in height;
4) pulling on the bar;
5) swimming 25 m (with pool).
The third age group (schoolchildren’s age from 17 to 18
years):
1) run 100 meters (boys and girls);
2) throwing grenades or training shot put 7.5 kg (boys), throwing the
ball with a handle or pushing a lightweight kernel 5 kg (girls);
3) the climbing rope or pulling (boys), abdominal exercises (girls);
4) high jump with a running start (boy), high jump with a running
start (girls);
5) swimming
100 meters (boys), swimming 50 meters (girls).
In 1930 it was has developed a new, science-based curriculum
for physical education for all categories of student youth (the
program included two hours of classes in physical training during the
school week, or three hours of training during the school ten-day).
The next step in the development of physical education in the
country has been the introduction of the complex "Ready for Labor
136
and Defense." The emphasis in physical education young people
transferred to the development of military-applied physical qualities.
Therefore, the program of physical fitness of the population
focuses on running, overcoming obstacles, carrying weights,
swimming, and cross-country skiing, throwing grenades and
shooting.
In fact, the introduction of the 1931 All-Union sports
complex "Ready for Labor and Defense" (RLD) was the first attempt
to use the special motor tests to assess the level of physical fitness of
different population groups.
It should be noted that the content of the complex "Ready for
Labor and Defense" during the period from 1934 to 1988 several
times varied depending on the results of scientific experiments and
achievements of modern sports science.
In the period from 1934 to 1944 in all fitness programs, using
in secondary schools, were introduced extra lessons in sports
rhythmic and military physical training. At this time, the school
program of physical fitness becomes completely focused on the
issues of military physical training of students.
Standards for physical education in schools and trade
schools (1934)
The name of the specification
Boys
Girls
100 meters
500 meters
1000 meters
Long jump from the takeoff
High jump from the takeoff
Pulling from a hanging position
Climbing rope (gymnastic stick)
Grenade throwing 700 g
Cross-country skiing
15sec.
17 sec.
3 min. 50 sec.
3 м 70 sm
110 sm
5 times
30 m
5 km for 40
min.
50 m
1 km
3m
100 sm
3м
20 m
3 km for 28
min.
1 km
Running
Carrying ammunition box
Walking in a gas mask
137
During the entire period from 1932 to 1988 the content of
physical education in school is closely connected with the use of
complex "Ready for Labor and Defense".
It should be noted that during this period, is the overriding socalled command-bureaucratic approach to physical education of
children. Among the all Slavic peoples who lived on the territory of
modern Ukraine in the years just before World War II it was
widespread so-called Sokolsky gymnastic movement.
To the territory of Ukraine the Sokolsky gymnastic movement
came from the area where nowadays is located the Czech Republic
and gradually enveloped almost all regions of the state (Sukharev A.,
1991).
The main singularities of this gymnastic movement were its
widespread, professionally-applied orientation and diversity of
methods using in the process of physical training for all participants.
In the system of physical preparation, characteristic for Sokolsky
gymnastic movement organically combined the best and most
effective elements of Swedish, German and French systems of
physical education.
Characteristic for Ukraine was the fact that all the exercises
used in the Processes of physical education can be divided into four
main groups:
1)
applied exercises (exercises on sports equipment
and exercises with gymnastic objects);
2)
floor exercise (gymnastic exercises performed
without the use of any objects);
3)
group exercises (typically acrobatic exercises
performed in groups of trained members);
4)
military exercises (exercises with the military and
practical value, such as "Battle gopak").
In the postwar period (1945 to 1950) the State's efforts have
focused on the development of sports infrastructure in the country.
At this time, the number of schools that were closed gyms has
increased from 13% to 85%. By the end of 1947 there were about
12,640 full-time employees of Physical Education, working in
various institutions of public education on the territory of modern
Ukraine.
138
Training of specialists with higher education in the field of
physical education was carried out mainly in the higher institutions
situated in the regional centers of Ukraine: Kharkiv, Dnipropetrovsk,
Lviv, Odessa, Nikolayev and others. At this time, it was created the
Ukrainian National Committee for Physical Culture and Sport, as
one of the subordinate structures of the Council of Ministers of the
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.
In the same period was increased production of manuals and
guidelines for physical training aimed at different age groups of the
population. There have been made some changes in the system of
training schoolteachers, working in the sphere of physical education.
In particular, only in 1947 of pedagogical universities in the country
were issued more than 7,500 teachers with additional specialty - a
teacher of physical education.
Personnel training in physical education (1947 - 1948 years)
City
Kiev
Lviv
Dnipropetrovsk
Voroshilovgrad
Kharkiv
Stanislaw
All together
I year
250
100
130
135
122
100
837
II
year
258
90
126
81
97
45
697
III
year
140
126
67
68
85
35
521
IV
year
96
88
79
73
78
38
452
Total
744
404
402
357
382
218
2507
During this time, there is a strengthening of scientific support
of the state system of physical education of the population. So in
1948 in Kiev was organized the first national conference on Physical
Fitness and Sports (75 experts participated in the conference).
In March 6, 1948 it was adopted the Resolution of the Central
Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine "On the physical
education of students in primary, seven-year and secondary schools
of Ukraine."
In 1949 it was created the Kiev State Institute of Physical
Culture, and then there were established some regional institutes of
physical education, opened in Lviv, Dnipropetrovsk and
Voroshilovgrad (now Lugansk).
139
During this period of time, many secondary schools, colleges
and high schools, designed to train specialists in the field of physical
education and sport, have been established in many cities of the
country: in Kiev, Lviv, Dnipropetrovsk, Voroshilovgrad (Lugansk),
Kharkov, Stalin (Donetsk ), Odessa, Stanislaw (Ivano-Frankovsk)
and other cities of Ukraine. In addition, in 1951 in educational
universities of Kharkov, Odessa and Voroshilovgrad were opened
the departments of physical education.
At this time in Ukraine, there were 11,948 schools, providing
general education (primary schools, seven-year schools and
secondary schools), besides there were opened 8812 sports clubs in
different sports disciplines inside of schools. During this time in
Ukraine were operated 156 institutions of higher education
(universities and specialized institutes).
On the territory of Ukraine that time there were more than 31
000 students and teachers, studying and working in higher
educational establishments, and who were
engaged in physical
activity in special sports clubs. In addition, at this time in Ukraine
there were more than 530 colleges with their own sports clubs. In
these sports clubs more than 75 200 students and teachers were
regularly engaged in physical culture and sports.
In vocational schools, the number of which in this period in
Ukraine has exceeded 780, physical culture and sport systematically
engaged in more than 110 thousands students and teachers
(representing 63.5% of the total).
Since 1952 in all secondary schools, located on the territory
of Ukraine, were introduced mandatory daily physical exercises
before lessons, as well as short-motor exercises in breaks between
lessons for younger schoolchildren.
Over time there have been changes in the content of programs
of physical education students in all types of educational institutions.
The most significant changes were made in 1971 and in 1986. Last
version of this program provides training in four main areas:
gymnastics, track and field athletics, sports games and ski training.
This program was provided certain amount of theoretical
material designed to develop the students' logical thinking, spoken
language and memory. Also has been defined list of skills that the
students had to learn in each class, and was also set the optimum
volume of loads during endurance training (Glazyrin D., 2003).
140
In the same period of time there were developed some state
projects of new schools with mandatory presence of indoor sports
halls and outdoor sports grounds, and since 1961 - also with the
presence of their own school stadium. During these years, the
management system of physical education of the population in
Ukraine is carried out jointly by two ministries: the Ministry of
Education and Ministry of Manpower.
In Kiev in 1963, a scientific conference on physical culture
and sports of all age groups was held. One of the major problems of
this event was to study the physical culture and recreation as a means
to combat premature aging.
Carried out extensive work to promote physical culture
among people of different ages and learning the correct
understanding of the importance of exercise. The process of
developing tourism as an extremely exciting and diverse sport that
involves all aspects of life: physical, moral, strong-willed, aesthetic
and labor.
Comparative data of physical education teacher’s
education in Ukraine
The level of education of
1 - 3 classes
teachers of physical
education
In urban schools
Complete higher education
25,6 %
Incomplete higher education
5,9 %
Specialized Secondary
67,6 %
Education
General secondary education
0,9 %
In rural schools
Complete higher education
11,2 %
Incomplete higher education
4,2 %
Specialized Secondary
82,8 %
Education
General secondary education
1,8 %
4 - 10 classes
91,8 %
6,8 %
1,4 %
78,6 %
14,7 %
6,7 %
Since 1970, there is a radical change in the focus of teaching
activities in the field of physical education and sport in all kinds of
141
schools and other educational establishments of the country. Now the
main content of all programs of physical education is to promote
public health through the development of basic physical qualities of
young people.
In 1980 in all educational institutions of Ukraine there were
established the following types of physical education lessons:
1) educational; 2) training; 3) general (mixed); 4) control.
The main goal of physical fitness during this time is the need
to achieve a level of comprehensive physical development in young
age at which they will be able to perform high-efficiency labor and
defensive tasks (Kalinichenko I., 2009).
In this case, all students should have reached such indicators:
3 - 4 classes - I pioneer degree of physical fitness;
5 - 6 classes - II pioneer degree of physical fitness;
7 - 8 classes - III pioneer degree of physical fitness;
9 - 11 classes - delivery standards ” Ready for labor and defense”
first stage.
It was officially established that the lessons of physical
training should consist of the following component parts: 1)
Introduction (duration 5 - 8 minutes); 2) Préparation (duration 8 - 10
minutes); 3) Main part (duration 20 - 25 minutes); 4) Final part
(duration 3 - 5 min.).
After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, on the territory of
Ukraine begins to apply a new national curriculum for physical
training of young people, which consists of two parts: mandatory and
optional. This curriculum contains a theoretical section, which
explains not only what you need to learn, but also how to conduct
training. So, nowadays, physical education of young people is an
integral part of modern education system in Ukraine.
142
REFERENCES
Andreeva A., & Krutzevich T. (2004). Analysis of motivational
theories in improving physical education and recreation
Theory and Methods Physical Education and sport, 26
(2), 81 – 84.
Butyrskaya I. (2004). Features of the health for pupils’ middle and
high school age at the boarding schools. Kiyv, Ukraine:
Olympic literature.
Glazyrin D. (2003). Foundations of differentiated physical
education. – Cherkassy: Vidlunnja-plus.
Guba V. (2008). Scientific-practical and methodical bases of
physical education for young students. M: Sovetskiy
Sport.
Hodge K., & Smellie L. (2008). Motivation in master’s sport:
Achievement and social goals. Physiology of Sport and
Exercise, 9(1),157 – 176.
Kalinichenko I. (2009). The state of children health in educational
institutions with different modes for organized physical
activity. Kiyv, Ukraine: Olympic literature.
Pavlova Y. & Tulaydan V. (2012). Physical activity quality of life
for first and second year students. Young sport science of
Ukraine, 12(3), 92 – 99.
Sukharev A. (1991). Health and physical education of children and
teenagers. Moscow: Medicine.
Vydrin V. & Pleshakov A. (2005) Physical education as a cultural
phenomenon of the individual and society. Physical
Culture and Health, 8(2), 23 – 37.
Yaremenko A. (2005). Physical education as an indispensable
component of a healthy lifestyle of young people. K.:
Zdorovya.
143
UNITED KINGDOM
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN ENGLAND
Ken Hardman (Emeritus Professor), Institute of Sport and Exercise
Science, University of Worcester
Gillian Parry, Physical Education Consultant
Correspondence
Ken Hardman
[email protected]
Phone: 0044 (0)1457854262
Introduction
The history of physical education in England reveals
influences variously shaped by military, political, economic, social,
cultural, philosophical and pedagogical factors fostered either by
individuals or institutions. Essentially, school physical education in
England has evolved out of two (‘dual’) traditions: organised games
and competitive sports associated with Public Schools1 (that is
Independent or Private Boarding Schools); and physical training
associated initially with military drill and then Swedish therapeutic
gymnastics in the Ling tradition in State Elementary Schools from
1871 on.
Shaping Traditions
Developments in sport as an important component of the
physical education curriculum are inextricably linked with
antecedents in English mainly Independent (Boarding) Schools in the
19th century. Though not exclusively so, these institutions for the
sons (and later daughters) of the privileged laid down enduring
foundations. Initially sporting activity was encouraged to structure
boys’ leisure as an antidote to ill-discipline, immorality and general
anti-social conduct, i.e. as a form of social control. This was an early
For purposes of clarity, Public Schools are generically referred to as “Independent”
schools. As such they can also be distinguished from schools provided by the State.
1
144
indicator of one of the ascribed roles in present day society in school
and out of school settings of sport being administered to assist in the
resolution of anti-social behaviour. The later 19th century English
Independent Schools’ ‘muscular Christianity’-grounded athletic
traditions and belief in character development, social
accomplishments and moral and ethical codes inspired the ideal of
participation outranking winning. The Independent Schools 19th
legacy was potent not only for subsequent developments in sport in
wider society in general but also for curricular programmes in
schools, because by the early 20th century, sport was fast emerging as
a significant feature in generically termed physical education
programmes in all continental regions of the world. Over time, the
legacy also produced a school physical education and sport delivery
system functioning interdependently and epitomised in the
emergence of a comprehensive programme of extra-curricular
activity, traditionally serviced by teachers on a voluntary basis. In
the State sector of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the spread of
universal education facilitated the extension of school sport beyond
Independent Schools. Hence, within the development of physical
education, there has been an implicit notion of education through
sport, which increasingly after 1945 became more explicit as Sport,
and Games in particular came to dominate the physical education
curriculum. Testimony to the significance of Games even in State
Schools in the generally practised Secondary Schools curriculum
were time-table allocation and subject nomenclature, which ascribed
one or two lessons (‘PT’, later ‘PE’) and an afternoon of Games up
to the 1960s-1970s. The relationship between Physical Education
and Sport became more overt in the 1990s when it was well reflected
in the terminological shift to ‘Physical Education and School Sport’
and later highlighted in central governmental departments’ joint
publications respectively entitled High Quality Physical Education
and School Sport for Young People and Learning through Physical
Education and Sport (Department of Education and Skills
(DfES)/Department of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), 2004).
Thus, from informally arranged 'sides'/games in school playgrounds,
competition in a range of sports developed through local
town/district, county, regional to national levels, administered by
hierarchically structured associations. Extra-curricular activity came
145
to encompass a broad range of sporting activity engagement and its
significance has been by and large sustained, though changing
societal attitudes and leisure activity patterns, curriculum
developments, and teacher 'industrial' action over contractual issues
etc. contributed to a reduction both in numbers of pupils willing to
participate and in teachers prepared to offer or contribute to the
programme around the 1990-1995 period. Nevertheless, the basic
template of extra-curricular activity laid down over a century ago,
still plays an important role in the physical education system in
English schools.
The second of the ‘dual’ traditions emanated from what
essentially represented a ‘victory’ of Swedish over German
influences in a ‘battle’ initially largely fought outside the education
sector. The Rousseau inspired pioneering work of Basedow,
Salzmann and GuthsMuths at the Dessau ‘Philanthropium’ had
inspired Swiss Army Officer Phokion Heinrich Clias to develop a
system of gymnastic exercises, which the British Army and Navy
were quick to adopt in their respective recruits’ training courses in
the early part of the 19th century. The drill orientation in Clias’
adaptations was deemed to be suitable for instilling discipline of a
military kind. It was only after Archibald MacLaren opened his
Oxford Gymnasium and after an invitation to run courses at Army
Headquarters’ in Aldershot that the German system was introduced
into Independent Schools, where Friedrich Ludwig Jahn’s ‘Turnen’
formed the basis of inter-school gymnastic competitions, and after
1875 into some elementary schools by Non-Commissioned Officer
(NCO) trained Instructors. It is relevant here to point to the perceived
necessity for physically fit armed forces’ personnel to extend and
defend the British Empire: the politics of colonialism were bound up
with military might! It was the likes of Swedish Central Gymnastics
Institute graduates Indebetou, (1838), Ehrenhoff (1840) and Georgii
(1849) who, through courses and with the aid of pamphlets,
introduced Swedish ‘Medical Gymnastics’ based on Per Henrik
Ling’s system into the country. Hungarian immigrant, Mathias Roth,
a homeopathic medical practitioner championed the cause of this
form of medical gymnastics because of its allegedly held therapeutic
values for homeopathic ‘medicine’ and perceived wider benefits.
146
Thus began the battle of the two systems with Roth fervently
lobbying Army, Government and Government Boards, Royal
Commissions, School Boards, politicians and Her Majesty’s
Inspectors of Schools (HMIs) by alluding to comparative situations
in Sweden, Prussia, Switzerland, Russia and France and pointing out
that the neglect of physical education and hygiene within the English
education system was the principal cause in the decline in the
general health of the nation. Roth’s vociferous arguments heralded
the addition of medical health and social welfare to factors shaping
developments in physical education. At the time of the FrancoPrussian War, the early post-Forster Education Act (Elementary
Education Act, 1870) introduced non-denominational State Schools
with bye-laws requiring attendance of children aged 5-13. An
Amendment to the Act in 1871 permitted the inclusion of ‘drill’ in
the curriculum. These initial 'physical education' programmes reflected
methods utilised by the Army; indeed in the last thirty years of the 19th
century, part-time ex-army, non-commissioned personnel taught much
of the permitted 'military drill' syllabus.
The Swedish case was enhanced by London School Board
invitations to Concordia Löfving in 1878 and Martina Bergman
(later Bergmann-Osterberg) in 1881 to develop training programmes
for elementary school teachers. Bergmann-Osterberg was instrumental
in founding courses at Hampstead (1885) and then a two-year Course
for Women teachers at Dartford in 1895. Her ‘disciples' subsequently
fostered a number of Women's Training Colleges (Anstey in
Birmingham, Bedford, Chelsea, I.M. Marsh in Liverpool, Maria Grey
and Whitelands in London, Girton and Newnham in Cambridge),
graduates of which placed female physical educators at the forefront of
developments in England. By 1888, the government established Cross
Commission in seeking a “safe and scientific system of physical
training” reported against elaborate gymnastics apparatus (associated
with German gymnastics): physical exercises, largely comprising,
gymnastics and 'Swedish drill' came to be included in the curriculum
from 1890 on - the bottom line was that Swedish gymnastics was
financially cheap! Economic realities were a significant influence in
the adoption of the Swedish system: large numbers of children could
experience drilled exercise with minimal facility or equipment
147
provision; and in any event ‘therapeutic gymnastics’ were seen to be
more health beneficial (concerned with whole body development)
and so accorded with social policy. Moreover, the discipline,
obedience and order inculcated through systematic exercises to
command met both with military requirements and the politically
motivated social control of the children of the working classes. In
any case, German Gymnastics were regarded as male and
performance oriented: they were unsuitable for ‘rational’ Physical
Training requirements (too acrobatic and apparatus oriented), overdeveloped the upper body and were ‘non-scientific’!
The 1902 Board of Education Model Course of Physical Training was
based on the Army training handbook of the day. The early 20th century
connection between physical training and military drill began to fade
when exercises for therapeutic purposes overshadowed the discipline
purpose. The concern for health, the physical and the intellectual
brought a new significance to physical activity. The official shift away
from military drill was initially seen in the 1904 Syllabus of Physical
Exercises, which contained elements from the Swedish system and then
in the appointment of the national Chief Medical Officer (CMO), Dr.
(later Sir George), Newman at the Board of Education with
responsibility for school physical education. The subsequent revisions
of the 1904 Syllabus in 1909, 1919 and 1933 reflected a change in
concept and methods from drill, exercises and physical training to a
more enlightened ‘Physical Education’. Indeed, the use of the term
‘Physical Education’ “symbolized a change of attitude away from a
pre-occupation with muscles and joints to one taking account of the
whole child” (Munrow, 1963). However, despite these various
indicative uses of the term Physical Education for another half a
century, it was not overtly represented as such in the school
curriculum.
The evolutionary development of Physical Education in the
late 19th-early 20th century period was reflected in the establishment
of professional Associations. The Ling Association (an Association
for female Physical Education practitioners) was established (for
women practitioners) in 1899. In 1919, it underwent a name change
to the Ling Association (and affiliated Gymnastic Bodies), a title that
148
was modified in 1925 to the Ling Association of Teachers of Swedish
Gymnastics (and affiliated Gymnastic Bodies). Another yet highly
significant change was made in 1937, when the name Ling Physical
Education Association was adopted2. Another independent
organisation (for men) emerged in 1921, the National Association for
Physical Education Organisers and was soon followed by the
foundation in 1925 of another male only organisation, the North
Western Counties Physical Education Association - this Association
still exists as an influential independent regional Association but is
no longer male only! Meanwhile, other institutions were adopting a
Physical Education label: the British Medical Association (an
advisory body to the then ministerial department – the Board of
Education) established a Physical Education Committee in the
1920s; a government Board of Education Circular (Circular 1445) in
1936 extended government support for Physical Education; and
Carnegie College of Physical Training (the first male specialist
teacher training college in England), established in 1933, changed its
name to Carnegie College of Physical Education in 1947.
The Emergence of an ‘English System’ and Curriculum Change
Diffusion of organised games and competitive sports
throughout wider society was in part reinforced by the 1902
Education (Balfour) Act, which was responsible for the introduction
of nation-wide State Secondary education. The Act facilitated a
merging of the two ‘traditions’, for it was in Secondary Schools that
the sport and games institutionalised in Independent Schools were
more developmentally appropriate. The gradual pervasion of the
Education System by Sport and Games was manifested in the
government Board of Education's Supplementary Syllabus Handbook
on Games in 1927 and the 1933 Syllabus of Physical Training for
use in State Elementary Schools. The Board of Education Syllabi
(1909, 1919, and 1933), as well as showing a gradual decline in
support for the Swedish system, reveal the changes in philosophy
2
After a series of mergers with other bodies, the Ling Physical Education Association
became the lead national professional body in 1994 when it was renamed the Physical
Education Association of the United Kingdom; it now has the name of the Association
for Physical Education.
149
from a drill-based programme, mainly concerned with inculcating
discipline and obedience, producing good posture and promoting
fitness through exercise of muscles and joints to an 'English System',
which drew from an amalgamation of the various imported (other
influences included Danish Gymnastics, the Scandinavian ‘glädje’
movement and the Austrian ‘natural movement) and home-grounded
systems, and aimed at optimum development of the individual
through a broader-based curriculum. This philosophical shift was
also a clear indication of pedagogical change, which was associated
with developments in educational psychology. It was a ‘shift’ that
was identifiable in the McNair Report (1942) commentary that "this
subject...is a fundamental and integral part of general education” with
every teacher knowing “something of it, for wherever children are
being educated their bodies are a factor in the process. To embody such
a conception...we find the term physical education preferable to p.t."
(Board of Education, 1942). Perhaps just as overtly, if not more so, the
shift was demonstrated in physical education curricular trends in the
second half of the 20th century. The final demise of the subject’s
inclusion on remedial and therapeutic grounds occurred in 1945
when responsibility for Physical Education was passed from the
CMO to the Ministry of Education. Indeed, the CMO Report for the
years 1948-1949 highlighted the change of focus (particularly in
Primary Schools) intimating that the Board of Education’s
administrative absorption of physical education represented an
acknowledgement of its educational purpose and function. The CMO
specifically linked physical education with the term "Movement", a
“fundamental means of ensuring growth and development in all
forms of life” (Ministry of Education, 1952(a), p.16). It was a
prophetic link as subsequent developments especially in its official
acceptance at ministerial level in 1972 were to prove.
Further impetus to physical education curriculum change
occurred in 1952-53, when the then Ministry of Education published
syllabus guidelines, respectively entitled Moving and Growing
(1952b) and Planning the Programme (1953), which offered a
rationale for physical education, flexibility of programme content
and at the same time included advice on less formal learning
processes through guided exploration and discovery methods.
150
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, conferences and In-Service
Training (INSET) courses tended to concentrate on educational
gymnastics or "movement", which was perceived to be an all
encompassing term for either educational gymnastics or "modern
dance" based on Laban's basic concepts of space, time, weight and
flow. However, there was a considerable divergence of opinion in
defining the term. The work of Dudgeon, Bilborough and Jones had
a major impact initially respectively on developments in the north of
England regions of the West Riding of Yorkshire and Lancashire,
and later in other parts of the country in physical education in
Primary and early Secondary Schools’ years, though implementation
of ideas was subject to level of teacher competence, extent of a head
teacher’s commitment and availability of suitable facilities,
apparatus and equipment.
Some two decades on from the CMO’s prophetic
commentary and Ministry of Education’s guideline publications, the
Department of Education and Science (DES) issued its Movement Physical Education in the Primary Years (1972), in which value was
placed on children being given more responsibility for their own rate
and pattern of work, with teachers being sensitive to individual needs
and differences. Notably, this publication marked a change from
teacher centred and directed to child centred delivery. Teaching
methods had become more informal; the formal commands,
performance of exercises in unison and strict class organisation had
given way to conversational teaching and recognition that children
needed to work at their own rate and at their own level of ability.
These significant modifications of the ‘English System’ were
embedded in influences stemming from discovery learning theory
and Rudolf Laban’s analysis of movement, which pre-empted
innovative approaches to gymnastics’ teaching (educational
gymnastics), movement education in general with its variations in
didactical approaches in both Primary and Secondary Schools, and
which arguably were forerunners of the activity for understanding
approaches of more recent years.
151
A National Physical Education Curriculum
After over a century of state-provided education, a
government sponsored National Curriculum for children aged 5-16
was implemented in phases in England (and Wales) in 1989 with
Physical Education introduced for the first time in its history as a
statutorily required curriculum subject in 1992. Prior to this
innovative government initiative, physical education in its various
‘guises’ was not a compulsory subject in the school curriculum 3
rather it was generally practised. The National Curriculum was born
out of then Labour Prime Minister, Jim Callaghan's inspired "Great
Debate" and subsequent discussions of the late 1970s-1980s,
highlighting the need for changes in how children should be educated.
The resultant 1988 Education Reform Act embraced a package of
changes in State education for children aged 5-16. The legislation
ushered in changes in school admissions, school financing and school
curriculum. The National Curriculum was intended to provide a broad
and balanced curricular framework, through which there would be an
all-round improvement in the quality of the teaching process and
learning experiences. Its development generally and for Physical
Education specifically, reflected central Government's concern for a
return to 'traditional' values and content in the school curriculum.
Physical Education was included as a Foundation Subject
throughout the compulsory years (ages 5-16) of school attendance
over four key-stages: 5-7 years (year groups 1-2); 7-11 years (year
groups 3-6); 11-14 years (year groups 7-9); and 14-16 years (year
groups 10-11). Beyond key stage 4, in Further and Higher Education
Institutions it generally became optional (though not exclusively so
because some ‘continuing’ further education establishments did offer
obligatory recreationally based programmes) and participation more
often than not was voluntary. Notably relevant here is that during the
consultation phase, the Physical Education Curriculum Working
Party was informed by the Minister for Education that time
allocation for physical education was a non-negotiable issue. In the
event a notional 7½% appears to have been expected, though this
3
Interestingly the only compulsory subject legally required up to this time was
“Religious Studies/Education”.
152
was reduced in 1994 (two years into the new curriculum) to a
notional 5% because of the nature of the overloaded planned
curriculum content. In pursuit of the various goals, it was recognised
that the notional 5% of curriculum time allocation was in itself
insufficient to achieve the desirable outcomes of healthily fit young
people associated with physically active lifestyle; additional (extracurricular) time was advocated, a ‘back to the future’ restatement of
the values of the historically embedded school extra-curricular
activity programmes.
This first National Physical Education Curriculum model
contained so-called Programmes of Study activity areas (Athletics,
Dance, Games, Gymnastics, Outdoor and Adventurous Activities and
Swimming) over the designated four 'key stages'. The introduction of a
statutorily required curriculum should have produced, at least in theory,
a nationally applied general pattern. However, in practice, the picture
was confused and local variations prevailed, such as those between
schools in time-table allocation and activities taught within the same
local education authority or local community. This confused pattern
originated from an intention to represent the National Curriculum more
as a framework rather than as a prescription. It was designed to take
account of school teaching staff interest and expertise as well as school
resources and location (thus, facilitating the fostering of local
traditions). To a large extent also, this pattern reflected the situation,
within a statutory framework of local management of schools, of
powers of responsibility devolved to school governing bodies, through
head teachers, for budget management and control, spending priorities,
the curriculum and its delivery. Many issues concerning curriculum
development were matters for individual schools and teachers to
decide upon (e.g. curriculum time allocation and teaching methods).
Hence, the National Curriculum varied between schools because of the
extant freedom and flexibility.
Nonetheless, the reality of the situation in many schools was
a tendency to reinforce the importance of sport, games and
performance. In essence, a sport-oriented programme resulted, in
which, Games as the only ‘Programme of Study’ compulsory
throughout the four key stages was “established as the dominant and
153
defining feature of physical education" (Penney and Kirk, 1997, p.34).
The sport-games dominated focus was reinforced through central
government-driven initiatives announced in a White Paper (policy
document), entitled Sport - Raising the Game. In a prefatory statement,
then British Prime Minister, John Major, referred to competitive sport
teaching valuable lifelong lessons and “putting sport back at the heart
of weekly life in every school” (Department of National Heritage,
1995, p.2). The case for sport was based on Victorian era values in
character formation, health promotion, moral development and
socialisation: the Government believed “fair play, self-discipline,
respect for others, learning to live by laws and understanding one's
obligations to others in a team are all matters which can be learnt from
team games properly taught" (Department of National Heritage, 1995,
p.7). Further evidence of the emphasis on sport was seen in the White
Paper's references to future initial teacher training courses (for
primary teachers and secondary PE specialists) as having an explicit
focus on games: trainees were to be prepared "to teach team games…"
and "… all teachers of PE will be equipped to teach at least one
mainstream game played in summer and one mainstream game played
in winter..." (pp.14-15).
Arguably, the bias in content of the Physical Education
National Curriculum merely reinforced what already was widely
practised. Any analysis of curriculum content even in the earlier
halcyon days of Movement Education would have revealed the
dominance of Games. Surveys in the 1980s by HMI (DES, 1983;
DES, 1985) looked at the education offered to children in middle
schools and found that whilst games, gymnastics, athletics and
swimming were offered, not all aspects were given equal emphasis
within each year group or in each school: in the 1983 DES Survey,
expressive movement and dance were less frequently taught than
other areas of the Physical Education curriculum; in the 1985
Survey, dance was offered in only half the sample. The generic
activity ‘Games’ accounted for at least 40% of the physical
education curriculum. Clearly, the ‘movement' orientation in the
1972 publication was little more than policy rhetoric when compared
with reality of practice.
154
Notwithstanding the sport/games-related domination, the
inclusion of Physical Education within the National Curriculum
established its legitimacy and increased its credibility as a subject in
the school curriculum, already somewhat enhanced through its status
as an examinable subject at both General Certificate of Secondary
Education (GCSE) Ordinary ('O' (1970s) and Advanced ('A') levels
standard (1988). However, this status was insufficient to save the
subject’s compulsory position in Primary Schools (key stages 1 and 2),
when the government temporarily suspended the statutory order
relating to physical education provision for a two-year period (19982000) in order to divert time to the development of literacy and
numeracy skills. The suspension inevitably led to widespread
substantial reduction in physical education lessons taught in Primary
Schools, a situation from which subsequent recovery was largely
expedited by a range of funded measures, governmental and quasigovernmental driven initiatives.
Physical Education-School Sport Dualism
The deterioration in Physical Education provision in
Primary Schools in the latter part of the 1990s extended to
Secondary Schools. Indicative of the deterioration were decreases in
curriculum time allocation, impoverished facilities and equipment,
perceived lower esteem and status, inadequate teacher preparation
(especially so in Primary Schools) and reductions in In-Service
Training (INSET) programmes and courses as well as below par
British performances in international competitions. The then quasigovernmental agency, the Sports Council, seized the initiative to
become actively engaged in school physical education developments.
Its Strategy for Sport contained within its 1997 policy document,
England, the Sporting Nation, expressed the view that school is
where most children first encounter sport and hence, schools are in a
prime position to encourage young people's lifelong participation in
sport. A Sportsmark scheme, with the addition of an annual Gold Star
award for the most innovative schools demonstrating outstanding
achievement, was introduced. In order to extend this so-called
'sporting culture' beyond the confines of school, the Policy document
expressed the need for a corporate approach and identified Further
155
and Higher Education Institutions, sports clubs, local government
authorities, youth services, the Sports Council and regional agencies,
National Governing Bodies of Sport (NGBs), as well as private
sector sponsorship as having contributory roles to play and acting in
partnership with central Government. The vision was one of integral
partnership of Physical Education and Sport within broad-ranging
educational and social institutional agencies’ partnership providers.
It was an illustration of envisaged government and quasi- and nongovernmental agencies policy interventions with the dualism of
physical education and sport working in unison. The Sports Council
acknowledged that the activities on offer in the curriculum did not
necessarily match those preferred by young people but, nevertheless,
emphasised the importance of ensuring that young people experience
a breadth of sporting opportunities in compliance with the National
Curriculum. The document also stressed the values of sport within
the ‘extended’ curriculum asserting that extra-curricular activities
contribute to personal development, broaden pupils' interests and
experiences, expand their opportunities to succeed and help to build
good relationships with the school (Sports Council, 1997).
Subsequently, the Council in its re-packaged form, Sport England,
articulated the value and role of sport in schools in the context of
schools having a statutory role for the delivery of physical education.
Sport England recognised the role of schools in the development of
physical competencies and positive sporting attitudes within the
curriculum and then in encouraging young people to continue
participation in sport, through the provision of links and
opportunities in the extended curriculum and by community links
established by the school. At national level, it launched several
initiatives aimed at “more people involved in sport, more places to
play sport and more medals through higher standards of
performance in sport” (Sport England, 1999, p.2) and underpinned
by the principle of inclusion through equal opportunities to
participate. One of these initiatives was the so-called Active Schools
with programmes for groups aged 4-7 years and 7-11 years,
involving teaching and equipment resource support in Primary
Schools, aims to support Physical Education and School Sport to
provide school children with opportunities to learn foundation skills
and to participate in the sport or physical activity of their choice.
156
These programmes were supported by the Sportsmark Award, which
acknowledged provision of quality physical education and sports
programmes at school and in the local community and the
Sportsmark Gold Award for exceptional provision.
National Physical Education Curriculum Modification
Under advice of the then School Curriculum and
Assessment Authority (SCAA) in response to concerns within the
physical education profession about the predominance of Games and
issues surrounding relevance of the content of the physical education
curriculum, ministerial orders for curricula were modified in a
revamped National Curriculum in 1999. The Physical Education
curriculum introduced in 2000 retained the four key stages’
Programmes of Study with designated activity areas at each key
stage: key stage 1, dance, games and gymnastics; key stage 2, dance,
games, gymnastic and two activity areas from swimming activities
and water safety4, athletic activities, outdoor and adventurous
activities; key stage 3, games and three of the following (at least one
of which had to be dance or gymnastic activities), dance, gymnastics
swimming and water safety, athletics, outdoor and adventurous
activities; and key stage 4, two of the six activity areas. The modified
curriculum provided opportunities to emphasise personal and social
skills that are an intrinsic part of Physical Education, including team
work, co-operation and leadership opportunities. National strategy
guidance by the Department of Education and Skills (DfES) for
Information Communication Technology (ICT) and Physical
Education suggested the use of ICT within data and information
sources (e.g. comparative analysis with peers etc.), models and
modelling (e.g. replaying and analysing performance) and control
and monitoring (e.g. comparing pupil results with others). For the
end of each key stage, the National Curriculum specified Attainment
Targets (ATs), which comprised eight level descriptions, plus one
for “exceptional performance”. Descriptions ascribed types and
4
Swimming activities and water safety had to be chosen as one of these areas of
activity unless pupils had completed the full key stage 2 teaching requirements in
relation to swimming activities and water safety during key stage 1. The National
Curriculum specified that pupils should be able to swim unaided at least 25 metres.
157
range of performance characteristically demonstrated at each level:
at age 7 – level 2; at age 11 - level 4; at age 14 – level 5/6; at 16 –
usually national qualifications (GCSE ‘O-level’ or vocational
qualification equivalent). Curriculum 2000 aspired to two hours (that
is 120 minutes) for Physical Education AND extra-curricular
activities per week at all four key stages5.
The ‘sting remained in the tail’ because the DES/QCA
continued to expect schools to provide competitive games for
children who wished to exercise this option. The spirit of John
Major’s prefatory comments in Sport – Raising the Game and the
deeply embedded legacy of 19th century Independent Boarding
Schools in the physical education curriculum was not exorcised.
Moreover, the continuing problems faced by physical educators in
delivering a balanced and pupil relevant curriculum encouraged the
national Sports Council and Sports Governing Bodies to lay
sustained siege to physical education in schools primarily to serve
their own specific ends.
Physical Education, School Sport and Creating a Sporting
Legacy
Central in the drive to build more sport into school curricula
in the UK was the Physical Education, School Sport and Club Links
(PESSCL) Strategy. Launched by the Prime Minister in October
2002, the PESSCL Strategy was jointly delivered by the DfES and
the Department of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) as part of a
shared Public Service Agreement. The Strategy was overseen by a
Project Board comprising representatives from a broad range of
central and local government, quasi-government and nongovernmental agencies and schools (head teachers). The Strategy
was an example of active partners working together to promote a
5
The DfES/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) recommended that at
least 75 minutes curriculum time be required per week to deliver the physical
education Programme of Study at key stages1 and 2 (Primary phase) and 90 minutes
at key stage 3 (Secondary phase); no recommendation was made for key stage 4 where
the focus was essentially health, fitness and wellbeing.
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common cause and achieve a common goal. In order to deliver the
Strategy, Government committed to invest £978m between 2003-04
and 2007-08. In addition, £686m lottery funding was allocated to
improve school sports facilities: a total of over £1½ billion was to be
invested in Physical Education and School Sport in the five years up
to 2008. Following consultations, Sport England together with the
DfES and DCMS, agreed (in 2004) to introduce changes to the Sport
kitemarks. From 2006, the kitemarks (Activemark, Sportsmark and a
new Sports Partnership Mark), were linked to the delivery of the
PESSCL Strategy and only open to schools in Schools Sport
Partnerships. The key indicator determining whether a school
qualified for one of the kitemarks was its success in enabling pupils
to take up their then entitlement to at least 2 hours of high quality
physical education and school sport each week. The overall objective
of the Strategy was to increase the proportion of 5 to 16 year-olds
who engaged for a minimum of two hours each week in physical
education and school sport to 75% by 2006 and to 85% by 2008. A
key aim of the modified Physical Education, School Sport (PESS)
Strategy was to promote high-quality Physical Education and School
Sport to facilitate positive attitudinal change in young people and
their schools. To achieve this, several approaches were employed
including re-designing the Physical Education curriculum,
developing playground activities, making the most of time before,
and after school, and finding better ways to support and develop
teachers and junior leaders. Primary Schools were assessed on the
range of sports/activities (including dance) offered and how many
pupils participated in club sport; Secondary Schools were also
assessed on the range of sports/activities (including dance) offered,
how many pupils participated in club sport, how many pupils took
part in competitive school sport, and how many took on volunteering
and leadership roles. Each year, a Panel (comprising a Primary and
Secondary School head teacher, a Special School head teacher, and
representatives from the DfES, the DCMS, Sport England, the QCA,
the Youth Sport Trust (YST), the afPE as well as from a NGB met to
agree the standards schools and partnerships needed to demonstrate
in order to be awarded one of the kite marks. The Strategy also
included a target (announced by the Prime Minister in December
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2004) of all pupils taking part in a further two to three hours of sport
beyond school by 2010.
Prior to the introduction of the PESSCL strategy, Specialist
Sports Colleges (SSCs) had already evolved as a concept and some
had been established. Originally they were conceived by the
Conservative government in the early 1990s and then adopted and
expanded by the succeeding Labour government to provide
opportunities for educational centres of excellence initially in
Technology, Arts and Languages, later extended to include Sport.
The first SSCs were designated in 1996. Each school developed its
own special ethos and worked with others to spread best practice and
raise standards. Once granted, specialist status was subject to reapplication after four years to maintain status. The SSCs were
intended to have an extended school day, improved coaching,
improved facilities and to work closely with neighbouring Secondary
Schools as well as establish links with ‘feeder’ Primary Schools,
through Sports Co-ordinator appointments and designated ‘Link’
Primary teachers. They were well resourced and were seen by
government as central to sport strategy in terms of talent
development. Practices varied: some SSCs emphasised broad
participatory models, others followed more narrow and selected
activities’ models; some developed positive relations with feeder
schools, whereas others neglected links because of time/distance
constraints.
SSCs were involved in partnerships of families of schools.
These so-termed School Sport Coordinator Partnerships collectively
served to enhance sports opportunities for all. The Partnerships were
made up of clusters of a Specialist Sports College, up to eight
secondary schools and around 45 Primary or Special Schools. Each
Partnership received a grant of up to £270,000 each year to cover
costs of a full-time Partnership Development Manager, the release
of one teacher from each Secondary School for two days a week to
take on the role of School Sport Coordinator, the release of one
teacher from each Primary or Special School for 12 days a year to
become Link Teachers and employment of Specialist Link Teachers
to fill the gaps created by teacher release. The Partnerships'
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Scheme’s overall aim was to assist schools in ensuring that pupils
spent a minimum of two hours each week engaged in high quality
Physical Education and School Sport. Strategic objectives included:
development and implementation of a Physical Education/Sport
Strategy; links with Primary Schools, particularly to provide a bridge
between Key Stages 2 and 3; provision of enhanced opportunities for
all pupils out of school hours; increased participation in community
sport; provision of opportunities in leadership, coaching and
officiating for senior pupils, teachers and other adults; and raising
standards of pupils' achievement. As part of the overall PESSCL
Strategy, the School Sport Partnerships were intended to guide
young people into NGB affiliated or otherwise accredited clubs
linked to those Partnerships. This School/Club Links Project initially
focused on seven major sports (tennis, cricket, rugby union, football,
athletics, gymnastics and swimming), but schools were then
encouraged to establish links in a broader range of sports and
physical activity.
In July 2007, Government demonstrated further commitment to
Physical Education and Sport with additional funding of £755
million over three years to facilitate a co-ordinated approach to
ensure that all 5-16 years olds would have access to two hours PE
and three hours beyond the curriculum and 16-19 year olds would
have three hours of sport outside of the curriculum. Collectively, this
was referred to as the Five Hour Offer. In a government
Comprehensive Spending Review for 2008-11, the Department for
Culture Media and Sport’s Public Service Agreement (PSA 22)
referred to the delivery of a successful Olympic Games and
Paralympic Games with a sustainable legacy and increasing
children's and young people's participation in high quality Physical
Education and Sport, through the creation of a world class system. In
2008, the new Physical Education and Sport Strategy for Young
People (PESSYP)6, committed to improving the quantity and quality
of PE and Sport undertaken by Young People aged 5-19, was
6
PESSYP had ten work Strands as follows: Club Links, Coaching, Competition,
Continuing Professional Development, Disability, Extending Activities, Gifted and
Talented, Infrastructure, Leadership and Volunteering, and Swimming.
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launched to build upon the perceived success of the PESSCL
Strategy, and set out how this would be reached through the delivery
of the 'five hour offer'. The Strategy entailed an investment of £755
million over three years and joint overall responsibility of the
Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) and the
Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), working in
particular with the Department for Universities, Innovation and
Skills (DIUS) in relation to 16-19 year olds and with strong links to
the Department of Health. The evidence-based view (e.g. Bailey et
al., 2009; Stead and Neville, 2010; and Montague, 2012) that high
quality Physical Education and Sport provision contributed to
improving educational standards, which embraced not only
development of physical skills but also helped young people to
become more active, understand the importance of being healthy and
supported the development of personal, social, creative, thinking
skills, qualities and attributes was paramount to achieving the wider
government policy of Every Child Matters7.The Strategy required
the co-ordinated School Sports Partnerships infrastructure (described
above) already in place. A Further Education Sports Co-ordinator
(FESCO) was also established in every Further Education Institution
later in 2008. The immediate antecedent of this initiative to
encourage increased participation in sport and involving partners and
one that was clearly related to the successful London bid to host the
2012 Olympic Games was the UK School Games. The vision for
these Games comprised seven key themes:
1.
2.
planning and delivery of a UK level sports event
showcasing talented young sports people
using the event to bring about a step change in the content,
structure and presentation of competitive sporting
opportunities for young people
The then Labour Government’s aim was for every child to have a chance of
fulfilling their potential by reducing education failure, ill health, substance misuse and
neglect, crime and anti-social behaviour. Five outcomes were specified: being healthy,
staying safe, enjoying and achieving, making a positive contribution and economic
well-being. Physical Education and School Sport were deemed to contribute to a
greater or lesser extent in all areas.
7
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
developing a themed branding programme for local and
regional level competitive activity managed by the sports
engaged in the main event
integrating an Olympic and Paralympic theme into the event
and ensuring that the Olympic and Paralympic values are
promoted through the event, including volunteer training,
opening and closing ceremonies and an athletes village
using the event to profile, at a local and regional level,
young people taking part and, through this, to promote the
work undertaken in each nation to improve Physical
Education and School Sport
using the event to create opportunities for young people to
become engaged in volunteering at major sports events
ensuring that the event advocates and demonstrates the
highest level of child protection and welfare systems.
The first UK Games, organised by the YST in September 2006
in Glasgow, included athletics, swimming, gymnastics, table tennis
and fencing plus ‘disability’ events in swimming and athletics.
The attempt to building a lasting legacy of competitive sport in
schools was reinforced in January 2009 by an extension to the
infrastructure network to include 225 Competition Managers, who
were given a support role to the SSPs to deliver a broad range of
inter-school competitive opportunities to a wider range of young
people, delivered through the implementation of the School Games
national competition framework for young people. For these Games
at levels 1-4, all schools have the opportunity to create a year round
calendar of approximately 30 sports available to attract young people
into competing at all levels intra-, inter–school levels culminating in
local regional and national events (the first School Games national
Final took place in May 2012). Physical Education was now assured
as a compulsory component of the National Curriculum, though
paradoxically, somewhat contrary to the 2012 London Olympic legacy
philosophy, as early as August 2012, the Conservative-Liberal
Democratic Coalition's Department of Education seeking to empower
head teachers and de-bureaucratise the organisation of physical activity
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in schools, dropped the requirement for the weekly provision of 120
minutes of Physical Education and Sport (Patton, 2012).
Further legacy measures have embraced additional links
between schools and community sports clubs at least 6,000
Partnerships by 2017 and, echoing policies in the 1960s and 1970s,
additional investment in facilities to include funding for schools to
open up their sports facilities for wider public use. However,
Coalition Government politics soon came to the fore and funding for
School Sports Partnerships was removed only to be tempered by a
Government announcement, in April 2013, of funding of £150
million for Physical Education and Sport. This funding was
earmarked for improvement of the quality and breadth of Physical
Education and Sport provision. Primary Schools’ were/are expected
to monitor the funding and most importantly demonstrate the
impacts on pupils. The impacts are now subject to Ofsted
inspections. The Association for Physical Education (afPE) in
partnership with Ofsted has produced a Quality Mark, which
provides evidence of quality Physical Education and School Sport.
The Quality Mark will become significant in relation to School Sport
Premium funding. It would seem from early indicators (Ofsted,
2014) that impacts are perceived as positive with better quality PE
teaching, more opportunities for physical activity and sport
participation, and head teachers noting that the Premium had brought
a renewed and sharper focus on PE and Sport.
The transition of Physical Education/School Sport appeared to
produce beneficial outcomes. The government target for 2006 of
75% of children in schools aged 5-16 receiving at least two hours of
high quality Physical Education and School Sport was exceeded with
actual achievement being 80%, a figure that increased to 86% in
2007 and 90% in 2008 across England thus, favourably comparing
with the 2002 figure of 27%. Nonetheless, at the same time,
participation rates in sports amongst young people declined
dramatically after leaving school at 16. There was particular concern
over girls’ sports engagement with only a third participating aged 18
compared with two-thirds of boys. Youth Sport Strategy major aims
have consistently been to increase the number of young people (age
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14-16) habitually engaging in sport over the life-span, through
establishing a lasting network of links between schools and sports
clubs in local communities hence, breaking down barriers that have
prevented young people from continuing their interest in sport into
adulthood. Sport England has invested heavily in working with
schools, colleges and universities, as well as local County Sports
Partnerships, National Governing Bodies for sport, local authorities
and voluntary sectors agencies. In April 2013, it was announced that
Sport England, already investing £100m a year in grassroots sport,
would inject an extra £24m into a programme to attract teenagers
and young adults (aged 14 to 24 years) and a further £10million per
year up to 2017. It was estimated that some 190,000 14-24 year olds
would benefit from free/discounted sports courses in a wide range of
activities.
National and Secondary School Physical Education Curriculum
Revision
Developments in Physical Education came thick and fast after
the advent of the 2000 millennium. The importance and
understanding of Physical Literacy was building momentum with a
deal of confusion of what it was, what it meant, and why it was
regarded crucial to each and every individual throughout life. It was
a period that saw the introduction of a new Secondary School
Curriculum, formalised consultation for which took place between
February and April 2007. The new Curriculum for Key Stages 3-4
was part of a wider vision to develop a modern, world-class
curriculum that would inspire and challenge learners and prepare
them for the future. It was a curriculum that embraced a whole
school perspective and impact to better meet the needs and interests
of all pupils. It was the first English National Curriculum to be a
‘schools based curriculum’ with linked learning between all subject
areas with cross-curricular dimensions and personal development. Its
overarching aim was to develop a modern, coherent and flexible
curriculum that recognised the needs of young people and provided
opportunities and experiences to inspire, challenge and prepare them
for the future. Its implementation commenced in Autumn 2008,
though schools were not required to fully implement changes until
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2011. Conceptually it encompassed: Successful learners; Confident
Individuals; and Responsible Citizens. The revised Physical
Education Programme of Study for Key Stage 3 had greater
adaptability, was more meaningful and had increased
personalisation. Similar to all other subjects, it contained the
following five sections.





The importance of Physical Education
Key concepts; Competence, Performance, Creativity,
Healthy Active Lifestyles
Key process with three main areas:
(i) developing improving range and quality of
skills in physical activity;
(ii) making and applying decisions
(iii) evaluating and improving, and making
informed choices about healthy
and active lifestyle
Range and content: the breadth of Physical Education that
areas of study were to be drawn from with an emphasis on
'thinking skills'
Curriculum opportunities: a significant area that helps all
pupils to engage and understand Physical Education,
opening up a new world for pupils to contribute and
personalise the curriculum, including ‘Learning Outside the
Classroom’, work with for example professional dancers
and sports people in physical activities and specific sports
context centres.
Physical Education Teaching: Initial Training and Continued
Professional Development
As intimated in the earlier section, Shaping Traditions, from
1881 on, Madame Bergman-Osterberg ‘disciples’ established a
number of Women's Training Colleges (graduates of which taught
mainly in girls’ Independent Schools). This placed female physical
educators at the forefront of physical education developments in
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England. Meanwhile in the newly established Elementary Schools, the
‘military drill’ included in the Revised Code of Regulations, which
followed the 1871 Education Act was the only officially approved
form of physical education in State sector schools until 1890. It was
‘taught’ by non-commissioned Armed Forces instructors. In 1902, the
Board of Education reflecting general concern for the health of the
nation turned its attention to physical training in schools. In doing so, it
consulted with the War Office, which made “available facilities for the
formation of teachers’ classes under qualified Non-commissioned
Offices of the Gymnastic Staff” (Board of Education, 1903). Two
years later, Colleges (largely ‘Church’ provided) received the Board of
Education Circular 454, inviting them to draw up two year teacher
training courses that included Physical Training.
After the end of World War I in 1918, recruitment and
training of teachers was quickly planned. The Board of Education
based the organization of physical education on three groups: (i)
class teachers, familiar with techniques of Physical Training but no
advanced training; (ii) specialists for secondary and continuation
schools; and (iii) organisers to advise and to help train nonspecialists. Vacation courses and the men's Training Colleges catered
for the needs of the class teachers, and specialists were trained in
Silkeborg or attended the former Broman's College, taken over by
London County Council for short courses. The Board of Education
gave its support to a one-year course for women Certificated
Teachers at Reading and in the summer of 1919 sponsored a three month course at Sheffield Training College designed for men who
had gained experience of Physical Training during their service with
the Forces. In September, 1919 the Sheffield experiment resulted in a
one-year course to train men for posts as Organisers of Physical
Training under Local Education Authorities and for other
responsible positions. The ‘Church Colleges’ were at the vanguard of
developments in Physical Education Teacher Training for men
throughout the 1920s into the 1930s. Changes of provision for
specialist training were signaled when in 1930 the University of
London agreed to a Diploma Course in theory and practice of
physical education and came to full fruition (for men’s specialist
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training) when Carnegie Physical Training College 8 was established
with a grant of £30,000 from the Carnegie Trustees and provision of
a site by the City of Leeds Education Committee. Loughborough
(1935) and Goldsmiths (1937) followed suit to make three specialist
Colleges for men. The post-World War II era up to the 1970s was
marked by a proliferation in Higher Education Institutions providing
so-called Specialist, Wing and Main Physical Education training
courses for both men and women. By the early 1970s, there were
some 147 Teacher Training Colleges involved in the initial
preparation of certificated teachers of physical education.
Rationalisation, commencing in the mid- to late 1970s, rapidly
altered this situation: closures and mergers reduced the numbers to
around 20 Institutions offering three year Bachelor of Education, or
four year Bachelor of Arts/Science plus Qualified Teacher status and
one year Post-graduate Certificate of Education courses for Primary
and Secondary School physical educators.
One of the ten strands for investment of the PESSCL
Strategy, introduced in 2002, was Professional Development with an
allocation of £9.3million. The Continuing Professional Development
programme introduced aimed to raise pupils’ attainment levels,
improve understanding of how high quality Physical Education and
School Sport could be used as a tool for whole school improvement
and to support healthy lifestyles and physical activity, and encourage
schools to interpret the Physical Education Programme of Study in
more innovative ways. The implementation of the Programme was
through established Local Delivery Agencies responsible for
developing, delivering high quality PE and Sport professional
development for teachers and adults supporting learning in school
settings. The need for Continued Professional Development and
support for teachers of physical education classes, as exemplified in
previous references to inadequate delivery of Physical Education,
especially in Primary Schools, was clear. Physical Education was
also to address children’s health, especially obesity, thus underlining
8
In 1930, the Board of Education had decided that it was not desirable that physical
education should be taught by those whose qualification was limited to physical
training. The Carnegie course was only open to those with a teacher’s certificate or a
degree.
168
the importance of working with different government bodies,
associations including the Department of Health. A focal feature
was the process of Learning and Teaching, and Inclusion, that is
meeting the needs and abilities of all children. Guidance models
emerged for Foundation (early years and Key Stage 1) and
Formative (Key Stage 2) including supportive resources. The
emergence of such models highlighted inherent weaknesses in the
delivery of Physical Education by Primary School teachers, caused
by deficiencies in Initial Teacher Training (ITT), including
insufficient time, lack of preparation and post-ITT support.
The national profession Association (AfPE)9 set up a
National College for Continuing Professional Development (this was
a development role envisaged by the DfES for afPE). The National
College focuses on needs of practitioners and ensures compliance
with Training and Development Agency (TDA) standards for class
teachers. The opportunities on offer embrace a broad spectrum of
themes and topics, which variously address didactical, pedagogical,
leadership/management and health and safety issues etc.
In September 2010, the new Coalition Government released
a ‘White Paper’, The Importance of Teaching. Amongst other things,
its policy message signalled changes to teacher training, pupil
behavioural issues, curriculum reform, raising of compulsory
education to 17 in 2013 and to age 18 by 2015, extension of the new
schools system of Academies (directly funded rather through local
9
The Association for Physical Education (formally launched in March 2006 after a
merger of the PE Association UK and British Association of Advisors and Lecturers
in PE) is recognised by the DfES and its agencies, DCMS, Sport England and NGBs
etc., as the lead professional association. The Association meets its mission objectives
through lobbying government, publications including a member’s journal (Physical
Education Matters), a research-oriented journal (Physical Education and Sport
Pedagogy), regular electronic updates of professional development initiatives,
production of resource packs, establishment of good practice benchmarks (e.g.
Standards for Safeguarding and Protecting Children in Sport), involvement in
professional development programmes and courses as well as an annual conference. In
July 2006, it launched the National College for Continuing Professional Development,
which aims to provide leadership in physical education, raise professional standards
and share exemplary practice
169
education authorities), refocus of school inspections and reform of
performance tables, devolvement of responsibility to schools for
improvement, an aspect that eventually resulted in the
decline/demise of local authority PE Strategic leads, advisors,
teacher advisors etc., and school funding (the Pupil Premium) aimed
at increasing resources for deprived pupils by injecting £2.5billion
annually into the schools budget over the next four years. Further
reform within the education system was sign-posted in the Wolfe
Report (2011), specifically in Further Education Vocational Schools
as raising of the compulsory school leaving age was about to be
implemented.
Ofsted’s (2013) most recent Report on Physical Education
in English schools, which was based on evidence from HMI and
Ofsted Inspections between September 2008 and July 201210 and
also drew on evidence from four visits to schools to observe good
practice in physical education, noted that a major weakness in
primary schools was the lack of specialist subject knowledge among
teachers. It is, therefore, not surprising that, even in schools known
to have strong practice in Physical Education, a significant part of
the new funding is being used to improve the quality of teaching in
the subject. In the schools visited, this was mainly achieved by using
the funding to employ specialist Physical Education teachers and
sports coaches to work with other teachers and teaching assistants.
However, some schools were also using it to improve the skills of
existing members of staff so that they could provide good quality
training for their colleagues in school. This concurs with the DfE
Survey, which found that 86% of the sample schools were using the
premium to provide extra physical education training for staff.
Inspectors also found that the new funding was being used
effectively to increase pupils’ participation in sport and physical
activity. In some schools, part of the funding was used to help
selected pupils overcome personal difficulties and as a platform to
improve their physical and social development. Although most of the
schools visited were using the premium in effective ways, some
common weaknesses were noted: strategic planning was reported as
10
120 Primary Schools, 110 Secondary Schools and 7 Special Schools were inspected
170
generally poor; and monitoring and evaluation of the impact of
actions to improve the provision of Physical Education and Sports
were not rigorous enough (Lloyd, Fry & Wollny, 2014).
Now due to support from coaches and other professionals in
schools more opportunities are available for wider groups of children
to follow their interests, before school, breaks, lunchtimes, after
school, school to club links. There are, however, concerns within the
physical education profession that some coaches in Primary Schools,
who have no teaching qualifications, are undermining teachers and
‘de-skilling’ teachers as they move into teaching physical education
classes! The ‘bottom line’ is that within Initial Teacher Training
programmes, there remains insufficient inclusion of Physical
Education, BUT the situation seems to be improving and some
specialist Primary Physical Education teachers’ training programmes
are now available in a few teacher training establishments.
The Present Situation: A New National Physical Education
Curriculum
In 2013, Government announced yet another new National
Curriculum to be introduced in schools in 2014. Important features
of the Curriculum embrace:




shorter Programmes of Study for ALL children to excel no
matter what background
subject content, what should be taught, what pupils should
know and be able to do
allowance of maximum level of innovation at school level
in developing content of Programmes of Study
and design of curriculum pathways that meet all learners
needs and interests.
In relation to Assessment, there are no level descriptors and
schools are required to develop new assessment systems. The focus
is on all pupils reaching an expected standard rather than on labelling
differential performance. Explicit in the new National Curriculum is
the development of Numeracy and Literacy in/through all subjects.
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Physical Education is one of only four subjects that is statutorily
required across all four Key Stages. Within a conceptual context of
lifelong physical activity participation and opportunities for all, this
latest Physical Education Curriculum aims to ensure all pupils 5-16
develop confidence and competence to excel in a broad range of
physical activities, are physically active for sustained periods of
time, engage in physical activities and competitive sports and lead,
healthy active lives. It is not overly dissimilar to the 2008
curriculum, being less prescriptive and has a more flexible offering
with choices in physical activities and sports to learn in, and through.
An over-riding mantra is the need to be specific to the needs and
interest of the school and pupils. Greater emphasis is placed on
Fundamental Movement and Physical Literacy throughout the
curriculum stages and especially so in Key Stage 1. There is a
greater focus on competition in the widest sense including selfchallenge, developing cognitive, creative, personal and social skills,
including fair play, and learning from winning or losing.
Additionally, there is a specific focus on sustained activity over time
and health impact. Despite logistical problems in provision and
delivery, Swimming remains a compulsory part of the Primary
School curriculum.
Concluding Comments
Physical Education in England has made significant progress
since its 19th century antecedent foundations. In the early years the
concern was for the immediate health and fitness of the nation and
the emphasis was on training the ‘physical’ in State Elementary
Schools and the cult of 'Athleticism' for the privately educated rich
elite. From the early decades of the 20th century, when most of the
initiatives were discipline and short-term fitness related, Physical
Education in English schools has developed from a narrowly defined
teacher directed subject to its current position of orientation to pupilcentred learning, with an accent on learning 'how to learn', healthfocused physical education, links with other subject areas, development
of assessment procedures and partnership schemes with the local
community. The progression has been variously marked by the
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emergence of an English System shaped by ‘imported’ external
influences on to which were grafted indigenous ‘English Games’ and
other competitive sport activities and which was subsequently modified
by innovative pedagogical and didactical approaches. These
innovations ushered in discovery learning, movement education and
activity for understanding approaches to the teaching/learning interface.
From the 1950s onwards, teachers were encouraged to adopt
different teaching styles and to apply more general educational
principles to the teaching of physical education; more emphasis was
placed on the acquisition of movement skills, which placed greater
demands on the teacher to understand fundamental principles of
movement to plan balanced progressive schemes of work for the
pupils. Inexorably, the trend in the second half of the 20th century was
from the ‘doing’ child, through the ‘doing and thinking’ child to the
‘reflective thinking’ child of the post-1990s physical education national
curriculum era. In the 1990s, the inclusion of Physical Education
within the national curriculum established its legitimacy as a subject
and gave credibility to its status. However, despite the philosophical
and pedagogical intention supported by politico-ideological will, it is
clear that the dominant physical education curriculum ideology in
schools continued to lie with Sport, particularly Games. The
pedagogically inspired movement approach era was replaced (if ever it
needed to be replaced) in the return to the quest for ‘traditional values’.
It was a return, which was endorsed by government supported agencies
and the autonomous National Governing Bodies of Sport.
Since 2002, central Government in England has
demonstrated clear commitment to a partnership of Physical
Education and Sport with large-scale financial investment. The
policy plan for delivering Government commitments was contained
within the Cabinet Office Strategy Unit’s Game Plan (2002)
Strategy document, in which it was claimed that sport can contribute
in the key areas of social inclusion, community cohesion, youth
crime, life long learning, regeneration, economic benefits and health
and well being of communities, and in which there was a vision to
make England an active and successful sporting nation. The mission
was to work with others to create opportunities for people to become
involved in sport, to stay in sport and to excel and succeed in sport at
173
every level. The Game Plan recommended that the government
should adopt a ‘twin track’ approach to increasing participation in
sport and physical activity and developing sustainable improvements
in success in international competition. Further evidence of central
Government’s commitment to excellence and winning was seen in
the DCMS Agenda (Caborn, 2004), where there was a clear
confirmatory statement on what was actually being done: increasing
access to school sports through two hours’ entitlement; improving
the quality and quantity of community sport clubs; focusing upon
quality coaching in schools and the community; and investing in
facilities and protecting playing fields.
The historical development of physical education in
England has been marked by ambivalence and ambiguity. Earlier
perceptions of the duality of physical education and sport have been
in recent years reconciled into unison variously through strategic
policy and/or opportunistic interventions by Government (DfES and
DCMS), and quasi-governmental (Sport England) and nongovernmental (NGBs and afPE) agencies working in collaborative
partnerships to raise standards of provision and delivery of high
quality Physical Education and Sport and increase participation
across a broad spectrum of physical activity in general but sportsrelated activity in particular. Significantly, the joint Department for
Education and Skills/Department of Culture, Media and Sport
(2004) published High Quality PE and Sport for Young People
offered guidelines for the recognition and achievement of high
quality Physical Education and Sport in schools and clubs with a
clear indication that leaders, managers, teachers and coaches should
work together to positively influence young people’s physical
activity behaviours. Now, beneficially, because of support from
coaches and other professional in schools, more opportunities are
available for wider groups of children to follow their interests, before
school, during breaks and lunchtimes, after school, and through
school to club links.
Historical factors have produced a complex set of
arrangements in Physical Education teacher training. Each Higher
Education Institution has enjoyed a deal of autonomy in how it
174
delivers teacher training. Nevertheless, all have been subject to
national quality control procedures related to accreditation of Initial
Teacher Training and have modified programmes to meet the needs
of national curricula and requirements. Inadequacies in Initial
Teacher Training programmes are slowly being alleviated with
support for Teaching and Learning in, and through, Physical
Education via what is becoming a comprehensive network of
Continuing Professional Development programmes, especially for
Primary School teachers. The alleviation process may well be aided
by the training of specialist Primary School Physical Education
teachers in the hitherto small number of training institutions and
establishments across the country.
Since the introduction of a National Physical Education
Curriculum in the 1990s, there has been an unprecedented array of
central, quasi- and non-governmental agencies initiatives and
interventions. It is clearly evident that a veritable ‘jungle’ of
agencies is involved in provision and delivery of physical education
in schools. It is equally clear that over the years there have been
marked shifts in ideological make-up from ‘drill’ and ‘exercise’,
through ‘physical training’, ‘physical education’ and ‘movement
education’ to its present representation as ‘physical education and
school sport’. The latter is coming to transcend the school and
moving into the domain of wider communities involving
partnerships of interest-vested agencies in the name of lifelong
learning, notions of physical literacy and the physically educated
person and at the same time being instrumentally charged with
combating sedentary lifestyle diseases and anti-social behaviour,
increasing levels of obesity and inactivity and producing pools of
young talented people, capable of medals successes in international
sport. Thus, Physical Education and School Sport has become a high
profile sphere of inclusive activity. Nevertheless, a balanced
curriculum is a rhetorical ideal, the reality is a school physical
education curriculum, which is dominated by the potent legacy
inherited from sporting traditions established in 19th century
Independent, mainly Boarding, Schools.
175
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an academic review. Research Papers in Education, 24
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Board of Education (1903). Annual Report, 1902-3.London, HMSO.
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Board of Education (1904). Circular 454. Board of Education.
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Board of Education, (1909). The Syllabus of Physical Exercises for
Schools. London, HMSO.
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Board of Education, (1933). Syllabus of Physical Training. London,
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Board of Education. (1942). McNair Report on the supply, training
and recruitment of teachers. London, HMSO.
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Cross Commission (1888). Final Report of the Commissioners
appointed to inquire into the Elementary Education Acts,
England and Wales. London.
DCMS document ‘Creating a Sporting Habit for Life’. ‘A New
Youth Sport Legacy’ Jeremy Hunt , Secretary of State for
Culture, Olympics Media and Sport.
Department for Education and Skills and Department of Culture,
Media and Sport (2004). High Quality PE and Sport for
Young People. Annesley, DfES Publications..
Department for Education/Welsh Office, (1995). Physical Education in
the National Curriculum. London, H.M.S.O.
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An Illustrative Survey. London, HMSO.
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and implementation support. Physical Education Matters,
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Hardman, K. (2002)., The PE Curriculum in England - Issues
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Lloyd, C., Fry, A., & Wollny, I., (2014). Physical Education and
Sport premium: an investigation in Primary schools.
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Education. London, HMSO.
Ministry of Education, (1952b). Moving and Growing. London,
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Ministry of Education, (1953). Planning the Programme. London,
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Montague, A., (2012). Raising your Game – Using Sport to Raise
Achievement in English, Mathematics and Science.
Loughborough, Youth Sport Trust.
Munrow, (1963). Pure and Applied Gymnastics. London, Edward
Arnold Publisher. pp.21-22.
Ofsted (2013). Beyond 2012 – outstanding physical education for
all. Physical education in schools 2008-12. February.
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Patton, G., (2012). Olympic Legacy: Coalition axes schools sport
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Penney, D., and Kirk, D., (1997). National Curriculum Developments
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Stead, R., & Neville, M., (2010). The Impact of Physical Education
and Sport on Education Outcomes: A Review of
Literature. Institute of Youth Sport, Loughborough
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
AfPE (2006), Newsletter. 3, July.
Department for Education (2011). The Framework for the National
Curriculum A Report by the Expert Panel for the
National Curriculum Review. London, HMSO. December.
Department for Education and Employment (2014). Physical
Education. The National Curriculum for England KS 1-4.
London, HMSO.
Department for Education and Science/Welsh Office, (1992). Physical
Education in the National Curriculum. London, H.M.S.O.
Department for Education and Skills (2005). The Results of the
2004/05 School Sport Survey, Annesley, DfES
Publications, September.
Department for Education and Skills and Department of Culture,
Media and Sport (2004). Learning through PE and Sport.
Annesley, DfES Publications.
Department for Education November (2010). The Importance of
Teaching. The Schools White Paper. London, HMSO.
Department of Education (2013). Physical Education programmes of
study: Key stages 1 and 2 National Curriculum in
England, Department of Education Physical Education
programmes of study: Key stages 3 and 4 National
Curriculum in England. London, HMSO. September.
Ofsted (2006). Ofsted Strategic Plan 2006-2007. Ofsted, May.
Ofsted (2013). Evidence of PE and Sport in Schools. Ofsted. June.
Ofsted (2013). Inspecting primary school PE and school sport: new
funding. Ofsted, September.
Ofsted (2014). Physical education survey visits. Supplementary
subject-specific guidance for inspectors on making
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judgements during school visits. Ofsted, Reference no.
20100015. April.
Ofsted (2014). The physical education and sport premium for
primary schools – good practice to maximise effective use
of the funding. Ofsted, Reference no. 140164. October.
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2006). The curriculum:
QCA looks forward. QCA.
Sport England, (1999). Sport England. More People, More Places,
More Medals. London, Belmont Press.
Sport England/Youth Sport Trust (2008). The PE and Sport Strategy
for Young People. (PESSYP). A guide to delivering the
Five Hour Offer. Sport England/Youth Sport Trust,
London.
Strategy Unit Cabinet Office (2002). Game Plan – a strategy for
delivering Government’s sport and physical activity
objectives, London, HMSO.
Talbot, M., (2007). Policy Matters. ‘Quality’; in Physical Education
Matters. 2 (2). Summer.
Youth Sport Trust (2003). Every Child Matters Through Physical
Education and School Sport. A guide to the work of Youth
Sport Trust in supporting the achievements of Children
Services priorities. Youth Sport Trust.
179
COLOMBIA
PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHER TRAINING
SCHOOLS IN LATIN AMERICA: GENESIS
Luis Felipe Contecha Carrillo, Research Group “ESPARTACUS”,
University of Tolima, History International Section
“FIEP”
Correspondence
Luis Felipe Contecha Carrillo
[email protected]
Abstract
This article accounts for the beginnings of the teacher
training schools in some countries in Latin America. This document
is a result of visiting Institutions and having personal interviews with
a group of Physical Education – PE Professors. It is aimed to
specifically register the antecedents and processes that originated the
institutionalization of the profession: PE teacher.
CHILE
Referring to the history of the Teacher Training School in
Chile, is to journey back in time, in an itinerary that starts in The
Central Institute at Stockholm and to chronologically locate in the
year 1889, in which Joaquin Cabezas G., travelled to Europe in his
study mission, (1936, pg. 404), as he claimed in 1936 in his speech
for the celebration of the 30 years of the institute and his 50 of
service as an educator.
Consequently with what has been said, and with the
importance of the primary source, in this case, the speech published
in the magazine of the Institute, was taken, to write this quick glance
to the creation of the Institute of P.H in Chile.
Professor Cabezas had a scholarship to study in Europe, his
first period lasted four years; in his return to Chile in 1893, he
understood and spread his knowledge, pointing out the necessity of
180
starting a process that allows the teaching and training of pedagogue
teachers in the PE field.
These ideas had refuge in the Ministry of Education,
Federico Puga Borne who hired him in 1897 to organize a temporal
course on vacation for primary teachers, focused on handwork. Of
course, everything learnt in Europe was focused on handwork,
pedagogical games, and the Educational Gymnastics of Ling.
Before this event, in 1902, Manuel Borros Borgoño,
Principal of the University of Chile, included in the syllabus of the
Pedagogical Institute, the subjects of Drawing, Arts, and Physical
Education, the only teacher that leaded those classes was professor
Cabezas.
The situation and support of these classes was not the best,
there were not physical places, tools, and willing from the managers;
this circumstance was the device that got professor Cabezas to think
of the necessity of creating an establishment to train teachers of P.E
in Chile.
Higher Institute for Physical Education
In 1905, the proposal of including in the National Budget an
entry for the creation of an Institute of Higher Physical Education
and hand work, was presented at the National Congress.
In March 1906, with the direction of the just placed teacher
Cabezas, the Institute received the first students in a rented house in
the Arturo Prat Street. It depended from the Ministry of Public
Instruction: its syllabus was based on Handwork, drawing, domestic
economy, shorthand, calligraphy, and Physical Education. Teachers
for Secondary Schools and Normal Schools were being trained. As a
result, the aspirants had to meet the requirements of being a Normal
School graduate Teachers with good grades or at least having
finished fifth year of humanities. Students graduated in two years. Its
first graduates received a certificate in 1907.
In 1918, the graduate students from the school received the
title of State Teacher as the teachers from the Pedagogical Institute
already did.
In 1922 the General Direction of P.E was born. With this
new organism, the title of State Teacher was lost. Professor Cabezas
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was the principal of the Institute until 1928 when he quit after
realizing his ideas did not meet the ones of the new direction created.
The category of Higher Institution was recovered with the
reform of 1931, when the Institute turned into a dependence of the
General Direction of Physical Education and the Council of Higher
Physical Education of the Ministry of War; by then, and for the
request of the President of the Republic Arturo Alesaadri, Professor
Joaquin Cabezas was principal again.
University of Chile
In 1932, after removing the Superior Council and the
General Direction of Physical Education, the Institute integrated to
the School of Philosophy and Sciences of Education of the
University of Chile, From then on, it was called Physical Education
Institute.
In this phase of the Institute, Professor Cabezas does well
retirement and delegates as Director, Doctor and Professor of P.E
Luis Bisquertt Susarte, graduate teacher from the Institute in 1919.
(Guarda, 2006. Pág. 19).
In 1981 the University status got lost again, which was gain
again in 1936, when the Metropolitan University of Sciences of
Education was created.
ARGENTINA
Antecedents of Teacher Training
Romero, E., when referring to the origins, says, “the
Institute was finally, the forced crowning by that ideological
evolution in the European environment of the time, carried then,
from time ago, in our country” (1938, Pg. 41); he claims that mainly,
the influences came from the French, especially Lagrange’s ideas
and the implantation of the English sports in the Educational places.
It was the Colegio Nacional de Corrientes, directed in 1890
by Principal Fitz Simón, where the seed was planted, of what was
going to be, the Institutionalization of the Physical Education in
Argentina; Professor Tomas Reeve was hired to teach outdoor sport
games, as well as, light tool gymnastics. Pablo Pizzurno, was allied
182
to Fitz in the starting of these activities in a particular institution
called Instituto Nacional de Caballito, the professor was Enrique
Romero Brest. (Martin, L. En Holze. Pág. 8)
When the Law of Common Education in 1884 (Nº 1.420),
and until 1898 Physical Education was not well seen by Ministries of
Public Education.
With the reform of 1898, promoted by Pizzurno, secondary
PE was organized in the national schools; from army like and
athletic exercises, it turned into programs with physical rational
exercises based on physiology that assisted the scientific needs of PE
in this effort Pizzurno was supported by Romero Brest in the
technical redacting and regulation of the Decree.
Afterward, and given the success of the reform of 98, in
national schools, Romero Brest redacted the Decree that extended its
limits to the Normal Schools and the Educational Establishments
Is the Decree of 1898 the one which ruled and provided the
creation of athletic clubs in every school in the Argentina. These
organizations were composed with students, alumni and faculty:
their objectives were from the organization of games and exercises to
the realization of annual parties, the setting of musical groups and
the competence between blubs. The associates were forced to
contribute with an economic fee every month. From courses on
vacation for teachers to Normal High School of PE in 1909
In fact, to guide and carry out the established in the reform,
suitable teachers were required which let the programming of a
course on vacation, called in the time, temporal courses of Physical
Education to which not only teachers from D.F., could attend but
also the ones from province schools; there were five courses carried
out in total, between the years 1901 and 1907, there were 309
teachers were trained, the courses were directed by the doctor and
professor Enrique Romero Brest.
The courses on vacation were followed by the Normal
Course theory-practice of physical exercises for teachers from the
three Normal Schools (Decree of April 11 th 1902). A second course
was programmed and officialised by the Vice-president for the year
1905, Figueroa Alcorta, appointed Romero Brest as Director, as
teacher, Mr. Sebastian Duran Gauna and as auxiliary Mr. Nicolás
Bergally. To Romero Brest, this document was the record of the
foundation of the Institute. (Pg.56).
183
The Vacation Course was carried out at Escuela Roca, in
the Rivadavia School and finally in 1908, in a house located in the
Azcuénaga Street 886.
After discomfort and budget and tools insufficiencies, a
period of change came, in which the authorities looked with bigger
clarity the work that was being carried out. In a normal day of
activities in the house of Azcuénaga, the course was visited by
Minister of the Public Instruction of that time, Romulo S, Naón who
observed carefully, questioned and informed the conditions and
perspectives of the course and decided that existing budget and given
the results of the courseit was necessary to improve its state and
proceeded to manage and work, getting the President Figueroa to
decree the creation of the Normal School of P.E. like a dependence
of the Ministry of Public Instruction through a Decree of May 14 th
1909. The Decree ordered the consecution of the Laboratory of
Physiology, from the sufficient material for the classes and named as
professor of anatomy Miguel Sussini.
From Normal of Physical Education to National Higher Institution
of Physical Education.
The name of Normal School of P.E. was only for three
years. In 1912, by management of the Minister Juan M. Garro it
passed to be called Superior National Institute of PE. The change
was based on the title students both men and women already had and
because it was thought that the training received was isolated from
the Higher Education given at different universities. This name was
also changed in the law of the budget which allowed the entailment
of professors and equipped it with the budget needed to face the
challenges put by the new designation.
With the new syllabus and the increment of student’s
registration the Institute required a new facility and the headquarters
was in Coronel Diaz 2180. There were years of strengthening and
institutional progress. A specialization was offered so whoever got it,
wasn´t going to study three but five years.
Doctor Romero Brest continued as Director until 1932, year
in which he resigned his place after 33 years of being entailed with
the Institute.
184
One of the reasons for the resignation of Dr. Romero was
the removal of the Budget Law of the Superior Category, as its new
name was National Institute of PE.
BRAZIL
The teaching of physical exercises and the practice of some
sports in Brazil is linked to the army schools created with the
purpose of training officers in charge of leading the troops. Some of
the masters – in the army – of the time, were Antonio Francisco da
Gama and Pedro Guihermino Meyer, 1858 and 1860 teachers of
fencing and gymnastics respectively.
De Mello, (1996), quoting Merinho, says that the first
attempts for teacher training in Brazil were in 1902, with the
initiative of Coronel Pedro Diaz de Campos in a army school of
fencing in Sao Paulo.
Army Centre of Physical Education
The method of German gymnastics was followed in Brazil
until 1921, when the President of the Republic of the United Stated
of Brazil, Epitacio Pessoa, by Decree No° 14.784, ordered to replace
it by the French gymnastic method, the Centre assumed the method
Hébert. The regulation had aspects related to to the army physical
instruction.
Afterwards, on June 10th 1822, the Army Centre of Physical
Education, its objectives were to lead, coordinate and spread the new
method of army Education and its sports applications. The
instruction was given in three courses; the first one was about P.E.
for officers; the second one was the P.E. for sergeants and the third
one was a course of demonstrations for officers. The two first
courses lasted three months and the third one a month, its objective
was to train instructors for guiding the officials in charge of the
direction e instruction of the soldier. (Marinho, I. p.g 53) Lieutenant,
Ilído Rômilo Colònia, Lieutenant, Joao Barbosa Leite, Lieutenant
Jair Dantas Ribeiro, Lieutenant Freitas Rolim, were some of the
leaders of the Army trainers’ training.
In 1928, Commander Pierre Segûr of the French army was
hired for the Direction of P.E. in the army school; the general
185
regulation of P.E. started, and created a program where practice of
the physical exercises was integrated with a sport in the Army Centre
of PE.
General Nestor Passoas in 1929 presented a preliminary
project to the Commission of P.E. that had into account the necessity
of the practice by the Brazilian citizens in P.E. and the mandatories
of the teaching in the Educational Centres applying the French
method. Marinho (p.g 57) says that it was a project that received
hard critiques by the mandatories of the French method.
Later, courses, where not only army members could register
but the civilians too. There, instructors were trained, as well as,
monitor, gun masters, fencing monitors, and army specialized
doctors.
By the end of the 20’s the PE. and the training of teachers
was a concern not only for the army but also for the civilians who
were claiming proper training for school teachers for being
indispensable agents for the development of the national physical
culture.
Some examples are the departments and schools of PE
created in the states of San Paulo and Espiritu Santo. The Decree N°
19.402 of November 14, 1930 created the ministry of Education and
Public Health. These developments and questions were the
beginning of the necessity for the creation of what in 1930 was
heard, the National School of Physical Education.
National School of Physical and Sports Education NSPSE
In the VII National Congress of Education, which central
theme was PE the idea of Ciro de Morais was presented, where he
proposed the creation of a school for training teachers of P.E. among
the conclusions of the congress the possibility of creating a normal
school of P.E. that was subscribed to the University of Rio de Janeiro
Brazil was also had into account.
In 1937, in the Ministry of Education and the Health
through Law 378, the division of Physical Education – D.P.E – was
created; its first director was Joâo Barbosa Leite; as consequence of
the work of the D.P.E the National School of Physical Education and
Sports – NSPES – was created.
186
The exhibition of reasons was presented by Gustavo
Copanema and Getuliio Vargas; the NSPES, was founded in the year
1939, through Decree Law 1212; it was the first Brazilian School
that was part of a University, the University of Brazil – UB –.
Currently, the School is integrated to the Federal University of Rio
de Janeiro – FURJ –.
Its functions were to train professionals for the P.E. area; to
spread the knowledge related with the field; and to carry our research
about perspectives of the Brazilian physical education.
Colonel Otavio Saldanha Nazza delivered, in an official
ceremony, to the Commander Inacio Freitas Rolim the
administration and direction of NSPES; and was its principal until
1948. (De Melo, 1996)
COLOMBIA
National Institute of Physical Education in Colombia
Former professor of the Universidad Pedagígica Nacional
Mr. Vaca, H. – R.I.P. – stated that the Colombian P.E. started in
November 1925 with the spreading of Law 80 of the same year, in
the same way, Gómez Moreno and Parra Parra1, called that law, “the
cornerstone of the Physical Education in Colombia”.
Is important to highlight that Echeverry2 member of the
House of Representatives was a lecturer of the Law and the
presentation of reasons, made it clear, which part of what was
presented was copied textually from article 6° of the Law 7 July
1911 from Uruguay.
The transcendence of the Law is based on the importance
given to the P.E. and to sport, so through a National Physical
Education Plan, would be carried out to the schools and universities,
in the same way, the Law created halls or plazas of sports,
procreative associations, placed parameter for the building of
GÓMEZ M. Y PARA, L. Historia de la educación física en Colombia como
profesión. 1936-1986. Universidad Central Bogotá, 1986
2
Was a diplomatic agent of Colombia in Uruguay, which let him be part and
Exchange ideas and concepts with the National Commission of P.E. in that country, he
redacts what would later be, the great charter of the P.E.
1
187
stadiums, and for the organization of sport events in all the places in
the country3.
The first course for teachers was motivated for the urgent
need of giving fulfilment to the Law 80 of 1925. The Colombian
State had hired the services of German Professor Hans Hubers, who
as head of the P.E. section, was in charge of teaching courses, he
also was in charge of the celebration of the Olympiad during four
years. These Olympiads were the first movement that later would
build the organization of National Olympiads and the passing to the
National Games that are celebrated today. Nevertheless, Hans
Hubers, was not heard by the government of the time and as an
urgent recommendation in his report, he suggested the necessity of
preparing Specialized Teachers.
Forero narrated how initially, the Swedish school product of
Chilean work influenced PE in Colombia 4. So in August 1936, 180
people, among them, professors, lieutenants and police officers,
registered to the first course of P.E. training programmed by the
National Direction of Physical Education. The course was guided
between May 11 and September 5. The National Ministry of
Education and the Chilean mission, gave them the title of trainers of
gymnastics5
This first step to the training and instruction gave birth to
the National Institute of Physical Education NIPE, which was
created through Decree 1528, 25 June 1936, and depended from the
National Direction of P.E. its first principal was the Chilean
Candelario Sepúlveda La Fuente. The Colombian president of the
time was Alfonso López Pumarejo6.
The conditions for entering to NIPE were:
For deepening the information, see: VACA H Ángel H. Historia de la Educación
Física Colombiana a través de sus Normas. Bogotá, 1987.
4
Forero Nougues, In interview said, Agustin Nieto Caballero met professor Joaquín
Cabezas who was pupil of Per Henry Ling. In his return to Colombia, he asks him to
come to Colombia too, but because of his age, he recommends Candelario Sepulveda
as leader of the Chilean mission and Ramón Quintana as his assessor.
5
The clases carried out were about Anatomy, Philosophy, Chemistry, Nutrition
Sociology, and Gymnastics.
6
Leads the Liberals to power after almost fifty years in the opposition. He starts in
Colombia a campaign of renewing and changing, under the slogan “The revolution in
March” at the moment of creating NIPE, the minister of education was Educación
Darío Echandía Olaya (1897-1989)
3
188
Being a high school or normal school graduate student
Presenting a certificate of good health
Having a minimum height of 1.55 mts – women – and 1.65
mts – men –
- Presenting and pass the physical efficiency
Between its first students, the NIPE had Alberto Gómez
Moreno, Cecilia Navarrete, Miguel Forero Nogues and Numae
Hernández, who were later the professors to continue the teachers
training in Colombia.
The NIPE depended from the National Direction of P.E.
and its function was to train teachers of P.E. as well as, instructors,
masseuses and managers of sport plazas; developing research
projects in health and growing of Colombian children.
In this first phase of NIPE two promotions were graduated
in 19377 and 1938 respectively. The career lasted three years
By Decree 868, 19 of April 1939 NIPE was incorporated to
the Universidad Nacional de Colombia its directors were all doctors,
by 1942, three promotions are graduated according to record 03 of
January 20, agreement number 4, it is closed by the Universidad
Nacional and the government is asked to continue again being in
charge of it. It’s important to mention that the first sport facilities of
the Universidad Nacional de Colombia were built for the PE
activities
The NIPE was closed by Decree Nº 166 of January 27,
1942, what originated the Physical Education team at the Superior
Normal School. And the National Institute of PE was integrated to it.
-
Normal Superior School and the imminent closing of
NIPE
When added to the Normal School, the Institute was
directed in 1942 and 1951 by six professors: German Salesian José
Mosser who it’s remembered for teaching Gymnastics with different
First Graduates of NIPE: Ana María Chávez P, Gilma Wills O, Rita Perdomo, Elisa
Gaviria, Rosa Cubillos, Josefina Chávez S, Carlos Arias, Justo Peñalosa, Alberto
Rendón, Enrique Vargas, Luis E Sánchez y Miguel García.
7
189
devices, Spanish Manuel Usano8 Francisco Acosta, Mike Forero
Nougues, José Rivera, and Carlos Alberto Guzmán. In this period,
the Colombian Association of P.E. teachers, was created (1941).
During the functioning as Institute added to the Normal
School, important events happened, like the graduation of professor
José Velandia, first teacher of P.E. who acted as physical trainer in a
professional football team9 the visit of Professor Mayor J.G Thulin,
the transformation of the Normal Superior School, to Normal
Superior University School and its masculine team transfer to Tunja.
In the last graduation of NIPE, the graduates were given the
Title of Bachelor of Arts, being these the first of Colombia to receive
such title; the honour was conceived after studying an extra year,
otherwise they would have receive just a certificate of trainer.
Finally, the institute was closed on November the 6, 1951.
Creation of the National School of Physical Education
NSPE
After some months of uncertainty, and with pressure of
students and teachers, in 1952 through Decree N° 1052 of April 22,
the National School of Physical Education – NSPE – was open; it
was a Ministry of Education independent organism. Its headquarters
would be in Bogotá and the masculine and feminine sides were still
separated, the career was three years long10. Although it had two
headquarters, legally it was just one.
In 1954, by action of Decree N° 221, the NSPE was legally
turned into two entities completely independent. Paradoxically, the
unification (1959) of the schools was done by a management
decision that only conceived budget ownership to one entity 11. The
For more information read MARTINEZ G. María E. En Historia del Deporte en
España
y
Colombia:
Manuel
Usano
Martín
(1907-1987),
en
www.sportquest.com/revista/ Digital Magazine – Buenos Aires – year 5 – May 2000
9
VACA H Ángel Humberto. Op. cit
10
For more information read VACA H Ángel Humberto. Historia del Alma Mater de
la Educación Física en Colombia. Second part. Universidad Pedagógica Nacional.
Bogotá 1998.
11
Decree N° 1013 of Abril 6, 1959, Determined that the establishment named
National School of Physical Education dependent of the Sports Section Ministry of
Education, which was in charge of teachers training in both sexes and technicians
training in physical Education activities and in the other branches related to
8
190
united NSPE started labours with 73 students. Until 1962, 311
students were graduated in 18 promotions, six syllabuses were
designed. The biomedical training was kept as well as cleaning,
sports, dancing, general culture, gymnastics history. There was not
any training in the research field.
MEXICO
Superior School of Physical Education "SSPE"
Previous to the rising of the Superior School of P.E. in
Mexico, affords to dignify the role of the teacher as a protagonist of
the consolidation of the educational project of the Normal Schools.
in 1885, courses of improvement where the importance of the
corporal work was highlighted and the teaching of principles of P.H
and sanitation in the training of the teachers; this training was done
in the Escuela Modelo de Orizaba and in the Normal School of
Xalapa under the direction of Enrique C. Rébsamen.
Afterward, with the creation of the Normal School of
Teachers of Primary school, in the city of Mexico in 1887, in the
syllabus the subject gymnastics was offered. Consequently, National
congresses and upgrades to the curriculum of the Normal High
School carried out between 1889 and 1896 the gymnastics, PE
teaching and army exercises.
The creation of the Magerly School of Fencing and
Gymnastics in 1907, led to the institutionalization of teachers
training, it was an Army instruction; one of the directors of the
school was the French Lucien Merignac.
In 1921, this effort was complemented with the creation of
the Secretary of Public Education "SPE" as an initiative of José
Vasconcelos, who was also the promoter of the creation of the
General direction of P.E.; these actions originated the elemental
course of P.E. ascribed to the brand new School of Elemental PE
(1923).
organization of courses of improvement. The law also regulated the requirements for
being accepted like age (between 17 and 30 years old) minimum height 1.65 mts.
191
The methodological focus of the Elementary School of PE
was focused mainly in the theoretical foundations of the game and
the sport, the concept: mind, body and a corporal ideal based on the
moral; also had into account the teaching of sports as well as the
rescue of the autonomous and folklore. it worked until 1927, when
through Agreement N° 94 of June 11 was closed giving way to the
Academic School of PE ascribed to the National University of
Mexico "NUM". Five groups were graduated from this school who
made up the first generation of professionals in PE in Mexico
By circumstances of the university life, in 1932, the school
is isolated of the University and the Normal School of Physical
Education.
From the Normal School of Physical Education in 1936 to
National School of Physical Education
In the period of the Normal School of PE the teaching of PE
was declared mandatory in the schools, the National Direction of
Physical Education (NDPE), the preliminary teaching was decreed
so the NDPE was turned into a dependence of the secretary of
National Defence: besides, the Normal School of PE joined the
Department of Pedagogical Studies of the Direction of Superior
teaching and scientific research in the "SEP" (1943).
In 1947 when the Normal School of PE was incorporated to
the Department of Normal and Urban Teaching of the General
Direction of Normal Education. Two years later, the General
Direction of PE (Agreement 26 of January 1949), was created, and
one of its effects is that the Normal School of PE changed its name
to National School of Physical Education “NSPE” and during 24
years functioned at the Centro Social y Obrero: Deportivo
Venustiniano Carranza.
From the National School of Physical Education “NSPE” in 1949
to Superior School of Physical Education, “SSPE” 1979.
This was a period of institutional consolidation in teachers
training in the P.E area, as the opening of schools in different regions
of the country. With it the Army focused proposal changed to a
technical-sporty one, now the time of the career changed from three
192
to four years; the title to achieve was Bachelor or Arts (Secretarial
Agreement N° 11140 of 1976).
The adjudication of the lands located in the sport city for
the construction of the headquarters of the National School of P.E.
Construction that started in 1958; these facilities were inaugurated
being the president Adolfo López Mateos and secretary of public
education Jaime Torres Bodet.
The school students played an important role during the
development of the XIX Olympic Games, as an example, we can
quite Manuel Guerrero Sainos and Angel Fernando Rangel Munguia,
who officiated as Athletics judges and were present as witnesses of
the world record in long jumping Bob Beamon.
By requirement of student movements inside de NSPE, the
building of a laboratories, the modernization of physical facilities,
were changed, as well as, the name of the institution for Superior
School of Physical Education SSPE
Superior School of Physical Education, “SSPE”
Through agreement N° 36 of the Secretary of Public
Education, with date: 31 October 1979. The syllabus had been
updated in several opportunities attending the necessities, reforms
and realities of the Mexican context; post-graduate programs are
offered since 1997 not only in the SSPE, but also in the Normal
Schools of D.F.
URUGUAY
As requirement for achieving the objectives of the National
Commission of Physical Education, (NCPE) courses were organized
under the model and methodology of the Young Christian Men
Association (YMCA), this work was directed by Jess Hopkins, from
Kansas, USA.
Between 1920 and 1936 six courses were
organized, for training the teachers that were going to work in the
available places for Physical Education, in a systematic way.
193
Normal Institute of Physical Culture
In 1938, Anibal Roig who worked as a secretary of the
NCPE presented the creation project of the Normal of Physical
Culture Institute. And through Decree of December the 3 1939, the
courses started. The first promotion graduated in 1942. Professor
Julio J. Rodiguez. And professor of gymnastics Pedro De Hegedeus,
was who introduced the guidelines of the Neosueca School. For
1948, Professor Alberto Langlade who helped De Hedeus, assumed
the course of gymnastics; Langlade left an important legacy as he
was boss of studies, changing teacher’s training in Uruguay. In 1952,
by lead of the students, the name of the course was changed for
Superior Institute.
BOLIVIA
Superior Institute of Physical Education SIPE
In 1936, Diaz Vera wrote: “the serious step for the physical
Education in Bolivia, was given in 1909, when the Normal School of
Sucre was founded” (Physical Education bulletin. Year II N° 7)
By year 1909 being President Ismael Montes and Daniel
Calvo as Minister, the idea of creating a school of physical
improving for young men who wanted to dedicate to training
teenagers, the National Army delegated this task.
In 1914, the Physical Education General Direction was
created and Belgian professor Henri de Gents. In 1918 the Physical
Education Section was created and the Superior Normal of Peace
was annexed to it. Later on May the 7, 1926 through Decree of the
President Hernando Siles, the course of PE was created, which had
to be executed in two years. The contents of the rapid course was
distributed in the following areas, Gymnastics and Sports,
Methodology and Didactics, directed by General Inspector of PE
professor Saturnino Rodriguez, who later travelled to Europe to get
informed about the new tendencies of PE in that continent.
The contents of the medical area, were guided by Dr. Carlos
Valenzuela; the Experimental Psychology by Professor Juvenal
Mariaca. Form this course 43 teachers graduated, 17 ladies and 26
gentlemen on December the 31 1931.
194
On February 3, through Supreme Decree of 1931, the
Superior Institute of P.E. was founded – SIPE – its first Director was
Professor Saturnino Rodriguez. During his years of Functioning it
has changed its name, after it was created; its name was changed to
Superior Normal Institute of Physical Education “Antonio José de
Sucre” (Supreme Decree of February 1951)
PERÚ
National School of Physical Education
Created by Supreme Resolution N° 326 of September the 6
1932, trained teachers specialized on Physical Education and
technical sports. This Institution was an achievement of professors
Carlos Caceres Alvarez, who was its first director. As collaborators
on this idea, he counts on Jorge Romaña, Yori Carlos Alvarado,
Jesus D. Lopez, Miguel Alegre, Luis E Palma and Juan Ojeda.
195
REFERENCES
Boletin de Educación Física. Año III-Nº9. (1936). Instituto de
Educación Física de la Unive CHILE 2003 060.jpgrsidad
d CHILE 2003 060.jpge Chile. Santiago de Chile.
Boletín de Educación Física. Año I-Nº1. (1934). Instituto de
Educación Física de la Universidad de Chile. Santiago de
Chile.
Callejas, A. (2008) Breve Historia de la Educación Física en Bolivia
(1900-1981) recuperado de http://www.efdeportes.com/
Revista Digital - Buenos Aires - Año 13 - Nº 127 Diciembre de 2008
Chávez, R. (2012) Historia de la Educación Física en México.
México, Trillas.
Contecha C. Luis Felipe. La Educación Física y el Deporte en
Colombia.
http://orbita.starmedia.com/fiepcolombia
Artículo en permanente construcción.
De Mello, V. (1996) Escola Nacional de Educaçao Fisica em
desportos- Una possível História. Master Thesis,
Faculdad de Educaçao Física, Universidad de Campinas.
Diaz O Jorge. Las escuelas de educación física en Latinoamérica –
Estudio comparativo. ediciones JADO Córdoba Argentina
1994.
Diaz, H. (1936) La Educación Física en Bolivia. Boletín de
Educación Física, Año II-nº 7, Enero. Instituto de
Educación Física de la Universidad de Chile.
Fuentes: Saravi, J.A. (1988). Historia de la Educación Física
Argentina. Siglo XIX. Instituto Nacional de Educación
Física de Buenos Aires Dr. Enrique Romero Brest.
Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Gomez M Alberto & Parra P Luis A. Historia de la Educación Física
en Colombia como profesión, 1936 – 1986. Publicaciones
Universidad Central. Bogotá, 1986.
Holze H. (1986). Contribuciones a la documentación e investigación
de las ciencias del Deporte. Volumen I – 80 aniversario.
(compiladora) Instituto Nacional de Educación Física de
Buenos Aires Dr. Enrique Romero Brest. Buenos Aires,
Argentina
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ICFES. Sistema Nacional de Información de la educación superior –
SNIES. www.icfes.gov.co.
Marinho, I. (1980) Historia de la Educación Física en Brasil. Sao
Paulo, Brasil.
Romero, E. (1938). El sentido espiritual de la Educación Física.
Evolución de una escuela Argentina: el Instituto nacional
de Educación Física. Librería del Colegio, Alsina y
Bolívar; Buenos Aires, Argentina
Vaca Hángel. Historia de la educación física Colombiana a través de
sus normas. Universidad Central Bogotá 1987.
Vaca Hángel. Historia del Alma Mater de la educación física
Colombiana Universidad Pedagógica Nacional. Facultad
de Educación Física Bogotá 1993.
Vaca Hángel. Historia del Alma Mater de la Educación Física
Colombiana. Segunda parte. Universidad Pedagógica
Nacional. Facultad de Educación Física Bogotá 1998.
Vidal, S. (1952) Los Veinte años del Instituto de Educación Física
del Perú. Revista Chilena de Educación Física, Nº 72,
Santiago de Chile.
197
CIP - Каталогизација у публикацији - Народна библиотека
Србије, Београд
371.3::796(4)(091)(082)
HISTORY of Physical Education in Europe. 2 / [editors Petar D.
Pavlovic
... et al.]. - Leposavić : University of Pristina, Faculty of Sport and
Physical Education ; [Bratislava] : FIEP Europe, History of Physical
Education and Sport Section, 2015 (Bratislava : ABL Print). - 197
str. :
ilustr. ; 21 cm
Tiraž 100. - Napomene i bibliografske reference uz tekst. Bibliografija
uz svaki rad.
ISBN 978-86-82329-53-4 (FSPE)
ISBN 978-86-82329-54-1 (niz)
a) Физичко васпитање - Историја - Европа - Зборници
COBISS.SR-ID 218578444
--

History of physical education in europe II

Transcription

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