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THE DEPICTION OF A (NATIONAL) HERO: PANGERAN DIPONEGORO
IN PAINTINGS FROM THE NINETEENTH CENTURY UNTIL TODAY
MASTER THESIS
In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master
Study Program: Cultural Studies
Major: Art Studies
Written By:
Nebojsa Djordjevic
S701208012
POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM
SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY
SURAKARTA
2014
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THESIS
THE DEPICTION OF A (NATIONAL) HERO: PANGERAN DIPONEGORO IN
PAINTINGS FROM THE NINETEENTH CENTURY UNTIL TODAY
Written By
Nebojsa Djordjevic
S701208012
Committee
Supervisor I
Name
Dra. Sri Kusumo Habsari,
Signature
Date
-------------------------
__-__-2014
-------------------------
__-__-2014
M. Hum, Ph.D.
NIP 196703231995122001
Supervisor II
Dr. Hartini, M. Hum.
NIP 1950030011978032004
Certified the requirements on
Date: ............................2014.
Head of Cultural Studies Study Programme
Postgraduate Programme UNS
Prof. Dr. Bani Sudardi, M. Hum
NIP 196409181989031001
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THE DEPICTION OF A (NATIONAL) HERO: PANGERAN DIPONEGORO IN
PAINTINGS FROM THE NINETEENTH CENTURY UNTIL TODAY
THESIS
By
Nebojsa Djordjevic
S701208012
Defended his thesis in front of examiners
Acknowledge that he complies with requirements
On (date) ................. 2014
Examination Committee:
Position
Name
Signature
Chairman
Prof. Dr. Bani Sudardi, M.
Hum
NIP 196409181989031001
..................................
Examiners
1. Dra. Sri Kusumo Habsari,
..................................
M. Hum, Ph.D.
NIP 196703231995122001
2. Dr. Hartini, M. Hum.
..................................
NIP 1950030011978032004
Acknowledge by:
Director
Postgraduate Program
Prof. Dr. Ir. Ahmad Yunus, M. S.
NIP 196107171986011001
Head of Study Programme
Cultural Studies
Prof. Dr. Bani Sudardi, M. Hum
NIP 196409181989031001
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STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICITY AND CONDITIONS OF PUBLICATION
I truthfully declare that:
1. Thesis entitled THE DEPICTION OF A (NATIONAL) HERO: PANGERAN
DIPONEGORO IN PAINTINGS FROM THE NINETEENTH CENTURY UNTIL
TODAY is my own research work and there are no scientific papers that have been asked
by others to obtain academic degrees and there is no this work or opinion was never written
or published by another person, except those written with reference to the referent sources –
mentioned in text and/or bibliography. If it proves that text of this have elements of
plagiarism, then I am willing to accept the sanctions required, both to my master 's degree
thesis along with cancelation of my title and procession according with the legislation in
force .
2. Publication of part or all of the contents of this thesis in scientific journals or other
forums must include the name of author, together with his advisor/mentorship team as well
as naming UNS as the institution where this writing was published. If there is a violation of
these provisions concerning publication, then I am willing to receive academic sanctions
that apply.
Surakarta , .........................................
Student
Nebojsa Djordjevic,
S701208012
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Nebojsa Djordjevic.NIM:S701208012.2014. The depiction of a (national) hero: Pangeran
Diponegoro in paintings from the nineteenth century until today. THESIS. Supervisor I:
Dra. Sri Kusumo Habsari, M. Hum, Ph D, II: Dr. Hartini, M. Hum. Postgraduate Program –
Cultural Studies, Sebelas Maret University Surakarta.
ABSTRACT
The objective of this research is to examine the idea of heroism in Indonesia and how it was
shown in painting as a relatively new art form in this country. Pangeran Diponegoro (17851855) was rebellious prince in Java who fought against the Dutch. He entered paintings in
Indonesia as soon as his rebellion ended. His appearance is one of the constant motifs in
Indonesian paintings. The idea for this research was to show how Diponegoro was painted
within different concepts.
This research is a qualitative study which primarily used Pierce semiotics (which includes
sign in three aspects – icon sign, index signs, and symbol signs) to examine artworks and
their meaning. Theoretical triangulation is achieved by using Postcolonial theory and its
writing in analyses of these artworks. Cultural hybridity, identity, nationalism, nationbuilding, and other ideas are present in artwork and its signs.
With the end of the Java War, Javanese society experienced major changes in economical
as well as in cultural aspects. Painting is an art form that was introduced to Javanese in this
period. One of the first motifs in Indonesian painting was Pangeran Diponegoro. Briefly
after Java War Dutch painter Nicolaas Pieneman painted a scene of submission of
Diponegoro. The Javanese reply came few years after in painting of Raden Saleh, the first
local artist who was trained in Europe. S. Sudjojono was one of the most prominent
Indonesian painters and he painted Pangeran Diponegoro as national hero in 1979. In 1994
an emerging Indonesian artist paid homage to Diponegoro in his artwork and in 2007 Heri
Dono painted his caricature painting of wrongful arrest of Diponegoro in twisted Indonesia.
The idea of heroism changed over time and it has also looked different in different
historical periods. Dutch painting of Pangeran Diponegoro had sense of pride and dignity in
it. Yet it is an expression of Dutch ignorance, arrogance, and dominance over the Javanese.
Javanese response is also controversial – some see it as proto-nationalistic painting, others
dismiss it as servile. Indonesian paintings are full of nationalism and pride, but also with
strong artistic messages of warning and critique toward society. While some signs have
clear meanings which are shown in this research, the majority of them are fluid and open
for discussion about ideas of nationalism, heroism, and identity in Indonesia.
Key words: national heroes, culture, Indonesia, Pangeran Diponegoro
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Nebojsa Djordjevic.NIM:S701208012.2014. The depiction of a (national) hero: Pangeran
Diponegoro in paintings from the nineteenth century until today. THESIS. Supervisor I:
Dra. Sri Kusumo Habsari, M. Hum, Ph D, II: Dr. Hartini, M. Hum. Postgraduate Program –
Cultural Studies, Sebelas Maret University Surakarta.
ABSTRAK
Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menguji ide kepahlawanan di Indonesia dan
bagaimana itu ditampilkan dalam lukisan sebagai bentuk karya seni yang relatif baru di
negeri ini. Pangeran Diponegoro (1785-1855) adalah pangeran yang memberontak dan
berperang melawan Belanda di Jawa. Sosoknya menjadi terkenal dalam lukisan di
Indonesia sesaat setelah pemberontakannya berakhir. Penampilannya adalah salah satu
motif konstan dalam lukisan Indonesia. Ide untuk penelitian ini adalah untuk menunjukkan
bagaimana sosok Diponegoro dalam konsep yang berbeda.
Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kualitatif yang terutama digunakan dalam semiotika
Pierce (tanda yang termasuk dalam tiga aspek - tanda icon, tanda-tanda indeks, dan tandatanda simbol) untuk memeriksa karya seni dan makna triangulasi teoretis mereka dicapai
dengan menggunakan teori pascakolonial dan menulis dalam analisis karya seni ini .
Hibriditas budaya, identitas, nasionalisme, pembangunan bangsa, dan ide-ide lain yang
hadir dalam karya seni beserta tanda-tandanya.
Dengan berakhirnya Perang Jawa, masyarakat Jawa mengalami perubahan besar dalam
ekonomi serta aspek budaya. Lukisan merupakan sebuah bentuk seni yang diperkenalkan
ke Jawa pada periode ini. Salah satu motif pertama dalam seni lukis Indonesia adalah
Pangeran Diponegoro. Sesaat setelah pelukis Java War Belanda Nicolaas Pieneman
melukis adegan pengajuan Diponegoro. Balasan Jawa datang beberapa tahun setelah dalam
lukisan Raden Saleh, seniman lokal pertama yang dilatih di Eropa. S. Sudjojono adalah
salah satu pelukis paling menonjol Indonesia dan ia melukis Pangeran Diponegoro sebagai
pahlawan nasional pada tahun 1979. Pada tahun 1994 muncul artis Indonesia memberi
penghormatan kepada Diponegoro dalam karya seninya dan pada tahun 2007 Heri Dono
melukis lukisan karikatur tentang penangkapan salah Diponegoro di dipelintir Indonesia.
Ide kepahlawanan berubah dalam waktu ke waktu dan itu juga tampak berbeda dari periode
sejarah yang berbeda. Lukisan Belanda Pangeran Diponegoro memiliki rasa kebanggaan
dan martabat di dalamnya. Namun itu tampak sebagai ekspresi ketidaktahuan Belanda,
arogansi, dan dominasi atas Jawa. Respon Jawa juga kontroversial - yang melihatnya
sebagai proto-nasionalis lukisan, sementara yang lainnya menolak itu sebagai sepotong
budak seni. Lukisan Indonesia penuh dengan nasionalisme dan kebanggaan, tetapi juga
dengan pesan peringatan artistik yang kuat dan kritik terhadap masyarakat. Sementara
beberapa tanda-tanda memiliki makna yang jelas yang ditunjukkan dalam penelitian ini,
mayoritas dari mereka adalah ibarat cairan yang terbuka untuk diskusi tentang ide-ide
nasionalisme, heroisme, dan identitas di Indonesia.
Kata Kunci: pahlawan nasional, budaya, Indonesia, Pangeran Diponegoro
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MOTTO
~
There is no need to carry me to another prison. My life is already ebbing away.
I suggest that you nail me to a cross and burn me alive.
My flaming body will be a torch to light my people on their path to freedom.
Gavrilo Princip (1894-1918)
~
Diponegoro is a combination of words
Which, when literally translated from Javanese to English, means:
„The Light of the Country‟
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˷
To My Heroes: My Family and My Friends
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1. The First Western Look at Pangeran Diponegoro
43
1.1.
A. J. Bick, charcoal sketch, 1830
43
1.2.
A. C. Anthony, lithography, 1830
43
1.3.
Note of 100 Indonesian rupiah from 1952
43
2. Nicolaas Pieneman: Submission of Diponegoro (1830-1835)
45
3. Javanese Look at Pangeran Diponegoro
52
3.1.
Batik Perang Diponegoro
52
3.2.
Pangeran Diponegoro from Buku Kedung Kebo
52
3.3.
Portrait of young Pangeran Diponegoro
52
3.4.
(and 3.5.)Wayang Diponegoro
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4. Raden Saleh: The Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro (1857)
55
5. Diponegoro as National Symbol in years after Independence
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5.1.
5.2.
Equestrian Statue of Diponegoro in Monas – Monumen Nasional
National Monument, Jakarta. Work of Italian sculptor Cobertaldo
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5.3.
Basuki Abdulah „Diponegoro Memimpin Pertempuran‟ (1940-1960)
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6. Pangeran Diponegoro in New Order Era (1966 – 1998)
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6.1.
Equestrian statue of Pangeran Diponegoro in main square in Magelang
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6.2.
Sasana Wiratama in Jogjakarta
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6.3.
Equestrian statue of Pangeran Diponegoro in Semarang
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7. S. Sudjojono: Diponegoro (1979)
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8. S. Sudjojono. 1979. Pasukan Kita Yang Dipimpin Pangeran Diponegoro
(Our Soldiers Led Under Prince Diponegoro).
9. Djajeng Asmoro. 1980. Pangeran Diponegoro.
80
10. Agung Kurniawan: Homage to Prince Diponegoro (1994)
87
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10.1. Pangeran Diponegoro (detail)
88
10.2. Kesatria Baja Hitam (Kamen Rider Black) – Japanese superhero
88
11. Heri Dono: Salah Tangkap Pangeran Diponegoro (2007)
91
12. Heri Dono. 2002. Raden Saleh Jadi Londo
96
13. Heri Dono. 2009. The Error of Pieneman‟s Perspective
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14. Contemporary Look at Pangeran Diponegoro
98
14.1. Opera Diponegoro
98
14.2. Dramatic reading about Pangeran Diponegoro
98
14.3. Indieguerillas. 2012. This Hegemony Life
99
14.4. (and 14.5.) Manga-like Diponegoro
99
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ASRI
HIK
Akademi Seni Rupa Indonesia
Hollandsche Indische Kweekschool
IKJ
ISI
ITB
IVAA
KBBI
LEKRA
PERSAGI
Institut Kesenian Jakarta
Institut Seni Indonesia
Institut Teknik Bandung
Indonesian Visual Art Archive
Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia
Lembaga Kebudayaan Rakyat
Persatoean Asal Gambar Indonesia
PKI
POETRA
S.
SIM
UGM
UNESCO
UNS
VOC
Indonesian Fine Art Academy
Dutch East Indian School for
Teachers
Institute for Art Jakarta
Indonesian Institute for Art
Techincal Institute in Bandung
Great Dictionary of Indonesian
Institute for People‟s Culture
Association of Indonesian Drawing
Specialists
Partai Komunis Indonesia
Communist Party of Indonesia
Poesat Tenaga Rakjat
Centre for the People‟s Power
Sindudarsono
First name of Sudjojono
Seniman Indonesia Moeda
Young Indonesian Artists
Universitas Gadjah Mada
Gadjah Mada University, Jogjakarta
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
Universitas Negeri Sebelas Maret
Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta
Vereeningde Oost-Indishe
United East India Company
Compagnie
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EXTRAS
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1
Framework of the research (Chapter 2, Subchapter D)
31
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1
Primary Data (Chapter 3, Subchapter C)
36
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1
List of National Heroes in Indonesia (Table 1)
110
Appendix 2
Statistics from List of National Heroes
117
Appendix 3
Poster of National Heroes in Indonesia
124
Appendix 4
Web visibility of key terms from research (Table 2)
125
Appendix 5
Analyses of Table 2
126
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CONTENT
FRONT PAGE
APPROVAL PAGE
STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICITY
ABSTRACT
APSTRAK
MOTTO
DEDICATION
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
EXTRAS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF APPENDICES
CONTENT
CHAPTER I
A. Background
B. Problem Formulation
C. Objectives of the Research
D. Significance of the Research
CHAPTER II – LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Main Concepts
1. Heroism
1.1.
Word for Hero
1.2.
Heroes and National Heroes in Indonesia
1.3.
Pangeran Diponegoro – The National Symbol
2.
Indonesian Painting
B. Theoretical Basis
1. Postcolonial Theory
2. Visual Semiotics
C. Relevant Researches
1. Researches about Heroism
1.1.
Researches about Pangeran Diponegoro
2. Researches about Indonesian painting
D. Framework of Research
E. Hypothesis
CHAPTER III – METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
A. Location and Time of Research
B. Locus of Research
C. Data and Source of Data
D. Technique of Collecting Data
E. Technique of Analyzing Data
F. Approach to Analyzing Data
G. Validation of Data
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CHAPTER IV – ANALYSES
A. The 19th century - Pangeran Diponegoro: Villain and Hero
1. The 19th century in Indonesia
2. Art history of the 19th century
3. Western Eyes: Nicolaas Pieneman‟s Vision of Pangeran Diponegoro
3.1.
Biography of Nicolaas Pieneman
3.2.
Submission of Diponegoro (1830-5) – History and Signs
4. Javanese Eyes: Raden Saleh‟s Vision of Pangeran Diponegoro
4.1.
Biography of Raden Saleh
4.2.
Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro (1857) – History and Signs
5. Pangeran Diponegoro: Villain, Rebellion, or Hero
B. Indonesian art (1950-1990): Depicting a National Hero
1. The 20th century in Indonesia: History of Nation and Art
2. Pangeran Diponegoro: National Hero in Art
3. Indonesian Eyes: S. Sudjojono‟s Vision of Pangeran Diponegoro
3.1.
Biography of S. Sudjojono
3.2.
Diponegoro (1979) – History and Signs
4. Pangeran Diponegoro: One Brick in Wall of Nation
C. Indonesian art (1990-today): Nation in need of (Super) Hero
1. Art and Life of Indonesia Today
2. Contemporary Indonesian Eyes Look Toward Pangeran Diponegoro
2.1.1.
Biography of Agung Kurniawan
2.1.2.
Homage to Prince Diponegoro (1994): History and Signs
2.2.1.
Biography of Heri Dono
2.2.2.
Salah Tangkap Pangeran Diponegoro (2007): History and Signs
3. Who Are the Heroes Now and Do We Need Them?
D. Depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro from the 19th until today
CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Conclusion
B. Recommendations
SUMMARY
RINGKASAN
APPENDICES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SOURCE OF ILLUSTRATIONS
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CHAPTER I
A.
Background
The concepts of hero and heroism are hard to grasp. Definitions of these terms go
from early heroes in literature whose adventures were written thousands of years ago until
movie about superheroes today. The concept of heroism has been confused with related,
possibly contributing factors such as altruism, compassion, and empathy, and identified
with popular celebrities, role models, and media-created fantastic-heroes.
The term “hero” in literature studies means main character of a story. The same
term is used in different art forms that involve action and movement. There is always a hero
within a narrative, including in a dynamic painting, theater play, or movie. First narratives
in the world included stories about divine creatures, common people, and connectors
between these two worlds, and were often told through a hero and his actions. Historian
Hughes-Hallett writes: There are men, wrote Aristotle, so godlike, so exceptional, that they
naturally, by right of their extraordinary gifts, transcend all moral judgment or
constitutional control: „There is no law which embraces men of that caliber: they are
themselves law‟ (in Zimbardo, 2011). Among the earliest surviving literature works is „Epic
of Gilgamesh‟ which centers on heroic figure Gilgamesh.
Today we also live in a world full of heroes. Newspapers always include articles
about heroic acts. Superhero movies are an extremely popular genre. Spiderman is a
superhero character who first appears in comics around the 1960‟s in U.S. It is one of the
most famous examples of the Marvel school of comics and „production‟ of superheroes.
Eventually, due to his popularity, this character left comic books and entered the worlds of
animation, T.V. series, and eventually film. There was even a trilogy about Spiderman
spanning 2002 to 2007. In the second decade of the 21st century, a new Amazing
Spiderman movie franchise began. The first movie was released in 2012 and the second
part will arrive in cinemas around the globe in April/May 2014.
Superheroes movies usually come from American tradition of (super) heroism. Over
there it is long tradition of production of superheroes – first in comic books, then TV
formats, finally film, and these days films in its new formats – three (or even five)
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dimensional cinema experience. It is also followed by video games, applications for smartphones, the Internet prequels, sequels, parodies etc. Television shows are more „glocal‟
(global and local). “Idol”, a show created in the UK in 2001 and has inspired spin-off
almost in every part of the world. In Indonesia in particular these singing competitions are
really popular. With global franchises such are „Voice‟, „I have talent‟, and the
aforementioned „Idol‟ – Indonesia has its own versions where people compete to be
dangdut stars for example.
State wanted to reconcile two worlds – one of „Idols‟ and popular culture made
heroes and one with men and women who were fighting for country and the national
ideology made heroes. Every 10th of November is Indonesian day of Heroes. In 2013 the
slogan for this day was Pahlawanku – Idolaku (My hero – my idol). National heroes play
an important role in history and culture in many parts of world. Maria Todorova is a
Bulgarian born American historian and philosopher. She used in her book Imagining
Balkans (2009) Seid‟s concept of Others and Orientalisation and place it in South-East
European region of Balkans. In her other book Bones of Contention - The living archive of
Vasil Levski and the making of Bulgaria‟s national hero (2009) she discussed more about
one national hero. Vasil Levski is a fighter for Bulgarian independence in the 19th century
when this country was still under Ottoman Empire rule. Nowadays he is the national hero
per excellence and Todorova is trying to answer why and how (Todorova, 2009).
Linas Eriksonas is a historian and philosopher interested in state identity and
nationalism. In his book (derived from his PhD thesis) National Heroes and National
Identities (2004) he is examining the heroism and connection with state and national
identity and ideology in three different European states: Scotland, Norway, and his native
Lithuania. While these researchers were made by historians and it is questionable how and
who decides that one is a national hero and other is not, in Indonesia that is a task of state.
Indonesian state apparatus every year since 1959 declares new national heroes.
There are sets of standards and criteria that one needs to fulfill to enter the list. In 2013
three more persons were made into this honorable list and until now almost 160 (159 to be
exact) persons from various backgrounds are called national heroes of Indonesia. Indonesia
is a relatively new country, during previous centuries different part of Archipelago were
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ruled with different dynasties, powers, etc. List of national heroes starts from the 17th
century. Sultan Agung (1591-1645) is first proto-Indonesian, his fight and resistance
toward up-coming Dutch and their colonization is now looked as fight of Indonesian glory
historical character against powerful, foreign invader.
Foreign invader brought a lot of changes into the lives of people in Archipelago
and one of the imported products is – painting. History of art and representative art in
Indonesia can not be traced in same way like in the West. Father of Indonesian paintings is
Raden Mas Saleh. His most popular painting is depicting Javanese rebellion Pangeran
Diponegoro and his capturing (1857). Before him, one Dutch artist painted this scene and
he called it – Submission of Diponegoro (1835). From that moment until today Pangeran
Diponegoro - remarkable historical figure and national hero per excellence frequently enter
Indonesian paintings. Indonesian art is really vivid and recognized in global arena.
Indonesian artist dare to say also something about the national ideology which surrounds
them, and that includes questions about national heroes. State driven production of national
heroes and artist reply to this movement will be main topic of this research. The research
will focus on depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro from the 19th century painting until today.
B. Problem Formulation
1. What is the meaning behind the depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro from the 19th
century paintings until present day artworks?
2. How were the concepts of national heroism and national ideology reflected in the
depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro?
3.
What are the trends in the depiction of national heroes in the present day
Indonesian art and where Pangeran Diponegoro is in the Indonesian art today?
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C.
Objectives of the research
According to research questions, the objectives of this research will be:
1. Understanding the development of the concept of nationalism in Indonesian art through
painting of Raden Mas Saleh in the mid-19th century until today.
2. Assessing the value of national hero in art, as well as understanding the evolution of the
concepts of national ideology, heroes, and heroism, and how they overlaps with art.
3. Re-affirming the importance of the national hero for the future art, as well as the
development of national identity.
D.
Significance of the Research
1. Theoretical Significance
a. This research will help in understanding the concept of national heroism and its
relationship with art.
b. The results of this research will enrich research in cultural studies
2. Practical Benefit
a. Hopefully this research will show that national heroes are integral part of Indonesian
contemporary culture and with that it opens possibilities for studies of national heroism
and its connect to other fields – literature, popular culture, anthropology, feminism, and
others.
b. Pangeran Diponegoro is a perfect symbol of national hero through works of art. This is
rather new look on his place in history and nationalism of Indonesia. Research will
therefore also open possibilities to study Pangeran Diponegoro (as well as other
historical figures) in different point of view.
c. Finally this research will aim to show that painting is not alienated art form from other
art forms that have longer tradition in Indonesia. It is vivid and integral part of
Indonesian art, and like that it deserves better and greater research and preservation.
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A.
Main Concepts
1. Heroism
1.1. The word for Hero
To understand the concept of heroism in Indonesia one first needs to understand the
meaning of the word itself. This section begins with an explanation of words for heroes in
English, Indonesian, and the Javanese language, as the concept of hero can be difficult to
understand, and the usage of heroes varies greatly. This will be shown in the next chapters,
as a steady foundation for understanding the concepts of hero and heroism requires an
understanding of similarities between the terms for hero in languages that are used for this
research.
There are different sources, with more or less the same meaning of the word hero in
the English language. From one source etymology of the word is from the late 14th century
. The word is coined in the English language in 1387. The definition of the word is “man of
superhuman strength or physical courage.” Origin of the word is from ancient
Greek: heros (ἥρως), demi-god (a variant singular of which was heroe), but the word comes
in English from Latin heros, hero. Originally defender, protector, from Proto IndoEuropean root word ser- which has a meaning to watch over, protect (can be compared to
Latin word servare - to save, deliver, preserve, protect). Second meaning man who exhibits
great bravery in any course of action is from 1660s. In the other sense as of chief male
character in a play, story, etc it was first recorded in the 1690s. (Skeat, 2005)
Oxford Dictionary of English (2010) defines the word in two aspects. Second one is
definition of hero sandwich (alternative American name for submarine sandwich). So, here
there will be mentioned only the meaning of the first entry: 1) hero, noun (Plural heroes): a
person, typically a man, who is admired for their courage, outstanding achievements, or
noble qualities, example is: a war hero. 2) chief male character in a book, play, or film,
who is typically identified with good qualities, and with whom the reader is expected to
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sympathize, example: the hero of Kipling‟s story. 3) Hero in mythology and folklore is a
person of superhuman qualities and often semi-divine origin, in particular one whose
exploits were the subject of ancient Greek myths.
Words derived from hero are: heroism, the drug heroin (because of its euphoric
feeling that the drug provides, but link between hero and heroine is blurry), anti-hero, and
here we will examine a more female version and hero-worshiping. Female version of hero
is heroine. This form started to be used in the 1650s. It comes from Latin heroine, heroina
(plural heroinae) - a female hero, a demigoddess” – for example Medea. It is originally
from Ancient Greek heroine, female version of heros. In context as principal female
character in drama or poem the word exist from 1715. Lately, because of frequent missspelling and confusion with the word heroin, in usage is female hero or interesting blend
form from „she‟ and „hero‟ – shero – which is used more in urban dictionary (vernacular).
Hero worshiping is first recorded around the year of 1774 and it is defined as: excessive
admiration for someone. In ancient Greece there was a practise of the worshiping of
superhuman heroes. (Oxford Dictionary of English, 2010)
Indonesian word Pahlawan also has interesting connotations. The most important
Indonesian dictionary Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (Great Indonesian Dictionary)
defines the word in its 2005 edition:
Pahlawan (Sanskerta: phala-wan yang berarti orang yang dari dirinya
menghasilkan buah (phala) yang berkualitas bagi bangsa, negara, dan agama)
adalah orang yang menonjol karena keberaniannya dan pengorbanannya dalam
membela kebenaran, atau pejuang yang gagah beran.
[Which can be translated into English: Pahlawan (Indonesian word for hero comes
from Sanskrit phala-wan which means person who produces „fruit‟ (phala) which
has quality for his nation, country, and religion) is person who stands out because of
his bravery and sacrifice for the right cause or who achieved glorious victory.]
(KBBI, 20081)
For the main character in artwork in Indonesian language tokoh utama is used.
Female version of pahlawan is pahlawan wanita and hero-worshiping would be pahlawan
terpuji. Kepahlawanan is word for heroism and patriotism. Other words used for hero in
1
KBBI stands for Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia Pusat Bahasa, Great Dictionary of the Indonesian
Language of the Language Center, 4th edition with 90,000 entries was accessed online from
http://bahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/kbbi/ retrieved in December 2013
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Indonesian language are: wira, wirawan, (from Javanese mentioned below), tokoh utama
yang berani dan hormat (for character in art work who has attributes of bravery and respect
– mentioned above) also pelaku utama, pemeran utama, bahadur (knight) and hero itself.
Words unrelated to heroism, derived from pahlawan are pahlawan bakiak – a term for a
husband who is very afraid of his wife and pahlawan kesiangan – people who want to work
hard after the hard times are over and often want credits for their work.2
In Javanese language there are several words for expressing the concept of hero.
Wira, wirawan (and its slightly nobler form wirya) is more an alus (refined) word for
manly, brave, and courageous. It is frequently used as an element in compound names:
there are Javanese (Indonesian) male names such are Wira or Wirapandya. The word sura
has a similar meaning and is likewise more commonly found in the five-syllable names of
males, not just in literature, but in general name giving as well. Example of given male
names with this root are Sura and Surapati. Satria does not mean hero exactly, but more a
warrior or a member of the refined, aristocratic classes. These words derive mostly from
Sanskrit which has greatly enriched the Javanese lexicon for well over a thousand years.
Pahlawan of Persian origins is the most common word for hero in Indonesian and is also
used in Javanese (Mangusuwito, 2002).
1.2. Heroes and National Heroes in Indonesia
Indonesian language does not use the same expression for the main character in
artwork (thus in culture) and to address great men in history and national heroes, thus
researches of heroism within this common point are scarce in Indonesia. Nevertheless,
Lombard, D. and Pelras, C. (1993) in Asian Mythologies defines cultural heroes in Insular
South-East Asia (which corresponds to Indonesia and The Philippines) in four distinctive
categories: 1) Heroes of Oral Myth, 2) Heroes of Written Accounts, 3) Heroes Linked to
Successive Acculturation (India, China, Islam) and 4) Modern Heroes3
Cultural heroes represent ideal figures that humans follow and respect. Examples
given to in encyclopaedia are legends of creation of world in oral traditions. How the world
2
Ibid
Lombard, D. and Pelras C. 1993. Cultural Heroes of Insular Southeast Asia, Page 167-173 in Yves
Bonnefoy (edt.) Asian Mythologies, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago
3
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was created in different cultures around Archipelago. Legendary prince Panji and his
adventures is an example of a hero of the written legends. Cultural heroes can be re-born
and re-shaped with acculturation, adapt to new circumstances. There are numerous
examples; one is a traditional Javanese story of Wali Sanggo - they were nine saint men
who brought Islam to Java.4
The last type of a cultural hero, which is mentioned in this book, is perhaps not as
far removed from the preceding heroes as one may think: these are national heroes that the
independent states of insular Southeast Asia have chosen to symbolize the birth of the new
society
Rizal and Aguinaldo for the Philippines, and Hasanuddin, Kartini, and Imam Bonjol
for Indonesia. Although they are historical, each of these figures has mythsimplified official biographies, widely disseminated, particularly through schools –
his commemorative ritual, his stereotyped iconography, etc. The frequency with
which they are mentioned shows how much modern societies, from that point of
view, have trails in common with so-called primitive societies.5
The cult of national heroes in Indonesia was introduced by its first president
Sukarno. Principal initiative was to remake Indonesian memory around a revolutionary
theme. In a set of decrees between 1957 and 1963 he laid down the procedure for declaring
as national heroes people who had resisted colonialism or served the cause of the
independence. Remuneration was arranged for the descendents of those, so the names
(creating a small industry of lobbyists) and the manner of commemorating them through
monuments, anniversaries, school texts and street names was prescribed (Reid, 2005).
The second Indonesian president, Suharto, was not all that interested in celebrating
revolution, but he did take the theme of anti-Dutch struggle. The fact that many of those
already declared heroes had died fighting the Dutch made it a small step to portray armed
struggle as the leitmotif of national history, and the national army as its natural
contemporary upholder. By 1992, twenty-three military officers had been added to the
pantheon of national heroes, more than a third of the total declared under Suharto. (Reid,
2005)
4
5
Ibid
Ibid
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The National Hero of Indonesia (Indonesian: Gelar Pahlawan Nasional Indonesia)
is the highest-level title awarded in Indonesia. It is posthumously given by the Government
of Indonesia for actions which are deemed to be heroic – defined as actual deeds which can
be remembered and exemplified for all time by other citizens or extraordinary service
furthering the interests of the state and people.
The Ministry of Social Affairs6 gives seven criteria which an individual must fulfil,
as follows:
1. An Indonesian citizen who is deceased and, during his or her lifetime, led an armed
struggle or produced a concept or product useful to the state;
2. Have continued the struggle throughout his or her life and performed above and
beyond the call of duty;
3. Have had a wide-reaching impact through his or her actions;
4. Have shown a high degree of nationalism;
5. Have been of good moral standing and respectable character;
6. Never surrendered to his or her enemies; and
7. Never made an act which taints his or her legacy.
Nominations undergo a four-step process and must be approved at each level. A
proposal is made by the general populace in a city or regency to the mayor or regent, who
must then make a request to the province's governor. The governor then makes a
recommendation to the Ministry of Social Affairs, which forwards it to the President,
represented by the Board of Titles (Dewan Gelar); this board consists of two academics,
two persons of a military background, and three persons who have previously received the
award or title. Those selected by the President, as represented by the Board, are awarded
the title at a ceremony in the Indonesian capital of Jakarta. Since 2000, the ceremony has
been occurring in early November – coinciding with Indonesia's Heroes' Day (Hari
Pahlawan)7.
The legal framework for the title, initially styled National Independence Hero
(Pahlawan Kemerdekaan Nasional), was established with the release of Presidential Decree
6
Data for this section were retrieved from official page of The Ministry of Social Affairs
http://www.kemsos.go.id/modules.php?name=Pahlawan in December 2013
7
Ibid
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No. 241 of 1958. The title was first awarded on August 30th, 1959 to the politician turned
writer Abdul Muis, who had died the previous month. This title was used for the rest
of Sukarno‟s rule. When Suharto rose to power in the mid-1960s, the title was given its
current name. Special titles at the level of National Hero have also been awarded. Hero of
the Revolution (Pahlawan Revolusi) was given in 1965 to ten victims of the
failed 30 September Movement coup, while Sukarno and former vice-president Mohammad
Hatta were given the title Proclamation Heroes (Pahlawan Proklamasi) in 1988 for their
role in reading the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence and in 2012 they also became
National Heroes. 8
A total of 147 men and 12 women have been deemed national heroes, most recently
Rajiman Wediodiningrat, Lambertus Nicodemus Palar and Tahi Bonar Simatupang in
2013. Indonesia is perhaps the only country with ever-increasing number of „national
heroes‟ officially recognized by the state (Abdullah, 2009). These heroes have come from
all parts of the Indonesian archipelago, from Aceh in the west to Papua in the east. They
represent
numerous ethnicities,
including native
Indonesians, ethnic
Chinese,
and
Eurasians. They include prime ministers, guerrillas, government ministers, soldiers, royalty,
journalists, and a bishop. The procedure may have started from Sukarno, but only with the
New Order has it got its relatively well-established procedure. Abdullah (2009) uses
picturesque comparison to explain this procedure:
Since then [New Order] it becomes obvious that state recognition of national heroes
practically a way for state to compose „national family album‟. The inclusion in the
„portraits into the national album‟ is official national recognition of struggles and
sacrifices they have made to the nation and tanah air, the homeland. It is
understandable that every province would look deep into its respective history to see
whether there was someone in the past who had sacrificed and given his or her life to
the glory of the nation and tanah air. (Abdullah, 2009:442)
8
Ibid
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1.3. Pangeran Diponegoro9 - The National Symbol
Diponegoro has the same symbolic value as Vasil Levski 10 for Bulgarian
nationhood and the idea of a national hero. He is Javanese. He was born in heartland of
Javanese high culture – Yogyakarta. He was a son of a newly established Javanese royalty
(after tearing Surakarta keraton in two branches – one in Yogyakarta and one in Surakarta
who somehow continued the line of previous rulers). He did not become the heir of throne,
rather he was devoted to his piece of land and peasants who were living and working for
him. He saw injustices and intrigues of the Dutch. He stood against it. He led a five years
exhausting war/revolution. Java was changing dramatically in his time, becoming closer to
the West. He saw himself also as a religious leader. He was tricked, captured and he died in
exile in South Celebes far from his native land.
His presence is still notable in Indonesia. UNESCO list of World Memory bear two
documents from Indonesia and one is „Babad Diponegoro‟ – first autobiography in
Javanese literature. He was an inspiration for controversial Indonesian Communist Party,
but also to army after whom Central-Javanese Region was named. The same goes for some
big ships that Indonesian Military Navy possesses. Central-Javanese capital Semarang is
the home to the biggest University in the city which was named after him. Main streets in
almost every big city in Indonesia (or at least in Java) are named after him. Diponegoro is a
sign of Indonesia. He is one of the few figures that are so closely connected with the idea of
Indonesia. Sometimes they can look like opposites (Communist Party vs. Army, secular
ideas of higher education vs. Diponegoro‟s strong religious feelings, Java vs. Sulawesi) but
these opposites make Indonesia.
Diponegoro was born on 11 November 1785 in Yogyakarta, and was the eldest son
of Sultan Hamengkubuwono III of Yogyakarta. When the sultan died in 1814, Diponegoro
renounced
the
succession
to
the
throne
in
9
favor
of
his
younger
half
Peter Carey is British historian who wrote extensively about Pangeran Diponegoro, and he is using EnglishJavanese coin for him - Prince Dipanegara. In this study Indonesian version of his name – Pangeran
Diponegoro will be used, and together will all given names it would not be put in Italic font style, unlike other
Indonesian words.
10
Vasil Levski is national hero of Bulgaria and topic of research of Maria Todorova (2009) which is
mentioned in introduction and later on in literature review
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brother, Hamengkubuwono IV who was supported by the Dutch. Being a devout Muslim,
Diponegoro was alarmed by the loosening of religious observance at his half brother's
court, as well as by the court's pro-Dutch policy (Carey, 2007).
In 1821, famine and plague spread around Java. His half brother Hamengkubuwono
IV (r. 1814-1821) who had succeeded to the throne after their father had died. He left only
an infant son as heir, Hamengkubuwono V. When the young ruler was appointed as a new
sultan, there was a dispute over his guardianship. Diponegoro was again renounced, though
he believed he had been promised the right to succeed his half brother. This series of
natural disasters and political upheaval finally erupted into a full scale rebellion (Carey,
2007).
Dutch colonial rule was becoming unpopular by the local farmers because of tax
rises, crop failures and by Javanese nobles because the Dutch colonial authorities deprived
them of their right to lease land. Because the local farmers and many nobles were ready to
support Diponegoro and because he believed that he had been chosen by divine powers to
lead a rebellion against the Christian colonials, he started a holy war against the Dutch.
Dipenogoro was widely believed to be the Ratu Adil, the Just Ruler predicted in the
Pralembang Joyoboyo (Carey, 2007).
The beginning of the war saw large losses on the side of the Dutch, due to their lack
of coherent strategy and commitment in fighting Diponegoro's guerrilla warfare. Ambushes
were set up, and food supplies were denied to the Dutch troops. The Dutch finally
committed themselves to controlling the spreading rebellion by increasing the number of
troops and sending General De Kock to stop the insurgencies. De Kock developed a
strategy of fortified camps (benteng) and mobile forces. Heavily-fortified and welldefended soldiers occupied key landmarks to limit the movement of Diponegoro's troops
while mobile forces tried to find and fight the rebels. From 1829, Diponegoro definitely
lost the initiative and he was put in a defensive position. Many troops and leaders were
defeated or deserted (Carey, 2007).
In 1830 Diponegoro's military seemed near defeat and negotiations were started.
Diponegoro demanded to have a free state under a sultan and he wanted to become the
Muslim leader (caliph) for the whole of Java. In March 1830 he was invited to negotiate
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under a flag of truce. He accepted but was taken prisoner on 28 March despite the flag of
truce. De Kock claims that he had warned several Javanese nobles to tell Diponegoro he
had to lessen his previous demands or that he would be forced to take other measures. The
Dutch exiled him to Makassar (Carey, 2007).
2. Indonesian Painting
Representational art in Indonesia has a long tradition. There are numerous sites all
over the archipelago that indicate the presence of visual arts from early ages – there are
caves that are painted as well as ceramics, jewellery, and other decorative objects that date
back to pre-history. Classical Indonesian art is one that is addressed to flourishing Javanese
and Balinese kingdoms and art that was made under important rulers to show their power.
Beautiful temples are scattered all over Java and Bali. When Islam was introduced to the
archipelago, it brought classical elements of Islamic art, including architecture in first place
one concerning building and decorating mosques.
In the 19th century, with emerging colonialism, painting as a new form of art
emerges in the island of Java and Bali especially. Balinese art had different periods and
schools and hereby we will focus more on the development of painting in Java because it
influenced development of art in the whole nation, but also due to the fact that it follows
main ideological and national ideas that will shape Indonesia. Mooi Indie or Hindia Jelita
(Beautiful Indies) was a period of Indonesian painting at the beginning of the 20th century.
It shows ideological Indonesia with hard-working people working in beautiful rice fields,
scenes of every day easy and nice lives, landscapes with lavish mountains, beautiful,
modest, but yet seductive Indonesian girls. Painters were both Indonesians and Westerners
who were living in Indonesia at that time. In 1938 Persagi (Persatuan Ahli Gambar
Indonesia) was created as a response to the previous movement, where artists considered
that their role was more engaging and they needed to show more real life of people, with
their struggles and sufferings. (Kusuma-Atmadja et al. 1990)
With the World War II and the Japanese occupation paintings served as propaganda
for achieving the national goal – a united and free Indonesia. There were numerous art
groups created between 1942 until 1950. In 1950 Indonesia was de facto independent from
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the Netherlands and those first years of Independence were marked by major turbulences.
That dynamic was illustrated in groups of artists that were created, all with different
political or religious agendas.
More important for Indonesian art was the creation and establishment of art
academies in Java and artist organizations connected with these centres. From their
inception, three schools have dominated the Indonesian art scene: IKJ (Insitut Kesenian
Jakarta) – Art Institute in Jakarta, ITB (Institut Teknologi Bandung) – Technology Institute
in Bandung, and ISI (Institut Seni Indonesia, created as ASRI Akademi Seni Rupa
Indonesia – Fine Art Academy of Indonesia back in days, now Insitute of Indonesian Art)
Yogyakarta. In 1970s Indonesian art started also to have strong Post-Modernistic discourse
following world trends. Not long after Indonesian art entered in the world art arena and
after 1990s Indonesian art has had its ups and downs but until today continues to surprise
and intrigue art lovers from all over globe. (Kusuma-Atmadja et al. 1990)
With this short review of art we can see that Indonesian art is connected with its
modern history. In classical times artists were merely craftsmen and somehow moderators
between divine forces, rulers and the common people. Beginning in the 19th century
painters and Indonesian intellectuals start to shape the future of the Indonesian nation.
Once, Indonesia was independent they continue to work together with politicians in shaping
the national ideology. For thirty years, Indonesia was under one regime that did not allow
free artistic thinking, so the influence of art quitted down out at first, but then together with
the people‟s resistance, artists started to become braver and to question authorities. Since
1999, Indonesia has again been questioning its position in the wider world, and in this
process of re-positioning and re-shaping the identity artists do play an active role.
B. Theoretical Basis
1. Postcolonial Theory
There is a theoretical field in cultural studies that can be named the „difference
theory‟ Milner and Browitt (2002) said it „has been characterised by an attempt to theorise
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historical difference, especially in respect of gender and sexuality, nationality, race and
ethnicity.‟ While this concept appears vague and diverse it centres on questions of the
identity. As Hall (1993) adds „there are also critical points of deep and significant
difference which constitute „what we really are‟; or rather since history has intervened
– „what we have become‟.
In this research, questions concerning the national identity will be examined,
primarily those concerning creating and sustaining ideas of nationalism and theories that
are put together under one term – post-colonial theory. One of the greatest resources for
studying nationalism in South-East Asia is Benedict Anderson‟s „Imagined Community‟
(1996). He argues how culture, in the first place language – primarily printed one (via
books, press) helped to shape the national identity which he equals with „imagined
communities‟. He gives explanation for nation building processes in all parts of the world
and he gives tools to demonstrate how diverse this process is.
For this research the most important findings are the ones from South-East Asia.
Anderson conducted his most important research in South-East Asia. Indonesia, as it is
understood today, never actually existed. It is a product of the Dutch colonization; the
settlers referred to their territory as the East India. „As its hybrid-pseudo-Hellenic name
suggests, its stretch does not even remotely correspond to any pre-colonial domain; on the
contrary ... its boundaries have been left behind by the last Dutch conquests‟. (Anderson,
1996) Nevertheless, that was enough for the newly formed Indonesian intelligentsia to
„imagine‟ this community as one entity. He argues that people from north and northwestern Sumatra had more connections with the people on the Malay peninsula than those
in Ambon. Yet one of the biggest reasons the Indonesia project succeed where others failed
(i.e. United Indochina) was the fact that the Dutch tolerated the Indonesian language as
„lingua franca‟ of the Archipelago. Around the turn of the century, Indonesia's lingua franca
will become a powerful tool in the nation-building process.
A national culture is not folklore, nor an abstract populism that believes it can
discover the people's true nature. A national culture is the whole body of efforts
made by a people in the sphere of thought to describe, justify and praise the
action through which that people has created itself and keeps itself in existence.
A national culture in underdeveloped countries should therefore take its place
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at the very heart of the struggle for freedom which these countries are carrying
on (Fanon, 1963).
When we talk about national identities (and cultures) we must mention that: “more
than three-quarters of the people living today have had their lives shaped by the experience
of colonialism (Barker, 2005)”. In those countries (with colonial experience) after getting
rid of colonial powers writers and theoreticians start to write and discuss about postcolonialism. Postcolonial theory explores postcolonial discourses and their subject
positions in relation to the themes of race, nation, subjectivity, power, subalterns, hybridity
and creolization (Barker, 2005). There are numerous approaches and definitions of
Postcolonial theory, for this research one useful is mentioned under.
[Postcolonial theory]…Seeks to speak to the vast and horrific social and
psychological suffering, exploitation, violence and enslavement done to the
powerless victims of colonization around the world. It challenges the superiority of
the dominant Western perspective and seeks to re-position and empower the
marginalized and subordinated Other. It pushes back to resist paternalistic and
patriarchal foreign practices that dismiss local thought, culture and practice as
uniformed, barbarian and irrational. It identifies the complicated process of
establishing an identity that is both different from, yet influenced by, the colonist
who has left‟. (Parsons and Harding, 2011)
It is still questionable where domains of postcolonial theory are. Some argue that
even the American culture can be put into post-colonial frame. Here we would address to
the findings and ideas of those theoreticians whose work is relevant to this research.
Edward Said in his book Orientalism argues how French and British colonist who in the
Middle East started to construct Orient or East as a contrast to West which authors will later
call this Occident and Occidentalism. He argued that this construction was built a binary
opposition model in which Western values can be described as: progressive, liberal,
secular, educated, democratic, open, and so on. Eastern ideals would conversely be
described as: conservative, closed, religious - primarily Islamic, limited minded, etc. „The
major component in European culture is precisely ... the idea of European identity as a
superior one in comparison with all the non-European peoples and cultures‟ (Said, 2003)
Orientalism is also possible inside the West. Maria Todorova is a Bulgarian born
historian and philosopher who lives and works in the US. Todorova incoprorated Said‟s
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concept of Orientalism in European region of Balkan in her book Imagining Balkans
(2009). She analysed what the term Balkans meant within a cultural frame. She explained
the origin of the name, and how from the 19th century and with the falling of the Ottoman
Empire and rise of national states in it, Europe (West) started to become interested in this
region. It shows further how Europe was always between accepting it in its own cultural
(and with that economical, political and every other way) circle and rejecting it with great
passion and discussion over its monstrosity, brutality, and primitivism.
Postcolonial theory grows from literature theory and its first authors were ones of
Indian origins, Homi Bhabha is one of the most famous critical theorist and Postcolonial
theory contributor. One of his central ideas is that of hybridization, which, taking up from
Edward Said's work, describes the emergence of new cultural forms from multiculturalism.
Instead of seeing colonialism as something locked in the past, Bhabha shows how its
histories and cultures constantly intrude on the present, demanding that we transform our
understanding of cross-cultural relations. His work transformed the study of colonialism by
applying post-structuralist methodologies to colonial texts.
Feminism is cultural theory where Postcolonial theory can also be implemented.
Chandra Talpade Mohanty is an Indian postcolonial and transnational feminist theorist. In
her essay Under the Western Eyes - Feminist Scholarship and Feminist Discourse (1998)
she argued that there is still colonisation when Western authors write about East. They do
write about women in East to a „sizeable extent‟ and always using same or similar
prejudices that they exploit and with that process they are reproducing these stereotypes.
„Colonization almost invariably implies a relation of structural domination, and suppression
– often violent – of the heterogeneity of the subjects in question‟. (Mohanty, 1998) She
called this „contemporary imperialism‟ and she saw explanatory potential and political
effects of this. That is also „how ethnocentric universalism is produced‟. When we
(scholars) write and say „women of Africa‟, Mohanty (1998) argued „we say too little and
we say too much‟.
Perhaps this quote can be used when we talk about Postcolonial theory – we say too
much and we say too little. Milica Bakic Hayden developed her idea of nesting East and
Balkan in Europe (1995) where eastern and south-eastern European countries did not have
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historical experience of being colonies, but experience of being occupied or being part of
greater, more powerful Empires gave people from this regions similar historical experience
and search for justice and identity in similar way how ex-colonial nations did. The ideas of
Postcolonial theory are very diverse, in this paper we will be researching the one dealing
with identity. Primary with theories concerned with creating Other, with notions such are
West and Rest, Orientalism, Nesting Orientalism and others. Secondly, the theories of
cultural hybridity will be used. Indonesian painting is „imported‟ from the West, but it grew
to be an integral and dynamic part of Indonesian art. Nevertheless, from the 19th century
until today Indonesian artists are trying to prove that they can be the East and the West at
the same time. It may look that in globalized world these notions are outdated; actually they
are still present, just in different shapes and forms.
2. Visual Semiotics
All art is signs and symbols. Representational art is symbol for objects, places, or
people being represented. Abstract art can be symbol of an idea or feeling in the artist
viewer. Sign is everything that can be taken as significantly substituting for something else.
„All painters work with(in) a „pictorial language‟, i.e. an inherited set of conventions,
elements and rules of picture making.‟ (Quigley, 2009) Semiotics is relatively new
academic field in observing and interpreting meaning convey in art. Generally speaking it is
new academic field; it was first developed and interpreted in studies of languages.
Notes from lectures of the Swiss author Ferdinand de Saussure are foundations of
modern semiotics. Saussure divides a sign into two components – the signifier (the sound,
image, or word) and the signified, which is the concept the signifier represent, or meaning.
If we look at his ideas from art point of view – we can say that everything that we identify
in work of art is signifier. In first place in painting those signs are present in colours and
lines. Shortest definition of semiotics is that is the study of signs.
Signs themselves cannot be understood alone, so we need to interpret them within a
sign system. It is a combination of sign relationship – relationship with one sign to another
(in paintings this is sometimes called concept) and context. As Eco explains „what is
commonly called „message‟ is in fact a text whose content is a multileveled discourse.‟
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„The history provides you with a visual vocabulary that both enables and constrains what
you can and will say with your painting‟ (Quigley, 2009). It is important here to mention
post-modernistic approach to paintings (art and culture in general) that the meaning is also
conveyed in relationship where painting is uttered, in whose company, by whom and for
what purpose, etc.
Charles S. Pierce was an American philosopher who developed similar ideas to
those of Saussure. In art studies it is important to mention his three kinds of signs; we
would call them in art studies representational signs:

Index – where signifier is not arbitrary, rather it has direct connection to signified.
In paintings examples of this is smoke which represents fire, dark clouds storm and
bad weather, or sometimes there are even figure pointing (indexing) at something
which have obvious indexical value.

Icon – where signifier resembles signified. In paintings those are self-portraits,
portraits, cartoons, and caricatures.

Symbol – signifier does not look at all as signified. Its value is arbitrary and it is
pure matter of conventions. It needs to be learnt, otherwise it does not have any
value. Examples of these in paintings are: national flags, sculls in still-life paintings,
animals like symbols of some human characteristics etc. They can also be verbal as
writings in painting, books, quotes, etc. (Hirsh, 2011)
Today there is significant growth of visual communication and „explosion‟ of
images on the Internet, so big that theoretician argue are we living in verbal or visual
society. Dillon (1999) asks three questions: How language-like are images? How do images
and words work when they are both present? How do scenes of people gazing and posing
convey visual meaning? These questions can be placed as central questions of visual
communication and visual semiotics.
Language is „a system of signs that express ideas‟, for Saussure there are two
components that make language – langue – the system of language that is internalized by
given speech community; and parole – individual act of speech. Art is understood as
primitive language that combined visual signs and linguistic principles. Structural approach
to art is that art is like a sentence, whose meaning is conveyed by its compositional
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elements and conventions of art, rather than form and subject matter. In visual art,
semiotics interprets messages based on their signs and symbolism. So we can argue that art
is language. There are also some who will argue that images are mute. Natural meaning of
represented objects does not exist, before we provide them meaning. There is no syntax that
articulates their part and binds them together.
One of the critics of language-painting homology is Dufrenne (1966)11 he gives two
objections to this: the first one is a structural one (Painting is not system with two
articulations – art „does not write its own grammar. It invents it and betrays it in its
invention‟) and the second one is an aesthetical one – painting does not have strength to
signify, but to show. Zems (1967)12 agrees that painting is not language, but he says that
there are many pictorial languages, represented in every painting style. Marin (1971)13
describes three phases in reading painting – the primary level is where we identify the
signs, the second level is when we put them in a relationship with other (visible and
invisible (absent) signs), and then we enter the third phase where we open a „dimension of
pictorial codes which is its cultural space‟. Messaris (1994) argues: „As soon as we go
beyond spatiotemporal interpretations, the meaning of visual syntax becomes fluid,
indeterminate, and more subject to the viewer‟s interpretational predispositions than is the
case with a communicational mode such as verbal language‟
Images are often followed by the words. One proverb can say „A picture is worth
thousands words‟, but as it is shown above if we look at one picture and we do not
understand the complex sign relationship – that picture will be mute for us. Therefore most
of the times, images are followed by words – expressed in titles, labels, placards, guides,
„the artist‟s words‟ and so on. Barthes (1961) „The text constitutes a parasitic message
designed to connote the image‟. In modern art artists were playing with this as well. Perfect
examples for this are the words of Rene Magritte:
My painting is visible images which conceal nothing: they evoke mystery and,
indeed, when one sees one of my pictures, one asks oneself this simple question
“What does that mean?” It does not mean anything, because mystery means nothing
either, it is unknowable.” (Rene Magritte in O‟Toole, 2008)
11
From Nöth, W. 1995. Handbook of Semiotics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press
Ibid.
13
Ibid.
12
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Relationships between text and images are delivered by explication (where text is
explaining the image) and illustration (where image „summarizes‟ words). This relationship
is exploited by advertising industries and famous interpretation of this is given by French
semiotician Roland Barthes in his „The Rhetoric of Image‟ from 1964. He analyses
advertisement for Panzani pasta.
There are three classes of messages within the image: 1) The linguistic message –
text, 2) The symbolic (coded iconic) message – connoted image and 3) The literal (noncoded iconic) message – denoted image. Text connected with image has two functions – to
be anchorage – to enrich meaning of words with meaning of image; and to be relay – like in
comic strips to convey meaning. Denoted image is hard to grasp, Barthes is saying about
photographic „naturalness‟, but he rejects this idea since he denies the possibility of the
purely denoted image. „It is an absence of meaning full of all the meaning‟. Connoted
image is one with rhetoric. In this example it says about product: freshness, Italianicity,
idea of total culinary service, still life-like-advertisement and so on. A meaning is derived
from a lexicon (idiolect) – which is body of knowledge within the viewer.
The third question in visual semiotics – sign producing and conveying meaning is a
relationship between the one who is looking and the one who is being looked at. Theory of
gaze was developed by French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist Jacques Lacan. This complex
theory can be implemented to how we understand art and visual semiotic. Example for this
is analyses of female gazes in Renaissance painting in Europe (around the XV century) –
male were always depicted as dominant with sharp and controlling gaze toward the women
and/or viewer, on the other hand females were depicted as subordinate, shy, turning their
heads, looking themselves in mirrors, etc. In art theory we recognize four gazes:
1) Gaze of artist: how the artist look at the subject
2) Gaze of viewer: point of view, predetermined by the artist, or self-determined by
the viewer
3) Gaze of the figure depicted in the art out to the viewer
4) Gaze of one depicted figure to another or to an object or area within or outside
of the work (Hirsh, 2011)
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In painting there is also „imperial gaze‟ and we can interpret it also in postcolonial
discourse – where mighty (European, Western) ruler is looking dominantly to his
subordinate one. Theory of gaze is present topic in film studies, or in interpreting the
advertisements (both still – photographed one and action – video one) but as one form of
visual communication it was important to be mentioned here as well.
Plato said “Painting is far from truth, and therefore, apparently, painting has the
effect of reaching only little of everything, and that only in a shadow image”. We can
understand this statement in the shadow of semiotics as „muteness‟ of image that we
mentioned above. Plato‟s student, Aristotle said „There can be no words without images‟.
Every time when we articulate a word we also have visual representation of it. Connection
between verbal and visual language is undeniable. Therefore, in this study, visual semiotics
approach, together with postcolonial theory will be implemented in understanding and
interpreting Indonesian paintings where Pangeran Diponegoro is the main motif.
C. Relevant Researches
1. Researches about Heroism
Most recent study about heroism is one made by Scot T. Allison and George R.
Goethals. This study is published in three books. The first one (2010) is Heroes – What
They Do and Why We Need Them. This study offers a combination of psychological
research with examples from real life, various kinds of fiction, and of many different kinds
of heroes. This is the first from three volumes about the heroism. The second one (2013) is
entitled Heroic leadership – an Influence Taxonomy of 100 Exceptional Individuals14 review of the relationship between leadership and heroism, showing how most cherished
heroes are also most transforming leaders. There is also a description of taxonomy, or
conceptual framework, for differentiating among the many varieties of heroism (Trending
Heroes, Transitory Heroes, Transparent Heroes, Transitional Heroes, Tragic Heroes,
Transposed Heroes, Traditional Heroes, Transforming Heroes, and Transcendent Heroes).
14
From authors‟ Blog page about newer edition – retrieved from http://reelheroes.net/about-our-book/
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The third book Reel Heroes, Volume 1: Two Hero Experts Critique the Movies (2014)15
explores heroes in the movies and offers a categorization scheme for understanding
different types of heroes. These books give good answers to questions – why do we need
heroes, what is consider a heroic act, how do we look at heroic acts and heroes, but overall
a concept of heroism is not clear and firmly defined. (Allison and Goethals, 2014)
The same problem arose several times while consulting primarily American authors
and their writing about heroes. Sidney Hook (1955) in his The Hero in History – A Study in
Limitation and Possibility also gives taxonomy of heroes. One is The Heroes of Thought
where heroes are divided in following categories in: 1) Literature, Music, and Painting; 2)
Philosophy and Science; 3) Religion; and 4) The Historical Hero. In every chapter after
some theoretical explanation, a list of great names in each category is given. Nevertheless,
this book gives explanation of circumstances around heroism and influences around them –
social determinism, influences of monarchies, heroes in Soviet Union, heroes in
democracy, etc. (Hook, 1955). One of the oldest studies entitled On Heroes, Hero
Worshiping and The Heroic in History written by Thomas Carlyle (1840) puts together
Odin, Scandinavian Pagan god, Muhammad, prophet in Islam, and Napoleon together. In
one of his lectures he said „The History of the world, I already said, was the Biography of
Great Man‟ (Carlyle, 1840)16 These studies gave a good general knowledge of how heroes
are preserved and maintained in West, through history, literature, other forms of art, and
most recently popular culture. Yet, they are too broad and in small scale related for this
research.
Connections with national ideology, heroism and art are found in these three
researches: National heroes are political symbols for US-Bulgarian native historian Maria
Todorova. In her book Bones of contention - The living archive of Vasil Levski and the
making of Bulgaria‟s national hero (2009) she discusses more about this topic. In this book
she is talking about, contradictions in making a national hero by co-operation of the
Communist party of Bulgaria and Bulgarian Orthodox Church. Vasil Levski was a
nationalistic leader of Bulgaria who established revolutionary organizations to fight for
15
16
Ibid.
Retrieved from http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/excerpts/Carlyle_excerpt.pdf
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freedom of Bulgaria, which was in his time autonomous under Ottoman rule. That was mid
19th century and Levski was hanged for his idea and he did not live to see independent
Bulgaria. In his early ages he was an Orthodox priest, later he became prominent patriotic
figure, and in the end he died a glorious death. He is remembered today as „Apostle of
Freedom‟. All these aforementioned facts make him a national hero par excellence
(Todorova, 2009)
State identity and nationalism are main topics of Linas Eriksonas, Lithuanian
historian and philosopher. In his book (derived from his PhD thesis) National Heroes and
National Identities (2004) he is examining the heroism and connection with state and
national identity and ideology in three different European states: Scotland, Norway, and
Lithuania. While he is giving historical perspectives on the national heroes in these
countries – he is also putting them in modern framework and is arguing how important
presence of national heroes is in lives of people. He illustrates this by giving examples of
fests that are commemorating lives and glorious past of heroes, how they are used in daily
politics, erection of new monuments, etc. He does not define national heroes, but from his
writing and examples, those are great people from history of these nations (Eriksonas,
2004)
The Politics of Symbol in Serbia is a collection of essays in political anthropology
written by Ivan Čolović (2002 English edition, 1997 Serbian edition). The background of
Serbian nationalism and role of political and national symbols in breaking up of Yugoslavia
are main topics in this book. War crimes committed in Yugoslavian war were the most
brutal after the World War II in Europe. Many of these war crimes were committed by
Serbian chauvinistic war criminals. Serbian nationalism is shaped by political and ethnocentric symbols. These symbols were important for Serbian narrative and they also include
stories about national heroes (Colovic, 2002)
Researches about nationalism in Indonesia do exist. Tony Day (2002) in his „Fluid
Iron: State Formation in Southeast Asia‟ continues somehow Anderson‟s tradition of
„Imagined Communities‟ in South-East Asia, but gives more references and examples of
practice of nation-building in this region. He quotes Thomas L. Friedman who called
Indonesia „prime example of new kind of state: „messy state‟. While Anderson‟s point is
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mainly driven by nation and human culture (published books, newspapers, language) Day is
more concerned with the state and its apparatus – how kinship shapes society and the state,
what was role of gender in this process, how Southeast Asian states are constructed as
cosmologies – like a respond to the Western teleology, etc. He also uses broad range of
works of literature and art as respond to Williams‟ call for the study of „work of art‟ in the
cultural analyses of the „active and formative‟ ways in which hegemonic powers is
exercised‟ (Williams in Day, 2002)
Idea of Javanisation of Indonesia and how Javanese elites continue colonial practice
of Dutch to rest of Indonesia are two ideas of Michael Wood‟s Official History in Modern
Indonesia: New Order Perspectives and Counterviews (2005). This was significant in New
Order era which is timeframe from his book. He argues that Indonesians explain to
themselves (and world beyond) that they did not just inherit the Dutch East India, how
ideas of Indonesia are older. To illustrate this point re-interpretation of glory past is used.
Ancient empires of Sriwijaya and Majapahit were the Golden Age of (proto) Indonesia.
Unrests, rebellions of people all around the Archipelago are seen as fights to liberate
Indonesia. That is why they are national heroes now. (Wood, 2005)
1.1. Researches about Pangeran Diponegoro
Peter Carey (born 1948) is a British historian and author whose focuses of
studies include East Timor, Java and Burma. He was the Laithwaite fellow of Modern
History at Trinity College, Oxford. His major early work has concentrated on the history
of Diponegoro, the British in Java and the Java War. He is currently completing an Oral
History of the Indonesian Occupation of East Timor, 1975–99. In Trinity College he had
taught courses Taught: Europe and the wider world, 1818-1914 (in the Modern History
Faculty) and Imperialism and nationalism, Southeast Asia 1830-199817. This research
consulted two researches of Carey. The first one is the book entitled The Power of
Prophecy: Prince Dipanegara and the end of an old order in Java, 1785 – 185518. It is one
17
From Oxford University Web page http://www.orinst.ox.ac.uk/staff/isa/pcarey.html - accessed 20.12.2013.
This book is published by KITL Press Leiden in 2007 (2008, second edition). Indonesian version is
translated by Hashim Djojohadikusmo and Yayasan Arsari Djojohadikusumo and it is published by
18
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of the most complete chronicles about life of Diponegoro and British interregnum in Java.
It is a history book, but with interesting points about personal histories, also it is richly
illustrated. With numerous illustrations from Javanese chronicles from that time, the first
portraits of Diponegoro, and also famous Pienemaan - Mas Saleh painting discussions it
was crucial for understanding evolution of visual representation of Pangeran Diponegoro.
The second one is an omnibus-book entitled Asal-usul perang Jawa - Pemberontakan
Sepoy dan Lukisan Raden Saleh19 where historical perspectives about Raden Saleh‟s
artwork are given.
Narratives in Indonesian about Pangeran Diponegoro in form of national hero are
used in school textbooks and popular books that were available in biggest bookstore in
Indonesia – Gramedia. Sagimun, M. D. (1960) Pahlawan Dipanegara berdjuang – Bara
api kemerdekaan nan tak kundjung padam‟ 1960 - due to its old Indonesian spelling it was
hard to understand and read this book, but overall impression was that book is full of hot
nationalism. It was published a year after first national heroes were proclaimed and in era
of „intensive‟ nation-building and with that – it was interesting input for understanding and
witnessing one time in modern Indonesian history.
2. Researches about Indonesian Painting
Indonesian painting is researched more by Westerners than Indonesians. Indonesian
art is often understood and read from art catalogues, curatorial notes, art critic writings
rather than scientific and academic approach to topic. Caroline Turner (2005) in „Indonesia:
Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia (KPG) in 2012 as three parts book under the name Kuasa Ramalan:
Pangeran Diponegoro dan Akhir Tatanan Lama di Jawa, 1785-1855
19
Actually, this book is three papers written by Peter Carey that Indonesian publisher (Pustaka Azet, Jakarta 1986) merged in one book. For this research first and third paper were used: The origins of the Java War
(1825-30) (originally published in English Historical review, 1976) and Raden Saleh, Dipanegara and the
painting of the capture of Dipanegara at Magelang (Published in Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the
Royal latic Society”, 1982).
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Art, Freedom, Human Rights and Engagement with West‟ is one of the recent researches of
Indonesian art. First, she gives a short history of Indonesian art. On the basis of Indonesian
art she quotes artist and critic Jim Supangkat that Indonesian art grew out of Western art
„adapted, sometimes over a very long period of time in the colonial period‟. Nevertheless it
grows with blend of European modernity and Asian influences. She continues her
discussion with illustrations of how in the past 20 years Indonesian artist were engaged in
commenting political issues and human right issues. The formula for expression in
Indonesian art is again similar to one from the 19th century – „It has been suggested that
Indonesian art adopted ideas such as installation and protest from Western art, merely
Indonesianising the content‟ (Turner, 2005)
Later, she examined work of three Indonesian artists to illustrate her point.
Armhaniani is the first artist she is mentioning and explaining her artwork. In 1996 she
produced an installation and performance called Nation for Sale where she addressed issues
of nationalism, globalisation, and position of common people in this (dis)order. In 1999 her
work Burning Body-Burning Country was addressed to un-rests in Indonesia in that year,
and violence towards women. Moelyono is the second artist that she comments. His work
deals with controversies in Indonesian society such as Communist party and lives of
Chinese people in Java. The last one is Dadang Christanto and he deals with problems of a
„small man‟ in Indonesia – suicide of becak driver when this sort of transportation was
forbidden in Bandung; land inquisition from farmers for building golf courses. He himself
suggested that his work is there for commemorating „suffering in every time and place‟.
These three artists and their works serves to illustrate that „Indonesian artist of the past 20
years have created extraordinary body of work in its impact on the region and beyond‟
(Turner, 2005)
Mary-Jo DelVecchio Good and Byron J. Good (2008) in Indonesia Sakit –
Indonesian Disorders and the Subjective Experience and Interpretive Politics of
Contemporary Indonesian Artists (which is part of a reader called „Postcolonial Disorders‟
edited by Mary-Jo DelVecchio Good, Sandra Teresa Hyde, Sarah Pinto, Byron J. Good).
Previous research ends with questions and doubts where Indonesian art will go in new,
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reformation era. It quotes Dr Dwi Marianto (1999) who said „The New Order has given
way to New Disorder‟.
This New Disorder in contemporary Indonesian art is a topic of research of Good
and Good (2008). They also interpret works of three contemporary Indonesian artists. Alex
Luthfi is the first author interviewed and his painting Kado Reformasi (Gift of
Reformation) was interpreted. In this painting - national emblem of Garuda was painted in
black, with pig head, and a tie. It is a criticism of new era with old habits – corruption,
nepotism, and big social differences are problems that the author points out here. Agus
Yuliantara painted Indonesia Sakit (Indonesian disorders, sick Indonesia, Indonesia in pain)
which served as title of whole research. He points out the same problems as Pak Luthi, but
with different style. Painting is a surrealistic „mosaic‟ where a tiger looks like he is eating
the Indonesian archipelago, there are also two naked figures and a shadow-like figure from
which a pigeon is emerging. This complex painting is full of the symbols, present time is
not safe and nice, but overall artist has optimistic point of view towards future. The third
artist is Entang Wiharso who painted nation Run Amok where he is aware of responsibility
that state has toward its citizens, but he is dare to address problems within the people. His
main issue is surprising violent behaviour of Indonesians. (Good and Good, 2008)
We can conclude that violence is still one of the present topics of contemporary
Indonesian art. The one who answers to violence and who fights „disorders‟ and
„sicknesses‟ of one nation is a hero. Therefore it is interesting to see how a (national) hero
is fighting his battles in the world of Indonesian paintings from the 19th century until
today. These two recent researches helped by building methodology. For this research five
paintings with Pangeran Diponegoro were chosen and analyzed thoroughly, while other
paintings, sketches, illustrations were there just to maintain ideas mentioned.
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D. Framework of the research
Concept of Heroism
Postcolonial
Theory
National Heroes in Indonesia
The 19th century
‘Dutch’ Painting
Pangeran
‘Javanese’ Painting
Diponegoro
As
A
‘Indonesian’
Painting
The 20th century
Main
Motif
‘Indonesia Sakit’
Painting 1
In
Paintings
The 20th/21st
century
Painting 2
Interpretation of
Artwork
Visual
Semiotics
Figure 1 – Framework of the research
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Main idea of this research is to analyze presence of Pangeran Diponegoro in
paintings from different time period. Five paintings have been chosen from three different
time period:
 19th century and period after the Java War (1825-1830) – whose leader was
Pangeran Diponegoro. First painting (from 1830) is by a Dutch author Nicolaas
Pieneman and second one (from 1857) by Javanese Raden Saleh. Their meanings
are different, while style and genre in which they are painted look almost same.
 Second half of the 20th century is time when Indonesia got its independence from
the Dutch. This period was a time of turbulent history and intensive process of
nation-building which can be seen in painting of Diponegoro by S. Sudjojono
from 1979.
 End of the 20th century was a time when Indonesia stepped toward democracy
after 30 years of dictatorship. Questions about national identity were again actual,
and some reflections of these are present in a painting of Agung Kurniawan
(painted in dusk of New Order regime – 1994). It did not address any specific
ideology nor any special territorial unit (Indonesian country, or Javanese land) – it
is somehow a global critique. On the other side, the painting of Heri Dono is an
obvious caricature of Indonesian politics. That is why these artworks are under
„Indonesia Sakit‟ category.
Pangeran Diponegoro was mentioned in this research as a (national) hero. In
Indonesia this term is strict and it is defined by state. In some other cultures this term is
subject of perception of historians, anthropologists, sociologists, and others. In the 19th
century – when the first two painting were painted, Indonesia was not a nation.
Nevertheless, these paintings (as well as the life story) of Diponegoro symbolize „protonationalism‟ in Indonesia. Title National Hero itself was introduced in 1959 and Pangeran
Diponegoro entered the list in 1967. Today this list is enormous (159 people) and is evergrowing. Therefore in this research there will be a word about this title as well as process of
declaring one national hero. Questions about national building, ideology, and identity
(which are symbolized in this title) are looked through Postcolonial Theory.
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Paintings on the other hand are looked with author‟s available tools in
understanding and appreciating one piece of art – observing composition, perspective,
usage of colours, lines, other figures, and so on. Visual semiotics is used to de-code
symbols in it. In the first place the task is to find and interpret symbols of (national) hero
Pangeran Diponegoro as main object of research, but with him also others. One sign is
rarely understood alone, sign enters into a relationship with other signs to build net or
systems of signs. Together they make meaning. Meaning and value of these paintings are
main objectives of this research
E. Hypothesis
Pangeran Diponegoro is a powerful motif in Indonesian paintings and culture in
general. His representation is following social and historical changes that occured around
his native Java. Nevertheless, narrative around him is ever-actual and it will be re-shaped
and re-told for years to come.
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CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
A.
Location and Time of Research
Main place for this research is South-Central Java within two cities: the first one is
Surakarta, where studies were conducted and the second one is Yogyakarta where the main
research was done. The city of Yogyakarta is the main research place for the listed reasons:

Yogyakarta is the birth place of Pangeran Diponegoro and he is listed as the
national hero from this city-province.

Yogyakarta has unique place in Indonesian history. It was the centre of
nationalistic ideas and even for the short time the capital of Indonesia. There is still
an active sultan court which also had political power as sultan is a governor of
Special Region of Yogyakarta. Pangeran Diponegoro also fought against increasing
influence of the Dutch and the Western culture. Still today Yogyakarta is a symbol
of a symbiosis with Western (and other) influences and local character.

Painting as an art form in Java developed itself fully in Yogyakarta. While
Bandung in West Java was also considered an important place for developing art, it
always had the Western „glasses‟ while Yogyakarta was more national oriented.
This mixture of long history, the ideas of nationalism, yet with strong local identity,
together with the development of painting makes Yogyakarta the perfect place for this
research. Neighbouring cities and sights were also important for this research. Magelang is
a city where Pangeran Diponegoro was captured. The court of Dutch residence is setting for
the main paintings that are going to be analyzed in this research. It was also used as the
setting for the theatrical reading in November 2013 about the arrest/submission Pangeran
Diponegoro directed by Landung Simatupang („Sang Pangeran‟ di Keresidenan – Pentas
Pembacaan Dramatik) that author witnessed. Magelang is also one of the most important
centres for understanding Indonesian art as it is a place where the biggest art collections of
Indonesian art are. Last, but not least, the city of Surakarta and its surrounding also provide
amount of inspiration and motivation for conducting this research. It is the place where
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research was written, guided by mentors and other professors who shaped author‟s
knowledge about cultural studies and this topic in general.
Idea for this research came from paper in „Art Studies‟ subject in February 2013.
The main point of that paper was conflict of two paintings in the 19th century which depicts
Pangeran Diponegoro. It grows to the idea of how Pangeran Diponegoro is depicted within
Indonesian framework – fifty years ago and the question- is he still an actual motif? The
timeframe for this research is set from September 2013 until May 2014.
B.
Locus of Research
There is no pure looking with a naked, innocent eye - Pearce (1971) – this statement
explains main points why qualitative descriptive analyses (descriptive content analyses) is
chosen to conduct this research. Research using qualitative data analysis is defined as
research that produces descriptive data in the form of words and / or phrases, including
actions that can be observed by emphasizing concept development and understanding of
existing patterns in the data; notice settings and people holistically not as variables
separately; tends to be humanistic; understanding of the meaning which the actions of
participants and understand the circumstances of limited scope (Sandelowski, 2001).
To know any phenomenon (or event or experience) requires, at the very least,
knowing the facts about that phenomenon. Yet there are no facts outside the particular
context that gives those facts meaning. The descriptions always depend on the perceptions,
inclinations, sensitivities, and sensibilities of the one who describes. Descriptive content
analysis examines the qualitative (as well as quantitative) data collected through various
methods, in this research those will be analyses of the painting and the documents about
them. An aim of this analysis is to summarizing the informational contents of these data
with respect to the research question – in this research that one is how (national) hero
Pangeran Diponegoro is depicted in the paintings from the 19th century until today.
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The procedure steps in descriptive content analyses are:
-
Define the research question(s) – depiction of (national) hero
-
Review the collected data with respect to the research questions – literary and
theory review about the concepts of heroism in Indonesia, visual semiotics and
Postcolonial theory.
-
Identify the informational content with respect to the research question – this part
will be discussed in the next, main chapter of this research, together with last step
-
Prepare a concise descriptive summary of the key informational contents.20
C. Data and Source of Data
Table 1: Primary Data
Paintings from the 19th century:
Nicolaas Pieneman (1809-1860): The Submission of Diponegoro (c.1830- 1835),
oil on canvas, 77 x 100 cm, Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam.
Raden Saleh (1811? – 1880): The Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro (1857), oil on
canvas, 111 x 180 cm, Presidential Palace Collection in Jakarta
Painting from mid the 20th century:
S. Sudjojono (1913? – 1986): Diponegoro (1979), oil on canvas, 136 x 200 cm,
Centre and Museum S. Sudjojono in Jakarta
End of the 20th century, beginning of 21st century:
Agung Kurniawan (born 1968): Homage to Prince Diponegoro (1994), mix
media: pastel, paper, conte, collage, 90 x 100 cm, from IVAA slide collection
Heri Dono (born 1960): Wrong Arrest of Prince Diponegoro (2007), oil on
canvas, 150 x 200 cm, Gallery Nedi – Jakarta
Archives used to access these painting are through Indonesian Visual Contemporary
Art Archive (IVAA) which is based in Yogyakarta. This place was also valuable for the
20
Retrieved from Web presentation of FenRIAM (Foresight enriched Research Infrastructure Impact
Assessment Methodology) and their subpage about FenRIAM methods - http://www.fenriam.eu/descriptivecontent-analysis.html 16. January 2014
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secondary data which includes the books about Indonesian painting, painters, and articles
from news-papers about art exhibitions, the catalogues from art exhibitions with curatorial
writings, discussions toward contemporary Indonesian art, and others. Two living artists
and very active ones on this list are Agung Kurniawan and Heri Dono. The first one is
founder of Kedai Kebun Forum – which is active and attractive place in Yogyakarta for
dialogue concerning place of art in contemporary Indonesia. Interview with people engaged
in this art centre also enriched this research. The second one works between Jogjakarta and
Jakarta, where his retrospective exhibition was on in July 2014.
D.
Technique of Collecting Data
Qualitative research involves several phases. One of the first in this process is
collecting and sampling data. After the first impression toward art „war‟ in the 19th century
where painting of Dutch and Javanese artist were extract from book and art catalogue about
nationalism in art from 2007, and the Internet resources were used. To understand better
these ideas access and collecting of data was done in IVAA centre mentioned above.
Five paintings were chosen according to their relevance and importance to research
question. Nicolaas Pieneman opens discussion; his oil on canvas is first depiction of
Diponegoro in paintings. Raden Saleh responded to Pieneman‟s vision. Raden Saleh is
considered as a „father‟ of Indonesian art. Same „title‟ is given to S. Sudjojono. While
Raden Saleh opens the door for Javanese (and other Indonesians) to be brave and to engage
themselves in this art form, S. Sudjojono was challenging them to think what and how they
paint. He gave „Indonesian‟ prefix in art history of Indonesia. His art opponent is Basuki
Abdulah who created art as propaganda. Contemporary artist Agung Kurniawan and Heri
Dono gave a new, fresh, and brave look toward Pangeran Diponegoro as heroic figure.
They question issues such as: heroism, national ideology, mythology, they are brave
enough to use caricature, satire and irony in their work.
To look at one painting one needs to know main tools for reading it. The elements
of painting that are crucial for understanding and appreciate one piece of art are: usage of
colours, lines, perspective, composition, and with that how did artist make illusion of time,
motion and space (usage of lights, shadows, representation of texture, facial expressions...)
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After this observation, comes the analyses of available texts around artwork, understanding
historical context, seeking for author‟s words: labels, text next to artwork, notes from
sketches, comments of art critics, curators and others. Data were then analysed according to
the theory presented in this research (Postcolonial theory) and tools of semiotics. In this
research icon-index-symbol triptych was used, together with the Barthesian denotation and
connotation form from his „Rhetoric of Image‟.
E.
Technique of Analyzing Data
In qualitative descriptive research „the researcher is an instrument‟. The research
does not aim to get ultimate truth, but to look one problem from different perspectives.
Qualitative approach can reveal different perspectives in different: situations, settings,
process, relations, and people. Qualitative research is generally characterized by the
simultaneous collection and analysis of data whereby both mutually shape each other.
One of the types of techniques used to analyze data in descriptive way is through
using a case study. In case study we need record data about context surrounding proposed
problem, to understand its social and cultural framework and other things. Data Analysis in
case studies includes: 1. Organization of details about the case, 2. Categorization of data,
3. Interpretation of single instances, 4. Identification of patterns, and 5. Synthesis and
generalizations (Leedy and Ormrod, 2013)
F.
Approach to Analyses of Data
For this research data will be collected and analyzed through tools of visual
semiotics. Data will be organized as marked signs used in paintings. Signs will be divided
in three categories – indexes, icons, and symbols. Also theory of gaze and gaze will be
looked as a sign. These will be interpreted one by one, and then through analysis of all five
painting those who emerge as same, can be named patterns. They will be synthesized and
generalized in one message. This message can be connotative meaning of painting.
Semiotics signs will correspond to Postcolonial theory which is ground theory of this
research.
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Process is the following – reading painting, reduce it to systems of signs, analyze
signs, use Postcolonial theory, unite them all together and answer the question of main
hypothesis. Signs that will be produced come from understanding of concept such are
heroism, nationalism, identity, and others. These concepts are analyzed under Postcolonial
theory and finding and ideas of main thinkers from this theory.
G.
Validation of Data
Triangulation is the combination of at least two or more theoretical perspectives,
methodological approaches, data sources, investigators, or data analysis methods. The
intent of using triangulation is to decrease, negate, or counterbalance the deficiency of a
single strategy, thereby increasing the ability to interpret the findings. Denzin, 1978 (from
Hussein, 2009) identified four basic types of triangulation:

Data triangulation: involves time, space, and persons

Investigator triangulation: involves multiple researchers in an investigation

Theory triangulation: involves using more than one theoretical scheme in the
interpretation of the phenomenon

Methodological triangulation: involves using more than one method to
gather data, such as interviews, observations, questionnaires, and
documents.
In this research data triangulation involves depicting Pangeran Diponegoro as main
motif in paintings of various authors from different backgrounds and different historical
perspectives. Theory that was used to illustrate this research was Postcolonial theory, but it
is also cross checked with findings from tools used by Visual Semiotics.
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CHAPTER IV
ANALYSES
A. The 19th century – Pangeran Diponegoro – Villain and Hero
1. The 19th century in Indonesia
The powerful Dutch East India Company (Dutch - Vereenigde Oost-Indische
Compagnie - VOC, meaning “United East India Company”) appeared in what is now
Indonesian land from beginning of 17th century. For two centuries these mighty, the first
multinational company controlled and used different parts of Indonesian Archipelago and
seized power of local rulers. Due to corruption and debt, the company declared bankruptcy
and it was nationalised by Dutch republic as the Dutch East Indies. The exact date of
nationalisation of this company was January 1st 1800, so Indonesia entered into the 19th
century with an old new ruler. (Brown, 2003)
Between 1811 and 1816 some parts of the Dutch East Indies came under a short
period of British control due to some insurgencies in Europe. After that the Dutch fought
several wars to establish their full control over Archipelago. In West Sumatra between 1803
and 1827 there was the first civil war between two Muslim groups, and with the
intervention of the Dutch this war was over. Now it is called the Minangkabau (ethnics of
west Sumatra) or Padri War (that was the name of the faction that won). Between 1859 and
1863 there was also war in southeast Kalimantan. The result was the defeat of the
Banjarmasin sultan. Areas of Bali and Aceh were also rebellious and conflict there started
at the end of the 19th century and finished at the beginning of the 20th century with the
Dutch state becoming absolute ruler of all present areas of Indonesia. (Brown, 2003)
For this research one conflict is crucial. It is the Java War or Diponegoro War and it
was fought for five years between 1825 and 1830. This rebellious, guerrilla war took as
many as 500.000 Javanese lives and around 20.000 soldiers on the Dutch side – both
Europeans and Belanda Hitam – black warriors from the Dutch Gold Coast (today Ghana).
The war ended with the capture of the Javanese leader of war and his companions during
negotiations where the Dutch guaranteed him freedom and some rights, but instead they
tricked him, ending the war. Java was devastated, but soon with a new cultivation system
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the Javanese and Dutch elites were pleased. Java and Indonesia, with the end of this war,
entered a high point of colonization which brought wealth to the Dutch Kingdom (from
1815 until today the Netherlands has been a kingdom ruled by the Oranje family), but
devastation, poverty, and death to many in the archipelago. But it also brought better
infrastructure and access to education, which later led to nationalistic movements and
finally the liberation of Indonesia. (Carey, 2008)
2. Art History of the 19th century
The 19th century was quite a dynamic period in Indonesian history; it brought a lot
of misery to the Archipelago, but also some innovations that soon helped facilitate
deliberation and the emancipation of the country. In the history of Europe and art history of
the West it was also a dynamic period which led to art as we know it today. With
revolutionary movements and the establishment of nations as we know them today, art
followed with the first movements in the 19th century being Neoclassicism and
Romanticism. (Hirsh, 2011)
The first one, Neoclassicism, derived influence from classics in European art –
antique and renaissance. The second, Romanticism, was also called Neo-Baroque and it
was more dynamic and vivid than Neoclassicism. The key word with Romanticism was
escape: escape in nature, in glory past, in exotic places (Hirsh, 2011). The art of these
artists influenced the first Javanese who learned about painting. During the second half and
towards the end of the century, Realism, with its strong social critique, was born along with
Impressionism, which brought new challenges to art. These two movements did not have
any direct influence on Javanese (and Indonesian) art. Indirect influence was present with
questions about the meaning and position of art, but with some time delay.
3. Western Eyes: Nicolaas Pieneman‟s Vision of Pangeran Diponegoro
3.1.
Biography of Nicolaas Pienemaan
One of the artists from the „Dutch Neoclassicism‟ period is the Dutch painter and
lithographer Nicolaas Pieneman. He was born on 1st January 1800. His birth place is the
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city of Amersfoort in central Netherlands. He was the son of the famous Dutch artist Jan
Willem Pieneman. Jan Willem Pieneman was the director of the Koninklijke Académie voor
Schone Kunsten in Amsterdam since 1820 and finally was appointed director of the
Rijksmuseum Amsterdam in 1847. (Marius, 1909)
Taught by his father, he later studied at Amsterdam‟s Academy of Fine Arts. He
specialised in painting recent historical events. He was a friend of the Dutch king Willem II
and painted numerous portraits of members of the royal family. He was also member of
Natura Artis Magistra in Amsterdam from 1852 until his death on 30th December 1860.
His opus consists of mainly historical painting, followed by portraits and cityscapes.
Besides the Netherlands, he was also active in the United Kingdom, France, and Belgium.
In addition to his painting and lithography skills he entered the art history of Netherlands as
an art collector and teacher of many future painters, such as Johaness Arnoldus Boland,
Hendrick Hollander, Jan Frederick Tuck, and others. (Marius, 1909)
3.2.
Submission of Diponegoro (1830-5): History and Signs
Diponegoro entered Javanese traditional art as a leader of the Javanese during the
Java War. His fights were subject of batik paintings as well as wayang kulit stories. In early
chronicles about his fight written in Javanese court houses, there were also depictions of
Diponegoro. These artworks will be mentioned more in Section 4, about Javanese paintings
of Diponegoro.
The first Westerner that made a depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro was Adrianus
Johaness Bick (1790-1872). He was baljuw (magistrate) of Batavia (today Jakarta) and
guardian of Diponegoro during his stay in the Stadhuis (Batavia‟s City Hall today Jakarta
History Museum). Diponegoro was there between April 8 and May 3, 1830. Based on a
charcoal sketch of A. J. Bick, Carel Christiaan Anthony created a lithography. This portrait
was used to make the banknotes of 100 Indonesian rupiah from 1952. (Carey, 2008)
In these representations Pangeran Diponegoro was dressed in the garments which he
wore during the Java war, namely a turban, an open-necked kabaya (cotton shirt) and a
jubah (loose outer robe). A sash hangs over his right shoulder, and his pusaka kris
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(heirloom dagger), Kangjeng Kyai Bandayuda, is stuck in his flowered silk waist band. The
slightly sunken cheeks, which accentuate the prince‟s high cheek bones, were the result of
successive bouts of malaria from which he had been suffering since his wandering in the
jungles of Bagelen at the end of the war (Carey, 2008). These representations are rarely
seen, because they represent Pangeran Diponegoro as a sick prisoner. It is far away from
Pangeran Diponegoro - the warrior, just king, leader, hero... Nevertheless, these pictures
can also have nationalistic connotations; they show a warrior in the robe that he wore
during battles. His face is pale and expresses sickness, but his eyes are proud and bright.
His posture is one of the royals, full of dignity and calmness. This is the light that will shine
on the nation several years after his exile and death.
1.0. A. J. Bick, charcoal
1.1. A. C. Anthony,
1.2. Note of 100 Indonesian
sketch, 1830
lithography, 1830
rupiah from 1952
(Source: Carey, 2008)
(Source: Carey, 2008)
(Source: the Internet21)
1. The First Western Look at Pangeran Diponegoro
The first one to put Pangeran Diponegoro on the „big screen‟ was Nicolaas
Pieneman. His painting was done in the same period as the sketch and lithography – around
1830 and 1835. General Hendrik Merkus de Kock, who arranged the arrest of Diponegoro,
returned to Holland in late 1830 and was received as a national hero. In order to celebrate
himself de Kock commissioned the best known (and economically most successful) portrait
painter, Cornelis Kruseman (the teacher of Raden Saleh) - to do his portrait. De Kock did
21
All sources of illustrations (specially one retrieved from the Internet) are listed in the end of this research
under section „Source of Illustration‟ (page 137)
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not only commission his own portrait, but also a historical tableau of the “Submission of
Diponegoro” - the highlight of his military career - by Nicolaas Pieneman. (Kraus, 2005)
This oil on canvas was originally in the de Kock family collection until 1907 when
it was handed over to Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam where it was listed in 1920 under
collection number 1874. The original (and full) title of the painting is The submission of
Diepo Negoro to Lieutenant-General Hendrick Merkus Baron de Kock, 28 March 1830,
which ended the Java War (1825–30). The title itself is already full of the meaning. The
author omits the title Pangeran (or Prince) in front of Diponegoro (this only appears in
Indonesian translations of the artwork where Diepo Negoro is Pangeran Diponegoro), while
de Kock is presented under his full name and title.
There is also the ending, which is rarely seen, „which ended the Java war‟. Usually
the painting is named with a shorter version like that in the title of this paragraph (and
generally used during the whole of this research) or with an extended name which includes
the two main characters. This ending is characteristic because it does not mention the
treachery of Dutch, or how the war and this meeting ended. It says that war ended with the
simple submission of Diponegoro, which is far from truth. It is obvious already that the
painting represents the Dutch as a supreme power with dominance over the Javanese. If we
examine the painting as system of signs we can see how specific elements support this
view.
Icon signs are signs where the signifier resembles the signified. In Nicolaas
Pieneman we can observe the depiction of many historical characters who were involved in
this historical drama. The Dutch are positioned in the upper level of the composition, they
are active and energetic. One is shown ordering something, another is ready to obey these
orders, their posture is vertical – everyone is either standing or riding a horse and therefore
dominates the picture. Their uniforms are neat and dominated by the colour black (shirts,
boots, and hats) which also gives a strong sense of power. Black is the colour that usually
symbolises death, but it also represents dominance and full control. Black itself is all
colours in one, but also the absence of light. On the other hand, the followers of
Diponegoro are somehow subordinate; they are sitting, kneeling, or standing. But the
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standing figures also lack energy and everyone is somehow surprised and hurt by the news
that their leader is telling them.
2. Nicolaas Pieneman Submission of Diponegoro (1830-1835)22
2.1. Icon signs– Portraits of some of the historical figures involved in this scene:
1. Pangeran Diponego
2. Hendrick Merkus de
Kock
3. Du Perron
4. Michiels
5. Tololiu HW Dotulong
6. Benjamin Th. Sigar
7. Hendrik Werias Supit
8. Pasukan Tulungan
9. Johanis Inkiriwarig
2.2. Pangeran
Diponegoro
2.3. General De
Kock
Pieneman made Diponegoro look
submissive (he is put one step below De
Kock), his retainers and followers as well.
Everyone pictured seems to understand
that de Kock's stern action is for the best
of the Javanese, and that poor General de
Kock had no choice but to send Pangeran
Diponegoro away, just like a loving father
has to send a misguided son away in order
to teach him a valuable lesson. After all de
Kock was not a monstrous colonizer, but
an educated and civilized gentleman,
respected leader of the freemasons in the
Indies (Kraus, 2005).
22
Pieneman painting was easy to access in every format from Web page of Rijksmuseum
(https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/SK-A-2238 - Retrieved in 5. May 2013.) All details, cropped
version of painting are from that source
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Index signs are those where signifier is not arbitrary, rather it has a direct
connection to signified. Classic Index signs in paintings (and other visual media) are for
example smoke that indicates fire, writings on painting, that point to what is written, traces
of movements (footprints, traces of car). But in general art history has developed an
extensive lexicon of indexical signs in paintings: there are repoussoir figures, figures in
pictures who „point‟ to the action, „lookers‟ in paintings, „painter–beholders‟ in pictures
who mime some functions of the external beholder, mirrors and surrogates and objects of
reciprocal gazes (in Elkins, 2013).
Repoussoir figures are those who make the border of the picture, they introduce us
to the space. They were introduced by Dutch landscape painters in the 17th century. A
memento of this in this composition is the depiction of a tree that leads our view toward the
mountains. Also in this painting there is one figure on the right on the horse, in a red suit; it
closes composition on that side with the banner of the flag of the Netherlands which will
soon be analyzed.
The pointing figure in this composition is De Kock who probably points and
indicates that soon a carriage will come and take prisoner to his future destination. De
Kock‟s gaze is also the most striking one and symbolizes determination and action. Gazes
of the other Dutch are toward De Kock and support him in his action. Other Dutch figures
look on the scene with Diponegoro but with calm and indifference. Diponegoro does not
look in any general direction, but toward his followers, and his body language somehow
suggests that he realizes that he is guilty, and the only thing that he can do is to surrender.
His followers look at him with surprise and shock, but the scene is not too dramatic, facial
expressions are mild, so like they also realize necessity of this action. All participants seem
relaxed (even the crying ones), there is no resistance. (Kraus, 2005)
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Symbol signs
A painting is usually full of symbols. Symbols are signs where the signifier does not
look like the signified. It is fully arbitrary, needs to be learned, and it is a matter of
convention. Symbols can include objects, but also they are in gestures, body language,
animals and plants that have strong symbolic potential, and so on.
2.4 Marks of Nation: Central Dutch flag, flag on the right side, and coat of arm
By looking at the painting we can say that the figure of Diponegoro and two crying
and kneeling figures are the central ones. They are in a central position, but, above them, on
the roof of the Residence, is the Dutch flag. It is the dominant figure in this painting. It is a
strong symbol of who is above everything – the rebellious prince, the loyal general, armies
from both sides – servitude to Kingdom of the Netherlands is their summit. The flag on the
roof is the highest peak of the painting; even the tree and mountain are below its level. The
flag also appears on the right side and the figure in red almost closes that side of the
composition. Among the masses of Dutch soldiers there is also a small trace of the orange
flag – the banner of royal family from Kingdom of the Netherlands established from 1815.
The coat of arms is not so visible, but it is the dominant relief over the entrance to the
Residence which clearly indicates that the resident is there to obey European center of
power symbolized by its heraldic.
Spears - There are two groups of spears, those on the back are up, and in front panel
are the ones which are laid down. Those that are up belong to the Pasungan Tulungan
(mentioned above in icon signs under number 8). The Pasungan Tulungan were brought
from Fort Amsterdam in Manado and they consisted of 1500 Minahasa people. They were
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one of the key elements of Dutch victory. In contrast to them are the spears of the defeated
Javanese.
2.5. People: More Middle Eastern than Javanese
Nicolaas Pieneman had never been to Java and the Javanese in his painting look
more like people from the Middle East. (Kraus, 2005) It is a perfect illustration of Said‟s
concept of Orientalisation. The West won a war, the rebellious were Muslims, and the
nearest concept to the Western closed mind are Muslims from Middle East who were for
ages enemies of the Christian rulers who wanted to „liberate‟ the Holy Land. All followers
of Diponegoro wear turban-like cloths on their head, and their robes are like those of Turks,
or Lebanese, rather than Javanese with their batik clothes. Even their faces, moustaches,
and expressions also reveal this Middle-Easterncity rather than Javanicity or Indonesiacity.
(New words coined from Barthesian concept of Italianicity from his „Rethoric of Image‟)
2.6. Geography: Landscape - Magelang is surrounded by five volcano mountains:
Merapi, Merbabu, Sindoro, Sumbing, and Slamet.
Background Mountain in Pineneman‟s vision is more
likely European mountain, rather than some of the
Volcano Mountain in Java with its conical shape.
Also the Dutchman Pieneman introduced a rather sharp
wind from the west (common in Holland) that gives the
Dutch flag a very dynamic appearance (Kraus, 2005).
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The painting of Nicolaas Pieneman is not there to be realistic and accurate, it is
there to serve its purpose which is the demonstration of Dutch supremacy and great victory.
It may be followed by the usage of a great amount of prejudice and ignorance, but is not
that how the West „produces‟ the East in the first place? This artwork was one of the
paintings that helped Dutch people to construct an image and the idea of the Netherland
East Indies. It is an idea of the Other, rebellion, one that needs to be controlled and
subordinate, the one who needs European gentlemen, who will bring dynamic changes in
this part of world, many good ones, but also many followed by death and despair.
2.7. (Un-existing) Symbol of Death In writings about Pieneman‟s painting
there is no word about the strange
figure
of
carriage
driver.
His
representation „whispers‟ a story of
death and destruction of one colonial
rule.
The majority of faces that we saw in direct gaze in this painting have the features of
one face – nose, eyes, or mouth, in some we can see it more clearly, like De Kock or
Diponegoro and in some just in traces, but the driver of the carriage has a strangely dark
and morbid appearance. In Western painting there is a frequent motif in paintings called
memento mori - usually depicted by skulls which serve to remind a viewer of transience of
life. In this picture the driver‟s role is somehow reversed – it can mean that the painter
wanted to say „death is coming‟ for Pangeran Diponegoro. It would be a big mistake –
Pangeran Diponegoro lived 30 more years. But it can be „death is coming for all of you‟,
because Javanese resistance was silenced with the end of this war only briefly, and it took
the Javanese more than one hundred years to resist and to set free and to create a new
homeland – Indonesia.
4. Javanese Eyes: Raden Saleh‟s Vision of Pangeran Diponegoro
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4.1.
Biography of Raden Saleh
The first Javanese who gained formal education in painting in west was Raden
Saleh. His full name is Raden Saleh Sjarief Boestaman. He was born in a wealthy Javanese
family in Tebaya (Semarang, Central Java) in 1807 or 1814. , His family had ties with Suro
Adimenggolo, the regent of Semarang and Pekalongan. He had lived at the home of Baron
van der Capellen in Buitenzorg (present day Bogor, West Java), where he had an
opportunity to study painting from Caspar Reinward (1773-1854) and Belgian artist A. A.
J. Payen (1792-1853). It was him who found Raden‟s talent. With the support of Prof.
Reinward, a painter and botanical blue-print maker of Kebun Raya Bogor (the Botanical
Garden of Bogor) and the Dutch governor General van der Capellen, A. A. Payen sends
him to the Netherlands to study painting in 1830. The willingness of Dutch colonial
government to send and educate Raden Saleh abroad had at its core political design, namely
so that the young man would be prevented from being influenced by his uncle, who was
leaning toward aristocrat independence leader Pangeran Diponegoro prior to the outbreak
of the struggle for freedom in the Java War (1825-1830) (Kraus and Vogelsang, 2012)
He studied landscape painting from Andreas Schelfhout and portrait painting from
Cornelius Kruseman. From 1839 the artist lived in Dresden and he became a celebrity in
several courts there. In 1844 Raden Saleh visited France, and later journeyed to Italy and
Austria. Upon his return to Holland, he was given the title of Royal Painter by King Willem
II. He also visited Algiers during this time. His work is strongly influenced by work of
Romanticism masters, in the first place Théodore Géricault (1791-1824) and Eugène
Delacroix (1798 – 1863) Raden Saleh was after all the Javanese of his time most exposed to
western thought and reality. “European painters are not especially good in creating animal
hunts and battle scenes. They miss the inner experience. Here I'm happy to be an Asian”
(Kraus, 2005)
After more than 20 years living abroad he returned to Java in 1852. For a short
while he became a painter in the courts of Yogyakarta and Mangkunegara (Solo). Finally
he settled in Batavia (Jakarta), only to move to Bogor in 1879, a year before his death. The
artist passed away on 23 April 1880 in Bogor. In 1969 he was awarded Amugerah Seni art
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award from Indonesian government. The artistic and existential struggle of Raden Saleh
could be a turning point for mapping and discussing how Indonesian fine art grew,
developed, and then came into contact with modernity. His art work representing the East
Image through Romanticism made him made him charismatic figure among the artists and
European noblemen. This achievement made him professional laureate painter, and get the
various honours. He had the capacity to absorb West culture, yet, he had strong ties to his
native socio-cultural context. He became an inspiration for Indonesian painters and
nationalists during the growth of national movement in the first half of 20th century. (Kraus
and Vogelsang, 2012)
4.2.
Arrest of Diponegoro (1857): History and Signs
Raden Saleh was not the first Javanese to paint Pangeran Diponegoro. Charcoal
sketch of Diponegoro as a young man was probably made by a Yogyakarta kraton artist. It
was the time of Diponegoro‟s marriage to his first official wife in March 1807. It is the only
known sketch of the Pangeran which shows him dressed in Javanese kraton style in a
surjan and blangkon (Carey, 2008). He also entered the babad – traditional Javanese
chronicles. He is a subject in four babad: one written by himself with the assistance of his
family, one written by the order of his opponent Bupati Purwarejo, and those written in
courts of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Diponegoro also had remarkable knowledge about
wayang and gamelan. (Sumarsam, 2013) He will also enter these stories. Wayang
Diponegoro was created in the 20th century to spread a story about famous Pameran and
his glory resistance.
Besides depicting Pangeran Diponegoro in „imported‟ way which painting in
Indonesia is, there is also a long tradition of depicting stories about him in traditional
genres – illustrations in babad chronicles, as motif in batik painting, and telling the stories
and carving his leather puppet for wayang kulit performance. One of the main goals of this
research is also to demonstrate how local wisdom and specific Indonesian socio-cultural
environment can blend and enrich painting in Indonesia and general.
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3.1. Batik Perang
Diponegoro
(Author‟s photo
collection)
3.2. Pangeran Diponegoro
giving instructions to his
two
followers,
Kyai
Jayamustapa and Kyai
Mopid, before they set out
on their pilgrimage (ziarah)
to Nusakambangan.
Diponegoro is sitting under
kemuning
tree
(wit
kemuning)
on
his
meditation stone (séla
gilang) at his retreat of Sélareja, north-east of Tegalreja. From
Buku Kedung Kebo. (Source of illustration and text: Carrey,
2007)
3.3. One of the first Diponegoro‟s portrait made by 3.4. & 3.5. Wayang Diponegoro
unknown local keraton artist (Source: Carrey, 2007)
(Source of photos – the
Internet23)
It is interesting to notice that almost all traditional Javanese art forms that was
depicted in illustration box above appear later. Initially Pangeran Diponegoro was not hero,
he brought chaos and destruction to a lot of parts of Java. His battle was forceful and brutal.
Only later, his rebellious act was recognized as proto-nationalistic one. Wayang
Diponegoro appeared after Indonesian Independence. Batik Diponegoro was actual batik,
but it was done with design of Dutch ladies who were worried about this conflict. It is
presented in batik belanda section of Danar Hadi Batik Museum in Surakarta. This is an
interesting influence of Javanese art form to creations of Westerners.
23
For more details about source, look at Source of Illustrations on page 137.
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One of the best examples of blending of Western and Indonesian art and
hybridization is Raden Saleh‟s masterpiece “The Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro illustrates
his status as a migrant between two worlds rather brilliantly” (Kraus, 2005). In Europe he
did not feel comfortable to paint historical scenes. Those scenes in Western art included
representations of contemporary historical events and glorification of rulers in the first
place, but also knowledge and usage of historical scenes and battles from European history.
Also, in this group big scenes from the Bible as well as narratives from Ancient mythology
were included. Not just Ancient Roman and Greece, but also stories from German, AngloSaxon, and other mythologies. Historical painting, which carried strong nationalistic
undertones, developed into a major instrument for glorification of the state and/or nation
building. (Kraus, 2005) All these concepts were unfamiliar to Saleh, so he did not paint in
this genre. The only historical painting that he did is „Arrest of Diponegoro‟.
The visual hegemony was already established. (Kraus, 2005) Pieneman already
finished his version, that Saleh must have seen in the Netherlands and he probably made
first sketches based on this painting. From later in 1857 Raden Saleh mentioned that he
produced one painting which includes Diponegoro and he painted it „for his majesty the
King of Holland‟.
The Raden Saleh family, because of connections with Diponegoro lost privileges
and some of his family members were also exiled. Raden Saleh never met Diponegoro, but
he met Kyai Naga Siloeman, the kris of Pangeran Diponegoro - Kyai Naga Siloeman had
been taken from Diponegoro by the Dutch when they arrested him in Magelang. It was also
interesting to mention that in a short note in the Kunstkronijk (1844-45) Raden Saleh was
called neefvan Diepo Negoro, nephew of Diponegoro. Regardless of these obvious and
strong connections with Raden Saleh and Diponegoro professor Harsja Bachtiar, an
American trained Indonesian historian, who belonged to the first generation of intellectuals
in independent Indonesia, disqualified the painting as 'un-nationalistic'. He wrote:
Diponegoro's death inspired Saleh, who had seen many paintings of historical
scenes when he was in Europe, to paint what he called a historisches Tableau, die
Gefangennahmen des Javanischen Hauptling Diepo Negoro, painted,
characteristically, for the King of the Netherlands, a very un-nationalistic gesture,
but very much in accord with the relationship of a grateful artist and his aristocratic
patron, the relationship of a courtier and his King. (Bachtiar, 1976in Kraus, 2005)
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In the first sketch for painting, we see a lot of similarities with Pieneman‟s vision,
but there are already some signs that are different. Also the figures are all proportional
which is also important to mention for analyses of actual painting.
4.0. The first sketch for
Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro, 1856
In the final painting Raden Saleh used Western Renaissance linear perspective.
After all linear perspective creates a highly artificial representation of space and “belongs
more to visual symbolism than to the structure of vision” (Swiderski, 1990). That vision of
Saleh is vision of trap, of treachery, and betrayal. “Among the earliest expressions of this is
Raden Saleh's 1850s depiction of The Capture of Prince Diponegoro by General de Kock
after the Java War of 1825-30, a painting that declares, I think, „you did this to us, but we
are still us‟ ” (Clark in Anderson, 1998).“Reformulation” was the task of Raden Saleh
which means the opposition of Pieneman‟s vision, his own answer, and visual battle so to
speak.
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Raden Saleh „The Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro‟ (1857)24
4.1. Icon signs– Portraits of some of historical figures involved in this scene:
1 – Pangeran Diponegoro
2 - Hendrik Merkus de Kock
3 – Louis de Perron
4 – W. A. Roest
5 – Francois Victor Henri Antoine Ridder
de Stuers
6 – 9 – Diponegoro‟s followers, among
them either 6 or/and 7 is Raden Saleh
„cameo‟ appearance
10 – Raden Ayu Retnaningsih, one of the
wives
11 – Jayasurata (Rata), one of the abdi
dalam (servant)
12 – Pangeran Diponegoro Muda, the
second son, born ca. 1809
13 – Franciscus Gerardus Valck
14 – Johan Jacob Parié
15 – Johan Jacob Roeps
Figures that are sitting or kneeling are representations of Diponegoro‟s closest
collaborators: military commanders (Ali Basah, AB), male children (Raden Mas, RM)
and religious clerics. Here there is depiction of AB Ngabdulkamil Mértanégara, AB
Ngadulmahmud Gandakusuma, AB Suryawinata, AB Imam Musbah, RM Joned (born
ca. 1815) , RM Raib (born ca. 1816), Kyai Ngisa and Haji Badarudin. There are also
students from Islamic school Barjumungah and carrier of Diponegoro‟s payung (9)
(Source for naming characters – Carrey, 1986)
24
The Arrest of Diponegoro does not have available reproduction in high resolution, so for this analyses
reproduction were accessed from several sources, for details look at Source of Illustration – page 137
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Icon signs
This was the first time for Raden Saleh to
paint
more
than
40
figures
in
one
composition. Carey (1986) identifies more
than historical figures in this painting. A
major difference between Pieneman‟s and
Saleh‟s vision is depiction of two main
characters
4.2. Pangeran Diponegoro Muda,
Pangeran Diponegoro and General de
Kock
of
this
historical
drama
–
Pangeran Diponegoro and General de Kock.
The arrest of Diponegoro shows a different
composition
and
emotional
quality
altogether. An angry Diponegoro is the acting figure in the center of the painting. He
struggles to keep his feelings - in true Javanese fashion - under control. His look is
provocative and challenging, while the Dutch officers are frozen in static gazes that do not
meet anybody's eyes. Saleh brings the Javanese onto the same level. In relationship to de
Kock, Diponegoro stands on the right side, the Dutch Commander-in-Chief on the left,
which, within the Javanese system of spatial order is understood as the female side. That
again relegates the Dutch officer to the second in importance.
Index signs
In Raden Saleh‟s painting there are not too many indexical signs. In Raden Saleh‟s
version Diponegoro is not pointed out of his country, but is invited by a somewhat helpless
de Kock to enter a waiting coach. Gazes of people are calm, Dutch people look confused
and lost, and among followers of Diponegoro only two figures look more up to the scene,
while others look down and overall spread atmosphere of sadness and despair. The only
figure who has more vivid facial expression is Pangeran Diponegoro who looks angry; his
posture shows that he is ready for some action.
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Symbol signs
4.3. Geography - Mountains in Saleh‟s vision look more like
volcanic mountains that can be seen from Magelang. The
Dutchman Pieneman introduced a rather sharp wind from the
west (common in Holland) that gives the Dutch flag a very
dynamic appearance. In Raden Saleh's work the atmosphere is
absolutely quiet. The universe holds its breath, no leaf and
certainly no flag is moving. (Kraus, 2005)
In Salèh‟s painting it is morning, the dawn of a new day: not only the dawn of a new
colonial era, but also one which would herald the collapse of that order. (Carrey, 2007)
(Non-existent) Marks of Nation - Raden Saleh has 'forgotten' the Dutch tricolor
altogether. Also there is no coat of arms engraved in the wall of the building. While this
painting can be addressed to the king (who was not really art lover) it is cleared message
from absence of signs: you do not belong here. After this war Java entered the period of
high colonialism and land was dived to various local rulers. Divide et impera – was Dutch
as well for short time British motto in Java. That is why there are no alternate signs, the
ideas of nationhood will be developed later, at the beginning of the 20th century, and this
painting will be one of the symbols for artists who wished to say something about national
issue.
4.4. People in Raden Saleh are rich in clothes, gestures,
emotions
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The most interesting fact about depiction of people in Raden Saleh‟s vision is that
the heads of the major Dutch officers are slightly out of proportion, a little bit too big. This
'error' is not found in the earlier drawing, nor are the heads of the Javanese on the painting
out of proportion. This is because the 'error' is not an error but a message: the heads of the
Dutch officers are the heads of raksasas, of monsters. Dutch audience could not recognize
this message, even Dutch historian H. J. de Graf wrote: “I cannot say that I find it very
beautiful. The heads are a little too big and the arrest of the prince did not happen on the
gallery as shown on the painting but in the interior of the house”(Moesson, 1978in Kraus,
2005)
In Raden Saleh vision Javanese people look more realistic than one in Pieneman‟s
vision. He uses for them not only turbans, which here are symbol signs for supporters of
Diponegoro. From the earliest depiction Diponegoro is with turban, and those who follow
him, wear the same. But in this depiction Javanese do wear batik and its parang decoration.
Raden Saleh‟s painting is attempting to restore Javanese dignity.
Tasbih - One of the symbol signs that are present in both versions of painting is
tasbih on Diponegoro‟s wrest. Tasbih (in Arabic ‫ )ت س ب يح‬is a form of dhikr that involves
the repetitive utterances of short sentences glorifying God, in Islam. To keep track of
counting either the phalanges of the right hand or a misbaha is used. (Glassé, 2002) In
Pieneman‟s vision also there is one of the main figures; just next to stairs that is using it to
pray.
Batik - Parang design is a motif of slanted lines. The term Parang derives from
„sharp thing‟ or „knife‟. According to J. E. Jesper, Parang is a lotus leaf and according to J.
A. Loeber, this design comes from bird of Irian called Alberartas. In the Javanese history, it
is said that king Sultan Agung Hanyokurokusumo III created Parang from the form of the
wave of the southern coast. He considered that even large rocks can be destroyed by strong
waves and therefore, he prohibited this design to the masses and only permitted to be worn
by someone with a quick mind who is active and is able to solve political problems.
However inside a family, Parang can be destructive (meaning war) and is considered
negatively. Therefore, this design is prohibited to be worn in weddings and is worn in royal
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ceremonial occasions such as traditional ceremonies, royal meetings, and receptions of
guests. When wearing Parang, there is a regulation that the size of Parang patterns differs
depending on the wearer‟s social class. In short, people of lower class cannot wear large
Parang patterns (Sentalu in Tozu, 2007)
The Parang motif in batik clothes of Diponegoro‟s followers that researchers about
Raden Saleh painting did not notice and it is remarkable how symbolic this batik is and
how its story goes well with the story about capturing of Pangeran Diponegoro. Yet, some
notice red and white colour on the top of Diponegoro‟s turban. It may be interpreted as a
proto-nationalist sign, but it can be just coincidence. But it is not coincidence that
Diponegoro was painted without his keris. In the moment of his capturing it was Idul Fitri –
a great Islamic day, and we cannot tell what Diponegoro was expecting from this meeting,
but it is clear that he did not expect that he will be tricked and captured. The absence of the
keris symbolizes that.
According to Bruijn and Pattopang (2008), this painting could be a symbol of
national identity. The reason is, first, the paintings were made by painter‟s Indonesian
maestro, namely Raden Saleh. Second, the subject of the painting is a hero of the nation,
namely Prince Diponegoro. Third, this painting has a highly aesthetic value. More than
that, this painting depicts a historic event that is very important for Indonesia.
To end discussion one can start from the beginning – the name of the painting.
Raden Saleh did not choose to follow Pieneman and to name the painting „Submission‟. He
believed that Pangeran Diponegoro was tricked and he expressed that it in a title. He did
not omit Diponegoro‟s title – he was his Pangeran as well as he was to thousands of
Javanese who follow him in his resistance. That is why he also depicts himself among the
group of Diponeogoro‟s followers.
Did Raden Saleh really want to send message that Dutch who colonized his land our
raksasa or monsters or was it just a mistake? Not all figures of Dutch people in his painting
are out of proportion, only those in charge. They even have a bigger amount of light on
their faces (logically because heads are bigger), so it is arguable that Saleh wanted to send
message of disapproval to those. One can say that the Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro is a
caricature, a bitter comment on Dutch colonial rule. Others can say that it is the piece of a
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„loyal servant‟. A third view, as Alwi Shahab added in a long newspaper essay about
Saleh's Arrest of Diponegoro: “It is a revolutionary and anti-colonial painting”.
Is Raden Saleh a londo (Javanese term for white people (and/or foreigners) that
comes from name for Dutch people) or hybrid (Javanese educated and grow in West) or
Javanese/Indonesian proto-nationalist? The answer is all and none of the above. The answer
can be summarized by pointing main ideas from analyzes of this painting:
- Evolution of an idea – from initial sketch that follows Pieneman‟s vision to a final vision
with different emotion. The more closed composition with many figures looks intense
and treating.
- The position of Dutch and Javanese figures – notable main characters – Diponegoro and
de Kock who are on the same level and Diponegoro looks angry and de Kock confused
Relationship that Raden Saleh had with Diponegoro‟s family and local rulers. His family
was pro-Diponegoro, he could not go to see and to make scene from battle, but he did
visit Magelang where one of his family members was in charge.
- The destiny of the painting itself – it was it in his palace in The Hague. Later it was sent
to
The trofeengalerij
van
het
Koninklijk
Koloniaal
Militair Invalidenhuis
Bronbeek (gallery of trophies of the Royal Colonial Military Veterans Home Bronbeek).
In 1978 the Oranje Nassau Foundation returned the painting, as a present to the
Indonesian people, to Jakarta. It was kept in Presidental Palace Museum and until
recently it was in bad shape. It was restored in 2013.
To conclude Raden Saleh is one complete master piece of his time, it shows how he
blends and uses knowledge that he gets from West to send a message of disappointment
and protest to ones who were ruling his country. It was not nationalistic scream (the idea of
Javanese/Indonesian nation did not exist) it was powerful expression that when we decode
it tells us a lot about life on an artist, life of Pangeran Diponegoro and injustice of colonial
rule. That is what makes this painting remarkable – it was „for the first time local artist left
anonymity to proclaim that it is his job to comment the world‟ (Kraus, 2005).
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5. Pangeran Diponegoro: Villain, Rebellion, or Hero?
The Dutch flag waving dominantly above all characters in the painting, the
determined face of General De Kock, the obedient face of Pangeran Diponegoro, the Dutch
officials and their supporters are surrounding supporters of arrested (or in this case
submitted)
Javanese leader, these elements illustrate perfectly Said‟s notion on
Orientalism. „The Oriental is irrational, depraved (fallen), childlike, different; thus the
European is rational, virtuos, mature, normal‟ (Said, 1979) Nicolaas Pieneman painted all
these on his canvas – Pangeran Diponegoro is fallen figure, like a lost child, irrational, and
with his exotic costume – different. General De Kock on the other hand is father-like figure,
rational, virtuos, and in his elegant European military custom – normal. Western societies
developed preconceived notion on East despite never been there. Nicolaas Pieneman never
visited Java, and he painted its people in Middle Eastern manner, and its nature like
European landscape. These errors were used to „nestle‟ West as arrogant, ignorant, and
limited-minded on other hand. Pieneman‟s vision might be perfect illustration for
Orientalism, it is still well made histrocial scene. It is preserved in Rijksmuseum in
Amsterdam and it is easy accessible on the Internet. Dutch colonial era in Indonesia has
finished more than sixty years ago, but Dutch (and within Western) point of view toward
the Java War and Pangeran Diponegoro are still dominant one.
Suwardi Surjaningrat (Ki Hadjar Diwantoro) wrote a newspaper article about him
being Dutch for one day – and that day was Day of the Netherlands Independence. Here is
what is he asking himself in that article:
Or do we perhaps feel that because of our soul-destroying policy we regard all
human souls as dead? If that‟s so, then we are deluding ourselves, because no matter
how primitive community is, it is against any type of oppression. If I were
Dutchman, I would not organize an independence celebration in a country where the
independence of the people has been stolen (from Anderson, 1996).
By putting himself in place of Dutch he managed to put Dutch readers (article was
written in Dutch) into place of Javanese and to explain them Javanese (and all other
Indonesians) point toward colonization. It is sad that the Internet viewers cannot do that
with looking at different view toward Pangeran Diponegoro and the Java War. (Small
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research about the Internet visibility of these two paintings is attached as appendix at the
end of this research). Language „allowed intellectuals to say to their fellow speakers [of the
indegious vernaculars] that „we‟ can be like „them‟ (Anthony Barnett from Anderson,
1996). In this research it is showed that not just language in its printed and spoken form has
power to do that, but it is also visual language in form of painting can do that as well.
„Bilingualism meant access, and, in particular, to the models of nationalism,
nationness, and nation-state produced elsewhere in the course of the nineteenth century.‟
(Anderson, 1996). Raden Saleh was one of the first Indonesian men who had access to
Western education, space, people, and ideas. He could speak several European languages,
but for this research his „bilingualism‟ is performed in his painting reply to Pieneman
painting. Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro is the first historical painting in this part of world
(South-East Asia) and it is also the first one done completely by local artist. Role models
for this painting were European historical paintings (which were popular genre while Raden
Saleh was in Europe) and paintings from high renaissance which are regard as classical.
Kraus, 2005 said for Raden Saleh‟s art [it is] „the perfect synthesis between the rational
West and the sensual East‟.
Raden Saleh himself embraced idea of his Asianicity and he was really proud that
with that he can compete with European artists in that time. He painted lions, buffalos,
Arab men, horses, and place them in settings and situations not known to Europeans. He
did not also come from a place on Earth where these scenes are inserts from everyday life,
but he used his knowledge and experience from Java to make these beautiful worlds. He
explained that he see himself superior in this accept, because of his experience as a man
who comes from Asia. Even today these scenes are considered as his best artworks. After
spending almost twenty years in Europe (West) he went back to Java (East). In one of his
letters he wrote: „Between these two worlds my heart is split. And I feel urged to offer both
sides my loving thanks‟ (Kraus, 2005)
Locked between two words are „hybrids‟ of cultures like Homi Bhabha described it
in his concept of hybridization. Hybridity is a metonymy of presence. Hybridity opens up a
space, figuratively speaking, where the construction of a political object that is new, neither
the colonizer nor the Other, properly defies political expectations. Hybridity is a doubling,
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dissembling image of being in at least two places at once. This turn in the effect of
hybridity makes the presence of colonist authority no longer immediately visible. Hybridity
can unsettle the narcissist demands of colonial power, but reforms its identifications in
strategies of subversion that turn the gaze of the discriminated back upon the colonist.
(Bhabha, 1994) Raden Saleh in one letter explains his hybrid identity:
... Even though I'm aware that I have to be thankful to the Dutch government for
my education, especially the King, and I never will forget this, you still have to
excuse me that I thoroughly deplore the low level of culture my people have to live
on and I very much deplore their subjugation.(Raden Saleh inKraus, 2005)
In Raden Saleh‟s vision: big heads of main Dutch officers, angry face of Pangeran
Diponegoro, sad and „invisible‟ faces of his closest ones, absence of national features; we
do not see heroism – both in Pangeran Diponegoro or artist himself. We see protest and
raised voices. Pangeran Diponegoro was also not acknowledged as a hero soon after the
Java War was over, he left Java in a horrible condition, with thousands dead by military
actions, others dead because of hunger, and ultimately he lost his fight – he was arrested
and exiled. Nevertheless his bravery to fight against all chances is a heroic act, and a heroic
act is to paint his arrest as „a caricature, a bitter comment on Dutch colonial rule‟ (Kraus,
2005). Raden Saleh was the first educated painter in Java (and in Indonesia). He brought
Western knowledge and influences about painting to Javanese cultural land, which was
already in that time flourished with traditional (and court sponsored) art, such are dances,
wayang performances, production of batik clothes, etc.
This was a small „hybrid‟ revolution in Javanese (and Indonesian) art. Soon,
Javanese (followed by Balinese) artist will master this art and show to their fellow
countrymen that they can compete in this field with dominant Western powers. Yet, until
today, Indonesian artist are still „trapped‟ and looked upon like „hybrids‟ and present day
art discussions are full of artist trying to show their „loyalty‟ and belonging to East, but in
the same time attacking these notions about Orientalisation and hybridization.
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B.
Indonesian paintings (1950 – 1990): Depicting a National Hero
The art is not made to be a bouquet of la fine fleur e la nation (flower of the nation) nor are
they made for those with sensitivities, but for furthering the improvement of the people
S. Sudjojono (1913?-1985)
1.
The 20th century in Indonesia: History of Nation and Art
After Raden Saleh, for a long time Indonesia did not have a remarkable artist.
Reasons for this break are disputable. Raden Saleh was a member of Javanese aristocracy
so his social interaction and influence among native population was limited. The author‟s
idea is that Dutch administration learned from Raden Saleh‟s experience that Javanese can
be equally good as European masters in producing and shaping reality, so they did not
show any interest in making a new artist and educate him (or her) in the West where the
ideas of realism and impressionism were questioning social orders and place of painting in
society. These ideas will echo in Java, but with fifty years delay.
New Cultivation system which was introduced after the Java War soon brought to
Dutch and Indonesian allies wealth. In 1870 it was abolished with more liberal system and
in 1901 Ethical Policy was on power. It included investments in the natives‟ education and
modest political reforms (Brown, 2003). In 1902 Bataviasche Kunstkring (Batavia‟s Art
Circle) was formed and it will soon become place where European masters show their work
and local artists emerged. Abdullah Soerjo Sobroto, Mas Pirngadie, Wakidi and Lee ManFong were one of those indigenous painters who marked Indonesian art in this period
(Kusuma-Atmadja, 1990).
S. Sudjojono marked these paintings as Mooi-Indië where painters promoted
beautiful landscapes and people around Archipelago without showing and addressing social
issues that are behind these beautiful sceneries. He opened discussion of painting as a „tool‟
for nationalism. S. Sudjojono probably met numerous members of nationalistic
organizations who were created in that time and they influenced his ideas.
During the Japanese occupation (and slightly before that period) numerous art
organizations were created. Japanese wanted to cut all relationships that Indonesians had
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with Dutch, so they encouraged local art organizations and usage of Indonesian language.
The Japanese occupation is also marked with torturing and brutality toward local people,
forced labour and numerous sex crimes conducted by the Japanese military.
After Japan was defeated in the war, Indonesia declared independence on August
17th, 1945, but needed to fight for it for the next five years against the Dutch. In the 1940s
and 1950s even more Indonesian art organizations emerged. It was followed by establishing
higher schools in art education in Bandung, Yogyakarta, Surabaya, and Jakarta. The leader
of independent Indonesia for the first few years was Sukarno, first with liberal democracy
period (1950 - 1957) and later with „Guided democracy‟ where he gained more power
(1957 – 1965). This is a period of intensive and frequently disoriented nation building.
In 1960‟s Indonesia witnessed political unrests which also influenced the nation‟s
fine art. Manifes Kebudajaan (Cultural Manifesto) group was in conflict with Lembaga
Kebudajaan Rakjat (LEKRA, Institute for People‟s Culture) organization affiliated with the
Indonesian Communist Party (PKI). Manifes group focussed more on individuality and
personal expression, while LEKRA emphasized that works of art should be subservient to
political importance. With the establishment of the New Order regime (1966 – 1998) leftist
ideas were under attack, and LEKRA was, together with PKI, sent to history. Artists
avoided commenting reality around them, tended not to criticize social, political and
cultural circumstances. Nevertheless, many of them did that by choosing smart symbols and
metaphors in their masterpieces. Artist preferred surrealistic representations from their
dreams and fantasies, and decorative style. In the 1980s Indonesian artist started to show
more bravery and irony. That was the first Indonesian art „boom‟ in the international art
market. Indonesian art set itself free and soon Indonesian nation was also free from
dictatorship.
(Siregar, 2013). The Reformasi era followed the fall of the New Order, and today the
Indonesian market is having its second „boom‟.
2.
Pangeran Diponegoro: National Hero in Art
After the Java War and its artistic counterpart (Pieneman/Saleh dispute) it looked
that there was no interest in Pangeran Diponego and his fight. With rise of national, procommit to user
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Indonesian ideas two historical figures from Java were lifted as „lights of nation‟: Gadjah
Mada and Pangeran Diponegoro. Gadjah Mada was a prominent politician from the mighty
Javanese Majapahit kingdom and under his rule the majority of the archipelago was under
control of this Empire. This entity, not the Dutch colony of the East Indies, was seen as
proto-Indonesia. Pangeran Diponegoro was also not interpreted as a Javanese leader, rather
as a forceful, charismatic leader for freedom and liberation of Java and all Indonesia
(Wood, 2005).
5.1. Equestrian Statue of Diponegoro in Monas 5.2.
Basuki
Abdulah
(Monumen Nasional – National Monument), Jakarta. „Diponegoro
Memimpin
Work of Italian sculptor Cobertaldo (Source: the Pertempuran‟ (1940-1960)
Internet25)
(Source: IVAA26)
6. Diponegoro as National Symbol in years after Independence
Periods of Liberal Democracy (1950 – 1957) and Guided Democracy (1957 – 1965)
led by President Sukarno– 1945-1965
The political intent of Sukarno‟s constructions has often been noted by journalists
and scholars, but analyses have rarely gone further than formulations of the type „X was a
prestige project, designed to impress Indonesians and foreigners with Sukarno‟s domestic
and international political successes,‟ or „Y was essentially a monument symbolizing
Indonesia‟s new-found self-confidence [or lack of confidence].‟ In effect, the monuments
were treated as manipulative devices or as psychological „symptoms‟: either way, the
25
Look at Source of Illustrations – page 137
IVAA is acronym for Indonesian Visual Art Archive which is available both online, on http://ivaaonline.org/, but author of this research accessed Archives directly in IVAA center in Jogjakarta.
26
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approach was purely diagnostic. (Benedict, 1978) Rarely investigators have asked what and
why these monuments are saying. Sukarno‟s heritage today is reflected in the National
Monument. This is an enormous complex of monuments that tells a story of national
continuity, resistance and firmness.
One of the first monuments that followed the obelisk-like sculpture is a sculpture of
Diponegoro on horse. This sculpture came from an idea of the former General Consul of
Italy in Indonesia Dr. Mario Pitta. He was a famous businessman who loved and admired
Indonesia very much. During his time as consul in Indonesia he had an idea to present a
memento to the Indonesian people. In 1963 he declared his wish to Indonesian Ambassador
in Italy Hady Thayeb. He advised him to make a statue of an Indonesian hero and finally
Pitta chose Diponegoro. The Diponegoro statue was made by the famous Italian sculptor
Cobertaldo who was sent by Pitta to Indonesia. He conducted research of famous people
from Indonesian culture and history. He was thinking for days about the position of
Diponeogoro‟s horse. Finally his statue represents Pangeran Diponegoro in his robe and
turban riding his white horse whose front legs are lifted up. He was cast in bronze and it
took author one year of extensive work to finish it. In 1965 it was completed, sent to
Jakarta, and placed in Freedom Square where now, with its gray colour makes good
contrast to the white National Monument behind it27.
These dynamic movements in the nation building process are followed by painting
of Basuki Abdulah „Diponegoro Lead Battle‟ („Diponegoro Memimpin Pertemuran‟). This
impressive oil on canvas (150 cm x 120 cm) is part of the paintings and sculptures
collection of Sukarno. It took almost twenty years from initial idea to realisation of this
piece – it was done between 1940 and 1960. Basuki Abdulah is one of the most interesting
and controversial figures in Indonesian (art) history.
Basuki Abdullah (1915 – 1993) was the son of the painter Abdullah Suriosubroto.
Both are outstanding painters of Mooi Indie. Suriosubroto was well known for painting
landscapes, while Basuki had wider themes, but still retaining the spirit of Romanticism.
He learned painting in the Netherlands, and later after that he lived and travelled to Italy
and France. He lived in Thailand, where he served as palace painter, and was awarded the
27
Accessed from http://www.jakarta.go.id/eng/encyclopedia/detail/436 - 10.01.2014.
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Poporo Star Award in 1960 by King Bhumibol Adulyadej. He was also awarded by the
Cambodian King. He was also the official painter for Sultan Bolkiah of Brunei Darussalam.
(Karnadi, 2006) His portrait of Imelda Marcos, wife of Filipino dictator is also quite
famous. He was active in the New Order regime and from that time he was famous for his
attractive paintings that include beautiful women, mythological themes, and others
including again portraits. He made several portraits of Indonesian second president Suharto.
His death was far from the glory and power that artist liked to be surrounded by – he was
beaten to death by three assailants during a break-in at his Jakarta home where he lived
from 1974 until 199328.
In this painting Diponegoro‟s title is also omitted, because it can be associated with
Javanese royalty and Javanese heritage that cannot be regarded as all-Indonesian. He is in
action, he leads battle, and he is dynamic and determined. While the painting is an
equestrian portrait, it is full of dynamism and action. The horse is black in contrast to
Diponegoro‟s white robe and two of his feet are also lifted as sign of movement.
Diponegoro is again in his turban and here he has his keris, because in battle the presence
of keris is essential. The background is full of red, orange, yellow, and other warm colours
which symbolize fire, destruction, but also sacrifice for glory victory. In that chaos we
recognize shadows of warriors and their spears. His index figure is leading us to enter this
fight with him and his face is both inviting and strict. This painting is a perfect example of
the leadership of Sukarno, his dynamism, energy and leadership, but also sometimes the
absence of orientation which can be seen in faces of both Diponegoro and his horse. From
one point they look determined and focused, but if we look at the painting again we can
also see fear and worry in their gaze.
Basuki Abdullah was an amazing painter who lived through all authorities and
managed to „seduce‟ them with his artwork. First he did that to the Dutch colonial powers,
which he convinced with beautiful ladies in Mooi Indië style, then in his painting of
Diponegoro we see how he embraced and perfectly depicted Sukarno‟s leadership. The last
twenty years of his life he was also a loyal New Order painter. But what was art in the New
28
Official Web presentation of Basuki Museum – http://museumbasoekiabdullah.or.id/index.php/web/homeaccessed 18.02.2014.
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Order? Especially what was art and the depiction of nationalism and national heroism in the
era of the New Order?
The New Order‟s public monuments lie in style of „replication,‟ designed to reveal
essence and continuity rather than to record existence and change. There is no need to
return to them [Diponego‟s spirit, the 1945 spirit, Majapahit‟s spirit], because they are, by
definition, here. (Anderson, 1978)
The most celebrated [New Order monument] is the so-called Proyek Miniatur
Indonesia Indah (Beautiful Indonesia in Miniature Project) which shows Indonesia in all its
diversity. It is a kitsch project, which united national ideology „Unity in Diversity‟ with
ideology of New Order which placed development first. This development was not a
sustainable one and it was followed by flourishing nepotism, corruption and abuse of
human rights across the State (Wood, 2005).
6.1. Equestrian statue of 6.2.
Sasana
Wiratama
Pangeran Diponegoro in (Pangeran
Diponegro
main square (alun-alun) in Museum
Complex)
in
Magelang
Tegalrejo, Jogjakarta
6.3. Equestrian statue of
Pangeran Diponegoro in
front of gate of Universitas
Diponegoro (University) in
Semarang
7. Pangeran Diponegoro in New Order Era (1966 – 1998)29
During the New Order one monumental structure was built in memory of Pangeran
Diponegoro. It is called Sisana Wiratama (from Javanese – meaning „Place for Soldiers‟),
Museum Monumen Pangeran Diponegoro (Diponegoro Museum-Monument) or just the
Tegalrejo complex. The site is believed to have been that of Pangeran Diponegoro puri
(palace/quarters) during the Java War though all that survives seems to be a blasted
29
All photos used to illustrate „Pangeran Diponegoro in New Order Era (1966-1998) are accessed from the
Internet, details about their source is given in „Source of Illustrations‟ chapter – page 137
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mangosteen tree. Inaugurated by General Surono in August 1969 and financed by the
Rumpun Diponegoro (“Family” of the Diponegoro Division of Central Java), the
monument consists of a large 150-by-60-meter fenced-in compound around a large
pendapa (Javanese traditional audience hall) decorated with relief of Diponegoro‟s
exploits, two gamelan from Jogjakarta kraton, and some antique Japara chairs; a museum; a
library; an administrative office; and a mosque. A special inscription (prasasti) has been
put up which reads that monument is there „in order to venerate and record the Fighting
Spirit of the Hero Pangeran Diponegoro for eternity‟.
The New Order tries to maintain national ideology through Javanese eyes; mighty
empires (Sriwijaya and especially Majapahit) were promoted as proto-Indonesian. In East
Java monuments were built to remember this glorious past. In Sukarno‟s time focus was
made on the struggle of 1945-50, while the New Order regime has its own heroes. Achmad
Yani‟s house was made into a museum of the memory of this murdered general whose
murder was organized by communist stand, in this same line as Diponegoro‟s monument in
Tegalrejo „. His death is there to remind us for eternity of his fight and who were villains in
that time (Anderson, 1978).
3.
Indonesian Eyes: S. Sudjojono‟s Vision of Pangeran Diponegoro
3.1.
Biography of S. Sudjojono
Sindudarsono Sudjojono (1913-1986) is undoubtedly one of the most important
figures in the history of modern Indonesian art. Trisno Sumardjo gave him a title “Father of
Modern Indonesian Painting”. He never liked his full first name so, it is common to find in
literature, and in this research we will address him only as S. Sudjojono. He said to people
who he met „Call me Djono‟. He was a modest and simple man with an interesting and
complicated life story (Supangkat, J et al 2013).
He was born on 14 December 1913 in Kisaran, North Sumatra in Javanese family.
His strong personality came from the hard life of his father who worked as contract
labourer in the 1920s in the plantation in Deli. Fortunately since he was 4 years old his
teacher (from elementary school level) Yudhokusumo adopted him and brought him to
Batavia in 1926 (Supangkat, J et al 2013).
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Through his education at HIK (the teachers‟ training school) and his interactions
with intellectuals involved in national movement, his ideas of painting were sharply in the
context of socialism. He attended the Taman Siswa School in Yogyakarta in 1932. He had
learned painting from Pirngadie [Mas Pirngadie – realistic painter (c. 1875 – 1936)] in 1928
and from Chiyoji Yazaki, a Japanese painter in 1936.
One of Sudjojono‟s biggest contributions to Indonesian Art is arguably his view that
art of Indonesia should reflect the character of the land and its people. When Mooi Indië
(Beautiful Indies) – a style which depicted the idealized representation of Indonesia with
beautiful landscapes and sceneries – was the dominating art style during the early 20th
century, S. Sudjojono strongly rejected the style and coined the term Mooi Indië as a
sinister remark to that particular style of paintings. Regarding the paintings of these artists,
the artist S. Sudjojono commented, “All of them are completely splendid and romantic as
heaven, fully pleasant, calm and tranquil. These paintings contain nothing but one message:
Mooi-Indië, the Beautiful Indies.” (Sudjojono, 2000) A forthright thinker and a passionate
art critic, Sudjojono also tirelessly generated his views and the ideas through his writings
and commentaries.
In 1937 together with Agus Djaya and several other artists, he established
Persatoean Asal Gambar Indonesia (PERSAGI) in Batavia . The organization‟s aim was to
conduct a renewal in Indonesian art. The idea was to create paintings which would reflect
the social reality of Indonesian society. Painting is not neutral, but it is always dependent
from a particular perspective. In this case, the existence of a party that was criticized by
Persagi - Mooi Indie paintings were considered to represent a colonial perspective.
Sudjojono‟s ideas about the development of modern Indonesian art are summarized in his
book “Seni Lukis, Kesenian, dan Seniman” (Art of Painting, Art, and Artist) which was
first published in 1946. Sudjojono also supported the establishment of Seniman Indonesia
Muda (SIM) [Young Indonesian Artists organization] in Madiun, East Java in 1946. He
moved to Yogyakarta in 1947. He was also one of the art mentors in Poetra and Keimin
Bunka Shidosho. During that time one newspaper article wrote about him:
T. S. Soedjojono. He is a leader among unvocal Indonesain painter rarely
expressing themselves. His emotion, when overflows, is never held back, on the
contrary is set free in search for an outlet. He holds firm to a theory peculiar only to
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himself, despite so manifesting it into practice is possible. The stream (painting
style) that he follows is expressionism. Despite his limitation, gilding and looking
after needs of other budding painters remains a priority to him. Today, he works in
the Main Office of Poetera (Poesat Tenaga Rakjat or Centre for the People‟s
Power). He is now 30 years old. (from Supangkat, J et al. 2013)
His involvement in these important associations was done together with many other
leading artists at that time, including Affandi, Agus Djaya, Henk Ngantung and Hendra
Gunawan. These associations undoubtedly played an important role in the formation and
development of modern Indonesian Art. His empathy to the reality of the people life was
expressed in his credo jiwo ketok. This was his expression in words, but also in brush
strokes, the meaning of these words is „visible soul‟ and that is what artist needs to show.
Sudjojono showed this in his expressionism style during the period of Persagi. However,
after WWII, he began advocating a return to realism, in order that the people could easily
understand the paintings. This view very strongly influenced the painters who follow
socialism in painting, and was rejected by those who followed other views.(Sidharta, 2006)
Sudjojono was one of the LEKRA figures and he was even representative in the House of
Representatives during the years 1956 to 1957 for PKI. Together with Henk Ngantung,
Hendra Gunawan, Sudharnoto, MS Asr, and Hadi, he was sent to Berlin to attend the
“Youth & Peace World in Berlin” from 5 to 19 August 1951. Nevertheless, he broke his
engagement in LEKRA shortly before this organization and the PKI was dismissed.
(Supangkat, J et al 2013)
Sudjojono was a prolific artist and writer. His artistic oeuvre covers a wide
spectrum, from paintings, sketches, drawings, public art and reliefs as well as ceramic
works. His style and artistic preoccupation were also diverse, from his early and
monumental works, which significantly reflect the true spirit of Indonesia and the people
during the war and their struggle against independence; to landscapes; still-lives; portraits
and renditions of his more personal life and family in later years.He wrote memoirs and
several books about his life and this work has also been published. He ended his life in
1986 by passing away in his residence and studio in Pasar Minggu , Jakarta. Later this place
became S. Sudjojono Center, reference for everyone who wants to study and understand
more about this incredible artist.
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Sudjojono is a complex and a multidimensional individual as clearly shown through
his works, ideas and thoughts. Based on his main principles of bravery, honesty, and truth,
which became the foundation of his personal and artistic life; it was obvious that all his
attempts and struggle had always been based on his love of Indonesia and his concern for
the people in his surroundings.
3.2.
Diponegoro(1979): History and Signs
In 1974 S. Sudjojono completed his masterpiece – the triptych painting „Battle
(Pertempuran) Sultan Agung and (dan) Jan Pieterzoon Coen‟. With this painting he
established himself also as a maestro of historical genre as well. Soon after this painting, he
continued to research history and its connection with national ideology. Before putting a
historical scene on canvas S. Sudjojono always did deep research in the topic. For his
painting of Sultan Agung he did profound research in Indonesia and the Netherlands, not
just by consulting literary sources, but also by doing field work and observing places where
the actual battle took place. For his painting of Diponegoro he did the same. He visited
several locations that had a special connection with Pangeran Diponegoro‟s life, especially
the Menoreh Hills that stretch across the north-western sideof Kulon Progo regency, the
east of Purworedjo and part of Magelang. These hills used to be one of Pangeran
Diponegoro‟s bases during the war. It was here that Sudjojono created a number of his
preliminary sketches (Siregar, 2013b)
7.0.
This is one of many sketches and it shows
how studious Sudjojono was in his work,
notes include information about characters
that
will
appear
in
painting,
also
information about horses, dogs, objects,
where and how they will appear in
painting and so on.
Photo of artwork from book „Seabad S. Sudjojono 1913 -2013‟(Supangkat et al., 2013)
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7. S. Sudjojono Diponegoro (1979)
7.1.Photo of artwork from book
„Seabad S. Sudjojono 1913 2013‟(Supangkat et al., 2013)
(Author‟s Photo)
7.2. Photo of artwork from book „Visible Soul‟ (Sidharta,
A. 2006) – accessed from IVAA
The full title of this painting is Pangeran Diponegoro Menyaksikan Kemenangan –
Pangeran Diponegoro observes battlefield after victory. It first appeared in his solo
exhibition at Balai Budaya Jakarta in December 1979. Its dimensions are 136 x 200 cm, so
this oil on canvas must have been dominant in this exhibition(Supangkat, J et al 2013)
Icon signs
Icon Signs: Portraits of Kyai Mojo, Pangeran Diponegoro and Sentot
7.3. From Sketh
7.4. From Painting
7.5. Notes about it
From notes on sketches and the final version of painting we can identify three
persons: If we look from left to right the first figure is Kyai Mojo (old spelling - Kiai
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Modjo). He was a great ulama (Islamic scholar) from Mojo and advisor of Pangeran
Diponegoro concerning Islam. He is depicted behind Pangeran Diponego riding a white
horse and having turban on his old face. Next to him, but in front is Pangeran Diponeoro
who is the central figure in this group and in painting. Next to Pangeran Diponegoro (on his
left) is Ali Basah Sentot Prawirodidjo. He joined Pangeran Diponegoro after the Dutch
killed his father Ronggo Prawirodirdjo, brother-in-law to Hamengkubuwono IV. He was
one of the most effective cavalry commanders. (Carey, 2008) These three great men are
accompanied by servants who walked beside them, and there is also a person who is
carrying Indonesian flag, but we cannot identify them.
There is also a note about Pangeran Diponegoro‟s two horses – Kyahi Gentayu and
Kyahi Wijaya Tapa, and it is written that one should be white and other black. Pangeran
Diponegoro indeed had two horses: Kyai Gentayu was black one with white feet, and
Kyahi Wijaya (Krisna) is white one. The first one was bought by Chinese traders in the
occasion of Diponegoro‟s circumcision, and the second one was a cross-bred horse
(Sumbawa horse mixed with European) and it belonged to horse breeding farm in Madiun
which belongs to old royal families from the time of Raden Ronggo (oldest son of
Penambahan Senopati – Sutawijaya – founder of Mataram Sultanate)30
This battle was famous in the Java War because along with the Dutch soldiers,
numerous Javanese noblemen loyal to the Dutch lost their lives. That is also written in
notes, that the Dutch soldiers were followed by royals from Solo and Jogjakarta.
Index signs
Writing - On the top of the canvas S. Sudjojono wrote “In Lengkong, 31 July 1826
(Diponegoro‟s troops never lost a battle on the field).” Lengkong, or Nglènkong in Slèman
area was the setting for a big victory of Pangeran Diponegoro‟s forces which were led by
Senthot. This is the battle „where the flower of the Yogyakarta nobility perished‟ and
month of July 1826 was marked by great victories that brought Diponegoro‟s army almost
to the outskirts of Surakarta (Carey, 2008).Sudjojono wanted to say with this writing that
Diponegoro‟s army was forceful and determined, and that war eventually ended with
treachery of the Dutch not on the battlefield.
30
From Web presentation of Diponegoro descendents - http://www.ikpd.org/ 12.12.2013.
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Smoke - Background of this painting is a Javanese forest coloured with dark green.
It is hard to see this because the painter put the battlefield in front of it and numerous dead
bodies are laying there; horses are running – with and without riders. There is one more
thing that helps building this atmosphere of chaos and disaster – smoke. From the left part
of picture it is thick and followed by a big flame that swallows everything in front of it. On
the right side, beside Diponegoro the smoke is more like a fog. It looks as if destruction is
over, the leader has come, things are settling down.
Sentot pointing at battlefield - Famous and forceful cavalry commander is pointing
at battlefield under Diponegoro. Over there is active scene: one defeated Dutch soldier is
carrying the Dutch flag, the other is carrying a dead body.
Gazes - The Dutch people look disoriented and like sad caricatures of defeated ones.
But central figures of Javanese victory-makers also do not look powerful and proud over
this victory. They look frozen and emotionless. Diponegoro‟s gaze is direct one and he
looks pleased. Interesting gaze in this paint is one on far right that looks like figure of
Javanese lady. She looked at this scene with her pale face and small smile that can also be
associated with disgust. Diponegoro achieved a Pyrrhic victory.
Symbol signs
Flags and banners – The Indonesian flag is placed above great men who are
inspecting the battlefield and it is carried by one man from this group who cannot be
identified as any historical figure. In contrast to it is the Dutch flag which is under the feet
of Javanese victory makers. It is folded, barely visible and it is carried by a crawling Dutch
soldier. Victory is achieved by the Javanese, a great man of the army (depicted by Senthot)
and by a great man of religion (depicted by Kyai Mojo), while between is a great man of
both army and religion – Pangeran Diponegoro. The ideas of the Indonesian nation were
developed from the beginning of the 20th century and Sudjojono must have known about
that, so his decision to put Indonesian flag in this scene is to show pan-nationalistic ideas
which are symbolized by Pangeran Diponegoro and his fight.
In the back of the painting there is one more figure riding a horse and carrying a
banner. We cannot see the colours clearly and symbolism on it, but the banner is up in the
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air and the horseman is depicted on the same side with victorious inspection so we can
assume that this one is also one of the symbols of victorious army.
Horses - Horses are an old symbol present in visual art. Depictions of horses are
present even in pre-historical cave paintings. From that time until today horses usually
symbolize loyalty – due to its natural companionship to men. They are also symbol of
freedom – which is depicted by beauty and grace of horse. Two horses ridden by
Diponegoro and Kyai Mojo are beautiful horses, richly decorated; they are symbols of
nobility and victory. Senthot horse is black one, but his image is cropped, which
symbolizes dynamism and capability of this great cavalry commander and his companion.
Colour of horses, central ones, black and white are opponent pair. Black colour usually
symbolizes dark, death, mystery, secret, and white is symbol of day, life, purity and vitality.
These horses are ridden by two religious figures of that time, so the meaning is that control
over death, life, day, night can be given to men, but it is always in the domain of Supreme
Power.
Besides these four central figures of horses (one is barely seen and it is driven by
flag carrier) in painting we see six other horses: three are ridden by victorious soldiers and
they are active and dynamic. Two are without a rider – one is looking lost and desperate
trying to find out what happen to his rider, other one looks like he is running away from
death field. Behind this horse there is one tied on a carriage that is carrying some bags. It
steps over the Dutch soldier. This small scene can be interpreted as a symbol of
colonisation. The carriage is full of bags (it is not important what is in the bags – rice, food,
money) - these bags symbolize richness of Javanese land and the Dutch people who tried to
steal from are punished because of their intentions. While dogs appear in sketches for this
painting, we do not see them in the actual painting. Horses are the only living beings beside
humans and their symbolic meaning is diverse in this painting – they carry victory and
freedom, but also bring death and chaos.
Geography - Sudjojono used a combination of fantasy and memory to create his
surrealistic landscapes. Sometimes, he incorporated elements derived from places that he
had seen in books or actually visited. His observations of his surroundings seemed
spontaneous, as though they were snapshots of view that appealed to him (Raharjo,
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B.O.2013). This is also incorporated in the landscape in „Diponegoro‟ – it looks beautiful,
green, dynamic, but yet it is setting for war battle, massacre, dead bodies and fire are
everywhere. The rich background is a reminder that people and their wars are small and
insignificant comparing to nature.
People are beautiful, so beautiful (S. Sudjojono)
People -One might wonder why, for such a monumental work, Sudjojono did not
employ his unique and strong realist technique? Instead, it seems that the painter has
chosen a „caricature-like‟ approach: the way of painting the Dutch soldiers scattered around
the canvas, also the way he has depicted the Diponegoro‟s soldiers. Sudjojono‟s uniqueness
in reconstructing history on the canvas lies in the care he took in his studies of forms,
figures, and objects, including facial features, expressions and so on. His attitude is
important for us to remember if we want to appreciate that Sudjojono worked on a basis of
„truth‟. (Supangkat et al., 2013)
The pale Javanese lady on far right side of painting indicated death, but also with
her small, secret smile there is a glimpse of new hope. The Dutch solders in the first plan,
the one who carries dead body and the other who is carrying the Dutch flags are clear sign
of withdrawing the Dutch and their colonial Empire. The victorious figures of Kyai Mojo,
Diponegoro, and Senthot are the Javanese and Indonesian leadership that will come –
embraced in politics which combines strong religious roots, army guidance and control, and
strong and influential leadership.
Pangeran Diponegoro and his religious adviser Kyai Mojo wear turbans on their
heads. The turban is already an established symbol of Diponegoro drawn from the earliest
depiction of him. It symbolizes his pan-Islamic orientation and somehow differentiates him
from other Javanese historical figures. Here, his closest associate shares the same detail, the
meaning that they share same beliefs toward religious issues. His closest followers were
wearing turbans.
Yet, in this painting, other than these two persons mentioned above, it looks like
everybody is wearing a blangkon – the Javanese traditional hat. In ancient Javanese society,
blangkons are believed to originate from the legendary story of Aji Saka. In the story, Aji
Saka defeated Dewata Cengkar, a giant who owns the land of Java, by spreading a giant
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piece of headdress that could cover the entire land of Java. There are theories stating that
the use of blangkon is the influence of Hindu and Islamic culture absorbed by the Javanese.
The first Muslims who entered Java are people from mainland Arab and Gujarati traders.
Blangkons are believed to derive from turbans worn by Gujarati traders. 31 Both stories can
be interpretative in this painting – the Javanese army defeated the Dutch army, a giant who
took the Javanese land. Also it shows the Islamic character of its fighters, and now it is
considered as Javanese „national‟ head-dress.
This is one of the two paintings by Sudjojono depicting the Indonesian national hero
Pangeran Diponegoro, a subject matter that is rarely seen in the artist‟s oeuvre. Another
painting (oil on canvas, 100 x 199.5 cm) was recently sold in Hong Kong‟s branch of
famous auction house Sotheby‟s. It was estimated in excess of 20 million Hong Kong
dollars (2.5 million US dollars). It reached an almost three times higher price: It was sold
for 58.4 million HKD (7.5 million USD) and with that set an artist‟s auction
record.32Recognised as the Father of Indonesian Modern Art, S. Sudjojono‟s oeuvre was
largely influenced by his nationalistic ideals and patriotic responsibilities. Executed in
1979, Pasukan Kita Yang Dipimpin Pangeran Diponoegoro (Our Soldiers Led Under
Prince Diponegoro) demonstrates the magnitude of Sudjojono‟s creative vision and
political dogma through the depiction of the country‟s legendary hero, Prince Diponegoro,
as well as his military troops‟ victory against the the Dutch colonial soldiers during the Java
war (1825 – 1830). The Indonesia that Sudjojono knew was experiencing an identity crisis
for the country was locked in a struggle between foreign influences and revolutionary
ideals. By drawing parallels between the Dutch colonialists with the local Indonesian
government, Sudjojono‟s painting turns into a social commentary about the power of
human faith amidst political and emotional tyranny. Painted with energy, passion and hope,
Pasukan Kita Yang Dipimpin Pangeran Diponegoro expresses the artist‟s pride and
devotion to his homeland. This masterpiece was acquired directly from the artist through S.
Sudjojono Center. (Chuan, 2014)
31
The Internet presentation about Javanese heritage - http://www.java-heritage.com/blangkon.htm 06.11.2013.
32
Indonesian art Web site - http://www.sarasvati.co.id/artnewskabarseni/04/lukisan-s-sudjojono-pecahkanrekor-harga-di-sothebys/ - 05.05.2014.
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8. S. Sudjojono Pasukan Kita Yang Dipimpin Pangeran Diponegoro
(Our Soldiers Led Under Prince Diponegoro), 197933
9. Djajeng Asmoro painting „Pangeran Diponegoro‟34
from 1980 is oil on canvas - portrait of national hero.
This painting has modest size (42 x 55 cm) and it shows
Pangeran Diponegoro in an unusual way. Painter left us
note (index sign) on right side of painting - Pangeran
Diponegoro as the Sultan Amir Kaherutjokro – a wise,
patient, and calm leader, far removed from the chaos of
war.
From the energetic national heroes at the Revolution Era, to their duplicates in New
Order era we come to depiction of a modest, calm, and wise national hero. Artists in the
New Order should not comment on the present situation, political violence, corruption, and
other crimes of New Order are not to be „seen‟. Therefore artists decided to go to glory
past, to look with nostalgia toward heroes of that time and to aspire for new heroes to
emerge. This time the leader should be one who is wise, patient and calm. Indonesia and its
people will wait for change for almost twenty years, but before that artists will start to raise
their voices and shout for change.
33
34
For details about the source of illustrations look at page 137.
Ibid.
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8.
Pangeran Diponegoro: One Brick in Wall of Nation
~
Bangsa yang besar adalah bangsa yang menghormati jasa pahlawanya.
Soekarno (1901-1970), Presiden Indonesia,
Pidato Hari Pahlawan,10. Nopember 1961.
A great nation is a nation that respects the services of the hero.
Soekarno (1901-1970), Indonesian President,
From Speech on Heroes Day,10th November 1961
When the first Indonesian president stated these words he knew little that Indonesia
will grow to be the country with the biggest number of national heroes. Would this fact
make the late president confused or proud? It is hard to answer this question, but there is
something strange about the „greatness‟ of one nation that continues to declare its national
heroes. In her paper „Unpacking National Heroine: Two Kartinis and Their People‟
Rutherford, D. (1993) gives her critical approach to two Indonesian writings about a
national heroine. The first is an analysis of the writing of Pramoedya (in his book from
1962) who locates „his‟ Kartini and her people in a history of struggle. Second is the
writing of Soeroto (her book is from 1977) who located hers in the naturalized categories
and boundaries of the State. The author gives us „two‟ Kartinis – one for the Old Order and
one for the New Order and how different ideologies want people to see her. (Rutherford,
1993). Under every name of those 159 names of national heroes and heroines in Indonesia
there are at least two stories.
Here we will quote two authors who wrote about Indonesia and how they see
Pangeran Diponegoro and his position within Indonesian history, as well as his position of
lives of people today.
„…the mania for seeking “absolutely splendid ancestors” typically gives rise to
nonsense, and often very dangerous nonsense. A nice local example is Prince
Diponegoro, who in the 1950s was anointed as No. 1 National Hero, as if the Prince
had led a movement for Indonesia's national independence from the clutches of
Dutch colonialism. But if one looks at what the Prince himself said in his memoirs,
his actual words about his political goal were that he intended to “subjugate” - yes,
“subjugate” - Java. The concept “Indonesia” was wholly foreign to him (as was the
idea of “freedom”).‟ (Anderson, 1999)
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Benedict Richar O‟Gorman Anderson is American author who was, due to his
writing relevant to the overthrow of Sukarno and dispute about the role of PKI in this,
banned from entering Indonesia in 1973. After more than 25 years, he came back in 1999
and he delivered his speech about Indonesian nationalism. The insert about Diponegoro is
from that speech. He made his point of view toward national heroism practice in Indonesia
and he made error by saying that Pangeran Diponegoro was the first national hero.
Indonesian historians do write about Pangeran Diponegoro as proto-Indonesian fighter, and
his place in Indonesian national mythology is there, next to founding fathers of
Independence in 1945. Pangeran Diponegoro did not have connections with Indonesian
idea. He detested the Malay language that the Dutch officer tried to speak with him, that
language will soon be a uniting force and one of the main elements of Indonesian
nationhood. So, what makes Diponegoro a national hero? The answer to this question is
more complex, than one what does not make him national hero. One of the contemporary
interpretations of Pangeran Diponegoro and his position in history:
Diponegoro was no revolutionary. He stood for the rights of autocracy and inherited
privilege. He had no interest intellectually in ideas of a new social contract.
Diponegoro followed injunctions in the hadith on the the distribution of booty: he
enslaved prisoners and took female slaves into his household as sex partners. Like
all Javanese kings, he assumed a variety of reign titles, including the Islamic First
Among Believers, Regulator of the Faith, Sultan and Caliph of the Prophet of Allah,
as well as on older title of Erucakra, which has meaning of „Emergent Buddha‟.
Diponego‟s action shows that it was not only Java‟s Islamic specialists who
perceived themselves as members of a universal community of Muslims. (Taylor,
2013)
In this view, Pangeran Diponegoro is depicted more as a terrorist, rather than a hero:
he was not a revolutionary, he enslaved, and he gave himself great names. Even in
Indonesia until today there is no consensus over Pangeran Diponegoro‟s (national) hero
status.
[Pangeran Diponegoro] continues to have a bad press in some circles in Indonesia.
One thinks here of the Yogya kraton (sultanate), who see him as a traitor to his
lawful sultan (HBV) for whom he was appointed guardian (1822-5), or the
Kampong Jawa Tondano (Minahassa) community – descendants of Diponegoro‟s
principal religious adviser, Kyai Mojo – who see him as having been consumed by
worldly ambitions – the santri (student of religion) view. Others like the late author
and playwright, W.S. Rendra (1935-2009), bitterly criticized his contacts with the
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criminal underworld and his willingness to use bandits against the Dutch. The
historic judgements of the Dutch – who tried to destroy the prince‟s reputation by
stating that he only rebelled because of disappointment at not being appointed
Sultan and because a road was built over his property – likewise continue to poison
perceptions of the prince in modern Indonesia.
There are also whole swathes of Indonesia where Diponegoro‟s name means
nothing – one thinks here of the Sundanese speaking areas of West Java, where the
Dutch first contemplated exiling him (in Bandung): how many Jalan
Diponegoro[Diponegoro Streets] or Diponegoro statues are there here? (Carey,
2014)
S. Sudjojono visions intelligently play with these stereotypes and questions behind
(national) heroism of Javanese prince. After a period of extensive national building in
1950s and 1960s, Indonesia entered a period where national heroism and struggle was not a
matter of priority, development and attracting foreign investments was placed higher on the
list of the state agenda. Yet, the tradition of declaring national heroes was not forgotten, and
their iconography was maintained. S. Sudjojono himself experienced turbulences in
Indonesian politics and its connection with art. Due to his strange luck and breaking out
with LEKRA just few years before PKI and this art affiliate organization were demolished,
Sudjojono skipped jail or punishment for his engagement. His ideas were always that art
need to be engaged and to work from people to people.
It is hard to paint national ideology themes and not to be declared a propaganda
artist. S. Sudjojono is one of the rare artists who belong to this category. When he painted
national heroes he always gave them more than just national ideological narratives. His
colossal depiction of Sultan Agung showed Javanese ruler as dominant and supreme figure,
but on the other hand, his rival Jan Pieterzoon Coen was also not stripped of dignity. He
studied Coen‟s life with the same passion that he dedicated to research of Sultan Agung. In
1975 he painted Untung Seropati a rebellious character against the Dutch colonial powers
in 17th century Java. „He uses the metaphor of a journey on a boat or ship through rough
waters to potray life. In the painting, Untung Suropati is depicted as if he were on a boat
together with his love Suzzane‟ (from Sidharta Auctioneer, 2013) S. Sudjojono met his love
also in Europe, and he could identify with this with national hero. Instead of showing him
on the battlefield he showed him in a turbulent journey with his loved one. Finally, in his
depiction(s) of Diponegoro from 1979, Pangeran is the victor, and an energetic leader, but
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in artwork analyzed later in this research he is also aware and afraid of effects of his
victories on lives of many in Java. Almost one third of Javanese population suffered from
impacts of fighting. It is logical that he was not recognized immediately as a national hero,
and years after his struggle passed people start to realize that his act – fight against all odds
with belief in his religion and people – is what people should do for their own nation-to-be
– Indonesia. His tactics and motifs can be unclear (thousands of lost, anger over „throne‟ or
„road‟), his role in religion and society in that time can be disputed (subjection of Java,
„erasing‟ foreigners from it), but he entered history and national mythology as one who was
brave enough to try to stop Java to fall into foreign sphere of interest in all fields – political,
economical, cultural and that is what makes him a hero.
C.
Indonesian art (1990 – today): Nation in need of (super) Hero
1.
Art and Life of Indonesia Today
If we look at the history of art in Indonesia we will always see: dynamism, reaction
and contra-reaction. This is illustrated well with Pangeran Diponegoro as example in these
narratives – the Dutch established visual supremacy; they were the ones who brought
painting as we know it today to Indonesia. Soon local artists started to reply to the Dutch
visual representation of Indonesia. The first one was Raden Saleh with his depiction of the
arrested Pangeran Diponegoro, later S. Sudjojonowith his writing and formulation of Mooi
Indie – Beautiful Indies where the Dutch painters together with local ones depicted
Indonesia as „tropical paradise‟ away from social, political, economic problems. In the
years after gaining Independence, art entered a debate divided in two camps: those who
support the universality of art, and those who pushed for alignment of art towards the
people. In that time (in 1954) artist from Bandung were labelled as „the result of education
in the Western laboratory‟ (Siregar, 2013a).
In 1974 a group of rebellious young artist sent a bouquet of flowers with writing
„Our condolence for the death of painting in Indonesia‟. They were not pleased with voting
in the Grand Exhibition of Indonesian Painting in the end of year in Jakarta. For some art
critiques that was the time when Indonesian art entered the post-modern arena. Entering
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1990s in Yogyakarta four genres were really popular – realism, surrealism, abstract and
decorativism. These genres and artistic climate in Yogyakarta paved the way to new art
form that is more engaging – installation art, performance art, happening art, site-specific
projects and so on. Art explorations were also done within group of artist/informal groups
Kelompok Apotik Komik and Kelompok Jendela are among the most famous ones (Siregar,
2013a).
The end of the 1990s marked big changes in Indonesia and region of South-East
Asia. This region was hit by big financial and economic crisis, which effects were felt in
Indonesia as well. Simultaneously Indonesian people were trying to dismiss the New Order
regime which had Indonesia under its control for more than 30 years. Popular protests were
also followed by unrest and violence throughout Indonesia in 1998/1999. In 2002 East
Timor declared independence and Bali suffered terrorist attacks. In 2004 Indonesia got its
first democratically chosen president and in the same year a peace agreement was signed
with pro-Independent province Aceh. Indonesia still has a lot of problems, but it enters the
second decade of the 21st century with great ambitions and potentials.
Art is following this optimism. New interest in art in Reformation era emerged and
it is followed by excitement in exploring discourses that steam from post-modern thought.
There is „contemporary art fever‟ and it is marked by how often the term was used to
explain the most current art practice. Many young artists used art as an instrument for social
change and emancipation.
It is difficult to interpret living artists, as their artwork is also living and changing
and the history of art will show how influential and impressive their works were. Two
artists chosen for this research are the ones who established themselves as one of the main
figures in contemporary Indonesian art scene. Also their work is courageous experiment in
involvement of art in politics and vice versa.
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2. Contemporary Indonesian Eyes Look Toward Pangeran Diponegoro
2.1.1. Biography of Agung Kurniawan
Agung Kurniawan was born in Jember, East Java, on March 14 1968. In
Yogyakarta, he once studied archaeology at Universitas Gadjah Mada (UGM, Gajah Mada
University), and then went into graphic art in the Faculty of Fine Arts and Design at ISI
Yogyakarta, but he did not finish this program as well. He is owner and curator of Kedai
Kebun Forum for contemporary art in Yogyakarta (http://kedaikebun.com/), where he now
lives and works.
The artist is very critical about situations and conditions around him. Agung tends
to criticise whatever moves him, and pays attention to events that take place. One of the
most important topics in his work is politics, and he exploits political issues in his works to
make strong statements. He actively presents works of government in political and the
economic issues by denouncing their irregularities. While other artists have fully made use
of such themes, many art critics consider Agung one of the foremost movers during the
1990s when Indonesian contemporary art experienced an outburst of creativity and
individual criticism about politics (Karnadi, 2006)
Agung works with etching, woodblock printing, pencil, pastel, sculpture,
installation and animation. His skills lie in the energetic use of materials and dramatic
illustrations. The lines and smudges in his works are strong and important signs. He takes
interest in stories, narratives and current events by showing them in charcoal and pastel on
canvas or paper.
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2.1.2. Homage to Prince Diponegoro (1994) – History and Signs
Illustration 10. This artwork was accessed through IVAA slides archives
This mix-media painting (pastel, paper, conte, collage) is executed in 1994. In that
time New Order was still main state „ruler‟, nevertheless the changes were happening and
artists were brave enough to show that. One of the example of this pre-Reformation
strength and bravery is this artwork (dimension of it are 90 x 100 cm). The author named
this painting in English – so Pangeran Diponegoro becomes Prince and the author wants to
pay homage to him. As we saw before Pangeran Diponegoro is a complex historical figure
– so the main question is to which Prince Diponegoro artist is paying homage?
Index signs
The central part of this composition belongs to tagged Raden Saleh‟s „Arrest of
Diponegoro‟ which was interpreted before. This fragment of painting is zoomed to
Pangeran Diponegoro and his proud and angry face that he shows to his opponent General
De Kock. It looks like the painting is piece of ripped canvas that floats in the air between
these futuristic visions.
Gazes do not exist because figures are faceless. Nevertheless they wear similar
uniform to the Dutch militia that we saw in Raden Saleh painting. We are witnessing again
a scene of someone being arrested – military figures look like they are laughing, while there
are also women like figures that look like they are grieving over destiny of our main
(super)hero.
Icon signs
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We recognize three figures inside Raden Saleh painting – Pangeran Diponegoro,
General De Kock, and De Stuers. Painting itself is an icon sign; it is cropped to show
exactly the same scene that is mimed. We recognize that it‟s Raden Saleh depiction with
angry Diponegoro and confused de Kock, but it is same as rest of artwork done in black and
white.
Symbol signs
Other figures in this artwork are sharing same position and posture like those in
Raden Saleh painting. Their iconicity is questionable because they do not look like
historical characters that Raden Saleh (and other artist before Agung) depicted. They are
icons of past – with their position and posture they mimic figures from Raden Saleh‟s
masterpiece, but how they look and the setting where they are depicted is different and with
that these figures carry strong symbolic messages.
10.1. Cropped detail of
10.2. Kesatria Baja Hitam
Pangeran Diponegoro-like figure
(Kamen Rider Black), Japanese superhero
(Source: IVAA)
Main hero of artwork – national hero or superhero?
The Pangeran Diponegoro posture figure looks like Japanese TV series superhero
Kamen Rider Black (Kesatria Baja Hitam) who was popular in Indonesia at the end of
1980s and beginning of 1990s. The author wants to say that heroes are dead – now is time
for superheroes. But they are also not stronger than forces of power. We are witnessing
35
Details on page 137 – Source of the illustrations
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their arrest also. Agung Kurniawan always questions the ideas about Indonesian identity. In
one of his projects he investigated an idea of Indo people in Indonesian society and their
treatment by established Indonesian state. They soon become enemies of the state, but
today they are dominant figures in television and film industry. A similar position is
occupied by superheroes – in a country that still produces national heroes and builds nation
they are seen as foreign influence, something that corrupts and misleads youth, nevertheless
they are popular in Indonesia as they are popular in other countries.
Faceless men-like figures wear uniforms who look like one the Dutch were wearing
in time of capturing Diponegoro. These uniforms represent power and oppression. Their
faces do not have eyes, but they look like pleased and smiling faces. In Raden Saleh‟s
painting the Dutch faces were full of surprise and they looked disoriented. In Kurniawan
vision power again has control and that is why faces that do not have eyes nor nose are
„decorated‟ by pleasing smile. Benedict Anderson (1999) said that it is a „dangerous and
historically ignorant illusion‟ of those who in Indonesia still believe that colonialism is
reserved for Western over non-Westerns. Kurniawan present colonial power as universal
power, and what was once colonial violence and injustice is now (or it will be) violence and
injustice of others who have power.
Faceless women-like figures wear decorative skirts, but their faces are hidden
because of grieving. Women in Indonesia still face violence, from Raden Saleh‟s vision to
Kurniawan‟s one, they do not show themselves, but rather choose to be hidden by dominant
man – (super) hero. In Raden Saleh‟s vision we could almost recognize Pangeran
Diponegoro‟s second wife, here again women-like figures are anonymous.
There is also a bird-like creature which looks like duck or penguin. Penguins and
ducks are the most frequent birds used in cartoons. Donald Duck is the most famous
animated duck – unlike Mickey Mouse (his fellow) – Donald Duck is aggressive, angry,
stubborn, active and emotional. Also ducks are among rare beings on Earth that can fly,
walk on the earth, and swim and dive into the water. Those attributes are responsible for
them being connected with the ideas of freedom and independence. The duck-like figure
looks funny and like a caricature – perhaps it is a mockery of freedom that the Indonesian
people gained which was short lived and suppressed by New Order.
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Turbans and blangkon were replaced by strange looking hats that power structures
are wearing – they look like police hats, while figures in front (who can resemble like
Diponegoro‟s followers in imitated painting) are wearing strange, acorn like hats. Turbans
were connected with Islam, while the blangkon is a mark of Javanisity, and the absence of
these elements, or their distortion means absence of identity or its distortion.
Raden Saleh painting itself is also icon sign here with strong symbolic meaning. It
is brought and torn apart for us from past and now it is levitating in the middle of painting
as a reminder, warning and also homage to work of art and person whose life scene is
captured there. Therefore this homage is not to Prince Diponegoro only, it is homage to
Raden Saleh and how he saw the figure of Diponegoro, as a symbol of resistance, freedom
and fighting against oppression. It is an homage to Indonesia that never existed and to an
Indonesia that people never created.
As a result, the whole painting is a critique of Indonesia in 1994, but it is also a call
for people to take action in their own hand and to change it. Heroes are arrested, national
heroes are for history, and superheroes are also under attack. Only here, in this seemingly
hopeless situation, does one need to find out that the hero lies inside him (or her). It looks
simple and it is simple. This artwork was also done only with usage of two colours – black
and white. With this simplicity the artist sent a simple, yet strong message: life, politics,
economy, majority of things that we try to grasp in life can look „gray‟- between black and
white. Yet, basically the contrast between good, the one who suffers from violence (white)
and bad, the violent one (black) is universal.
2.2.1. Biography of Heri Dono
Heri Dono was born in Jakarta on 12. June 1960. He studied art at Faculty of Fine
Art and Design at ISI Yogyakarta from 1980 to 1987 and became familiar with the unique
wayang kulit (leather puppets) made by Sukasman from 1987 to 1988. He now lives and
works in Yogyakarta (Karnadi, 2006).
The artist has participated in Asia-Pacific Triennial Contemporary Art in 1993 and
2002. Shanghai Biennale in China in 2000, Yokohama Triennale in Japan in 2001, and
Venice Biennale in Italy in 2003. Heri also held solo exhibitions at the Japan Foundation
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Forum in Tokyo in 2000 and at Galeri Nasional Indonesia in 1998. He received the Prince
Klaus Award in 1998; UNESCO prize in the International Biennale in Shanghai, China, in
2000; and an award in the 2nd Annual Enku Grand Awards in Gifu, Japan, in 2002
(Karnadi, 2006).
Heri has developed a kind of narrative by drawing upon local messages and
contexts which he has experienced. He works in painting, art installation and performance
art. His visual language draws upon puppetry and cartoon figures. They show a tendency
towards being decorative but take into account such ideas as stupidity, irrelevance,
prejudice, superstition and ideology. According to the artist, the lower level of society has
its own narrative that is not recognised by dominant cultural mainstream. Through various
forms of humour, the lower ranks strive to survive.
2.2.2. Salah Tangkap Pangeran Diponegoro (2007): History and Signs
Illustration 11. - Reproduction was accessed from IVAA archives
Salah Tangkap Pangeran Diponegoro or „The Wrongful Arrest of Pangeran
Diponegoro‟ was exhibited for the first time in Yogyakarta during an exhibition “The
Bicentennial of Raden Saleh: Illusions of Nationalism”, made in Jogja Gallery between 18.
August–9. September 2007. Heri Dono made an improvement on it for exhibition in Nadi
Gallery in Jakarta in 2008. Other names for this painting (150 x 200 cm) appeared – Tanah
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Harapan – Land of Hope, which has an optimistic, rather than critical message, that was
carried by with the first title. The name of exhibition is also symbolic – the first name was
„The Dying King and I‟ but just one day before opening of exhibition (27.1.2008.) the
former ruler of New Order passed away and exhibition change its name to „The King is
Dead Long Live the Puppets‟ (Khoiri, I. 2007).
The composition imitates Raden Saleh‟s painting „Arrest of Diponegoro‟ from
1857. But while Agung Kurniawan with his mimicry is sending a message with call of
change and giving homage to Raden Saleh (and Pangeran Diponegoro) Heri Dono made
strong and politically engaged satirical piece where he makes a mockery of almost
everybody, including himself. This can be easily seen when we analyze the visual semiotic
signs in this work.
Index signs
Smoke is visible from volcanic mountains. It indicates change, and danger. In the
time of Raden Saleh Merapi Mountain was also quite active and he documented that in
several of his paintings. Some of these paintings also have a hidden political agenda. In
Heri Dono‟s vision volcanic eruption can be the eruption and expectations of people from
change. In the painting no one is shocked and worried about this index sign, so it is
something that is „in the air‟, but does not affect anyone from the people in the main arena.
A white horse with wings turned his back toward us and looks like he is flying
toward the smoky mountain. As we saw before, Diponegoro entered the folk legends with
his two horses as well. There was one black and one white that were always depicted with
him in his battles. They represent dynamism, but also show uniqueness of this supreme
Javanese leader. Pangeran Diponegoro a national hero, call for change, energetic and
charismatic leader was always depicted on his horse. Now, the horse is flying away. In
cartoons when someone dies he/she/it get wings and goes to heaven. Diponegoro‟s horse in
Dono‟s vision got wings and it flies away to an unsafe zone, the volcano. It looks like
everything is better than to witness the main scene.
Gazes are toward scene of arresting, people react differently toward the scene of
arresting. The arrested one (Suharno) does not look worried and he even looks like he is
smiling. Same goes to one who is arresting him. Others look slightly worried or just
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indifferent. Pangeran Diponegoro has his gaze directly toward us and he is laughing. He
realized how this scene is comical and he wants to share that with us.
Icon signs
The painting is one big caricature where artist is presenting us numerous political
figures of Indonesia. Susilo Bamabang Yudhono (Indonesian president in two terms, from
2004 until 2014) is in „De Kock‟s‟ place. Pangeran Diponegoro‟s position is taken by
Suharto, holding him and grieving is Bacharrudin Jusuf Habibie, who was president shortly
after Suharto resigned. There are also depictions of Amin Rais – the „father‟ of Reformasi,
Abdurrahman Wahid – Gus Dur, president after Habibie. The painter also put himself into
this scene as contemporary to present political situation in Indonesia.Artist said - “Siapa
yang bisa tangkap Suharto saat ia masih hidup? Yang bisa menangkap ya hanya lukisan.
Jadi kapan harus membuat lukisan juga harus disesuaikan dengan idenya. (Dono, 2007)
Who can capture Suharto while he is still alive? The artist can make a painting, and he used
the previous painting as role model. He used ideas of capturing, ideas of villain and hero, to
send his unique message. That is why he also painted himself in this scene – he is on the
balcony, a character with glasses, but he looks confused and lost.
Pangeran Diponegoro is on the roof and he is laughing at us and at scene of wrong
arrest. The only thing that we recognize from previous depictions of Diponegoro is his
turban. His face is more like a clownish one and a caricature than one that belongs to stoic
hero figure. His horse is flying away toward the smoky mountains, and he is mentioned in
Index signs.
Symbol signs
In Heri Dono vision only flag that is visible is banner of Golkar. Golkar stands for
Golongan Karya which is translated into English as Functional Groups. Party of Functional
Groups was in power in New Order regime between 1966 and 1999, shortly after that
during presidency of B. J. Habibie. Later, from 2004 until now, it has been part of the
coalition around President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (SBY). We saw the Dutch flag (in
Nicolas Pienemaan painting) which was above all figures in the painting. In S. Sudjojono‟s
painting there was an Indonesian flag – it was a mark of victory – on the battlefield that the
scene was depicting, but also to mark the victory of Indonesia after WWII. In this painting
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the banner is in the hand of a supporter, it does not mark any dominant power, or victory, it
is just sign of political support. It is carried by one panakawan like figure which usually
serves in wayang performance to entertain but also question the audience. The flag carried
by this figure has the same meaning; it is here to entertain and to question authorities and
the loyalty of Indonesian people toward this political structure.
First aid box and figure of first aid medical is also supported by a Semar-like figure.
Semar is a supreme panakawan figure and here he supports medical stuff. The person with
the box looks like he (or she) is kneeling next to the central figures of Suharto and SBY. It
looks afraid and confused. This „sickness of Indonesia‟ was frequent motif in the first year
of painting in Reformasi era. Indonesia needs to be cured, there are so many „diseases‟ that
are constant threat to Indonesia, but it looks that no one is brave enough to do this. Semar is
considered as one of the wisest characters in wayang stories, and he is supporting medical
stuff to help and to advance to main stage, but he (or she) is questioning its role and overall
looks more like beggar and one that requests and receives help rather than one who is
giving help.
Beside the medical person, as we mentioned above there is figure that looks like
Semar. Semar is the central panakawan character. Sometimes he is called the „guardian
spirit of island of Java‟. Usually he is followed by his three sons. In this depiction around
Semar there are also three figures – one which is carrying a Golkar banner that we already
mentioned. One is looking as Teletubbies character. This controversial TV series was also
broadcasted in Indonesia. Controversy relating to homosexuality was made over one
character. The show was also famous for its approach to audience to toddlers of two year
old and younger. This was also cause for controversy, as many saw in Teletubbies a threat
to future generations. (Kraidy, 2005) Next to this is a strange looking character that is
carrying a bird in his arms.
The bird and character have a long nose and beak. One of the sons of Semar –
Petruk is the slimmest one and he has the longest nose. The bird is just behind Golkar
banner and it can be seen as a symbol of the mythological bird Garuda which is on the coat
of arms of Indonesia. In this vision the Garuda has lost its strength and pride, but it is still
lifted as sign of protest and warning for new/and old government. Panakawan characters
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are there to entertain wayang kulit audience, but also to give artistic freedom to dalang,
because in this part he can express his criticism. Heri Dono was dalang in this performance
and his critic is really strong.
Heri Dono is Javanese and he was educated by famous dalang about wayang
stories, therefore he implemented this experience in his painting. Yet, he is strongly
opposed to Javanisation as (un)official policy of Indonesia. We can see that in the way he
dressed his figures. One man next to grieving figure is in Javanese lurik shirt. Suharto was
key leader of Javanisation policy. The Javanese figure does not look sad, his posture is up
toward the scene and he is holding a cigarette in his hand. He looks worried or indifferent.
Other ethnographic details include traditional batak hat and sarung in what looks
like Amien Rais. This is also one of the jokes of Heri Dono, because Amien Rais is
Javanese. Diponegoro is in his „iconic‟ robe and turban but they do not look like robes of
nobility, nor look different that robes that panakawan figures or other common people wear
in this painting. Uniforms of the central figures look more official and they have marks on
them – medals, badges, and other titular marks. The majority of figures wear brownish like
clothes, but there are some figures that look from shadow that wear green, blue, black, one
of these figures looks like a monkey, one as a Catholic bishop, one as a white person, they
can symbolize variety in Indonesian society and those one interested in it.
One of the interesting figures in this painting also is carriage driver who has
slightly different attires. He is also in brown suit, but his strange looking hat is red cylinder
top hat. This hat is usually connected with industrials and bankers of the 19th and the 20th
century. It is black and elegant. Here it is bloody red. Drivers carries with him jar full of
gold in back seat. His horse is also more like a wolf head creature than horse. His hooves
are also blood red which is unusual. This figure symbolizes a lot of elements of New Order
regime – ruthless development, corruption and abusing of human rights which also
including killing people from Aceh to Papua, via a bloody mark left on today independent
East Timor.
The scene took place in dark, sky is black and ground is brownish, but figures are
bright and easily recognized, which creates an atmosphere of theatre of the absurd or
reverse wayang kulit. Political situation in Indonesia is equal to theatre of the absurd,
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everything looks transparent and clear, but actually everything is distorted and confusing,
that even national heroes are laughing and are ready to leave this scene.
12. Heri Dono. 2002.
Raden Saleh Jadi Londo
(from Kraus, 2005)
13. Heri Dono. 2009.
The Error of Pienemaan‟s Perspective
In 2002 Heri Dono painted Raden Saleh as londo (Javanese term for the Dutchman
and all foreigners), in this artwork he acknowledged and made a joke of his hybridity. It is
also a statement about the hybridity of Indonesian painting as Raden Saleh is considered the
„father‟ of Indonesian painting. (Kraus, 2005) In 2007 he gives a caricature of the wrongful
arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro and in 2009 he painted the same painting in a realistic
manner. This was the first painting that he did in this way, and by showing clearly
Indonesian politics he avoids accusations that his work is just simple caricature and not
strong to convey message in more direct way. He gave visual explanation of „who is who‟
on his painting, and now he put himself in the first line, giving with that move more
responsibility to himself as citizen of Indonesia and as artist in this country.
The Error of Pieneman‟s Perspective is the name of this artwork and with it there
is a closing circle for this research as well, which starts by analysing Nicolaas Pieneman‟s
painting from 1830-1835 and ending almost two hundred years later with a painting by one
contemporary Indonesian artist who is questioning Pieneman‟s perspective. Pada Salah
36
Source of Illustrations – page 137
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Tangkap Diponegoro, Heri Dono menyaksikan penangkapan Diponegoro itu dari jauh.
Adapun pada The Error of Pieneman's Perspective, Heri Dono hadir di lokasi
penangkapan- this is the main difference between artwork (Heri Dono in the first raw,
while in 2007 he was far away) that was examined previously and this one, by the
explanation of curator of this exhibition. Mikke Susanto was the curator of an exhibition
called Heri Donology presented in Jogjakarta in July 200937.
In the same exhibition he again makes a mockery of Raden Saleh with his sculpture,
together with Anwar (famous Indonesian poet) and Affandi (probably the most well-known
Indonesian artist outside Indonesia) and 17 others figures that he called Agents of Change
II. By using fibreglass he made this sculpture around 30 cm high and placed them in
squatting position and they look like they are defecating, complete with a piece of faeces
underneath them. This is the critique of demand for artist to create their artworks and to
change the world. Sedangkan posisi jongkok pada Agent of Change II, menurut Heri Dono,
sebagai gerak simbolik saat para seniman sedang merenung untuk menghasilkan karya
untuk mengubah dunia, meski yang tampak adalah luncuran tinja (Dono, 2007).
3.
Who Are the Heroes Now and Do We Need Them?
~
I think a hero is any person really intent on making this a better place for
allpeople
Maya Angelou (1928-2014), American poet
Contemporary art scene in Indonesia contributes to discussion about (national)
heroism as we show above. Agung Kurniawan together with Agus Suwage, Maryanto and
Lian Sahar made an exhibition and project Sukro Dimejo: Pahlwan atau Jahanam?
Sukrodimejo was a historical figure from 19th century Banten and he fought against the
Dutch, nevertheless he is not recognized as a national hero. In this artproject artists were
exploring what is that that makes one a national hero while another still stays in a sphere of
oral mythology and heroism in people‟s stories.38 Agung Kurniawan is always posing these
37
Tempo online edition - http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2009/07/22/114188358/Respons-TerhadapKengawuran - 10.04.2014.
38
Cemeti Art-house archive http://archive.cemetiarthouse.com/id/exhibition/2006/museum-sukrodimejo
10.03.2014.
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provocative questions in his work – questions about (national) identity, unity, mythology
and others. As we also saw in Heri Dono‟s art opus, he also questioned every authority.
These artists are artists of era called Reformation and they want to give their contribution in
reforming Indonesian identity by questioning it and challenging their audience to think
about numerous questions.
While living its reformation/reformulation era Indonesia is also widely open to
world, its rules of markets and economies, but also it receives influences from different
cultures. Indonesia is one of the rare countries in the world that one can read this news:
Swedish-Lebanese pro-Islamic singer Maher Zain will give his signatures to his fans in
super-fancy Kuningan City mall in Jakarta.39 The next day he will perform in a free concert
organized by one presidential candidate as one of the strategy for winning battle in
upcoming president elections. Pop culture, Islam, Orientalization vs Occidentalisation,
Consumerism culture, Politics, Power – those are all terms one can read from this news.
New views of Pangeran Diponegoro are illustrated in pictures below.
14. 1. Diponegoro meets General De Kock 14. 2. Landung Simatupang - Dramatic
– from Opera Diponegoro
reading about Diponegoro
(the Internet Source40)
(the Internet Source41)
39
http://www.republika.co.id/berita/pemilu/menuju-ri-1/14/06/30/n7zozr-prabowohatta-undang-masyarakathadiri-konser-maher-zain-gratis 01.07.2014.
40
For details – Source of illustrations – page 137
41
Ibid.
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14.3. Indiegerillas 2012 This Hegemony 14.4. Manga Diponegoro
Life – Tin Tin like Diponegoro
(the Internet Source/Author‟s photo43)
42
(the Internet Source )
Pangeran Diponegoro as motif moved from traditional performing arts of Java (and
Indonesia) such as wayang and entered contemporary traditional art forms. In November
2011 choreographer Sardono W. Kusumo together with musician Iwan Fals presented Java
War! Opera Diponegoro (1825-0000) in Taman Ismail Marzuki in Jakarta. Landung
Simatupang is a famous Indonesian actor who directed a stage reading about Diponegro in
Yogyakarta, Malang, Jakarta and Makassar in 2013/2014. There were plans to make the
first Indonesian 3D animation depicting fight of Diponegoro. Yet, he entered manga like
comics, video games; his face (or his figure riding horse) is motif in t-shirts.
Diponegoro takes on a new significance in the twenty-first century. His ideology is
a clear indication of the deep roots of those Islamic organizations in Indonesia today
that reject pluralism and campaign (in word and suicide-killings) for the removal of
non-Muslim foreigners from the country. (Taylor, 2013)
Diponegoro indeed takes on a new significance in the twenty-first century, but it is
hard to believe that this significance is only connected with radical Islamic groups. This
writing can also be looked at in a Postcolonial manner, where the West is still producing
the East, and now the East is almost entirely identified with the Islamic world, which is
again identified with terrorism and fundamentalism. Indonesia, as the country with the
biggest Muslim population shows different. Indonesians, with their creativity can create
42
43
For details about source of illustration – look page 137.
Ibid.
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operas, theatre plays, comic books, animations with the same skills like everywhere else in
the world. Art and artist of Indonesia embrace this global hybridity and with bravery
challenge and change society.
Diponegoro is, and it will always be „the light of country‟, because that light is
casting the ideas of freedom, independence, creativity, discussion, growth, and not the ideas
of xenophobia and exclusion. That is why he is a national hero. That is why the nation
needs to realize that by sharing and accepting values of knowledge and ideals of freedom, a
nation soon will not need national heroes any more - it will be a nation of heroes, where
heroes are like the one mentioned in motto for this subchapter – one who tries their best to
make this place (kampung, city, province, country, world) a better place for all people.
D.
Depicting Pangeran Diponegoro from 19th until today
From the first portrait made when Diponegoro was around 16 years old to modern
visions of Diponegoro in manga comic books, visual depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro
have moved significantly. Depiction of one historical figure varies from time, ideology,
author and other concepts.
Depictions of Pangeran Diponegoro from 19th century were „chronics‟ of their time.
He lived in that century and he could witness his own depiction(s). In the first painting
made by a local (unknown) artist from Yogyakarta Kraton Diponegoro is shown in his
Javanese attire. That was the first and the last depiction in this sense. Later he will be
shown in his Turkish (and pan-Islamic) attire. Nicolaas Pieneman made his depiction just
after the Java War was over. This war attracted attention in the cities of the Netherlands,
but also the Dutch people who lived in the East Indies were occupied and worried.
Interesting hybrid form of culture was made from those concerns: Batik Perang
Diponegoro. This batik motif is designed by the Dutch, crafted by locals, with primitive
and simple depictions of Diponegoro and his forceful soldiers. Pieneman made his painting
like a homage to his glorious nation and their honourable protectors. Diponegoro is
submissive, but with dignity. He is the central figure of the painting, together with grieving
figures. General De Kock is placed slightly above him, but above all are signs of the
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Netherlands – the flag and coat of arms. The same reality was interpreted twenty years after
in a different manner. The Javanese artist Raden Saleh chose to depict the same scene, but
he gave it different signs: oversized heads for the main the Dutch officials, absence of signs
of the Dutch nation, the Javanese with nice batik and dignity. It was a comment from one
man who owes his life to the West (he was an educated painter with great experience in
Europe), but he also had roots in Java and its higher society. It was the boldest message that
one local artist could produce in that time.
Both paintings (Pieneman‟s and Saleh‟s) are „icon‟ paintings. They focus more on
the depiction of several historical figures from that time, rather than to comment on reality.
They both depict the same scene – the submission or arrest of Diponegoro. With these
differences they show how the concept of heroism is time-bound and culture-bound
(Zimbardo, 2011). In that time and from the Dutch point of view, Diponegoro was a villain
submitted to the heroic De Kock. From the Javanese (and later Indonesian) point of view
things are put the other way around. Recognition of the heroism of Diponegoro came later
in Java (and Indonesia). „His‟ war (in Javanese and Indonesian the Java War was called the
Diponegoro War) left Java devastated and made it even easier „prey‟ for Dutch colonizers.
Later his fight became a symbol of resistance and implacability with injustice and
colonization.
It was after WWII that these ideas appeared most strongly in Indonesia. With the
end of war Indonesia still had to fight for its independence. The first years (even decades)
of Indonesian independence were turbulent. At the end of the 1950s the state started to
declare national heroes, a title to remember great men and women who had built a narrative
of the Indonesian nation. Depictions of Diponegoro in that time are „index‟ paintings. They
show battles, fire, smoke, heroes who are riding horses, heroes who are in action. The New
Order regime was different than the previous one in many cases, but the practice of
declaring new heroes continued. Some heroes who were close to the ideas of the PKI were
erased (Bagus, I. M. in Rao, U. and Hutnyk, J. 2006), but fallen generals in 1965 were
immediately to step in their place. Cultural memory of that time keeps the practice of
depicting heroes in action: equestrian sculptures of Diponegoro were made for different
places.
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S. Sudjojono‟s painting of Diponegoro from 1979 was analyzed here as depiction
from New Order period, but not as New Order depiction of national hero. This artwork is
also „index‟ painting: fire and smoke are dominating canvas, background is dynamic, there
is also writing that said that Diponegoro forces never lost a battle. It has even an Indonesian
flag! Artist decided to remember even something that was not there, and with that he senta
message: state ideology (with its declaration of heroes) is remembering something that was
not there. The fights, resistance, and power of people of past when Indonesia did not exist
are made for shaping a memory of Indonesia (and its people) today.
Zimbardo (2011) introduced his „banality of heroism‟ in contrast to the „banality of
evil‟44. „Arendt was saying in essence that such perpetrators of evil were “normal” before
and again after being embedded in evil-generating situations‟ (Zimbardo, 2011). The same
„normality‟ is expected from new heroes. That is the message of contemporary Indonesian
artists. One, Agung Kurniawan made his artwork and homage to Diponegoro in interesting
artwork: the scene is futuristic and full of robotic and faceless figure, yet their postures are
same like figures in Raden Saleh of Diponegoro‟s arrest and that painting is „floating‟ in
this one as „memento‟. Another, Heri Dono is an artist who knows no authority. He made
caricatures of Raden Saleh, great names in the history of art (both Indonesian and Western)
and concept of heroism is not left behind. Both artists choose to reply to Raden Saleh vision
of Diponegoro and his arrest. After more than 150 years after the actual event happened,
contemporary artists are sending a strong message that history can be glorious, but it is also
full of contradictions, heroes are also villains for some people, there are no „great
narratives‟, and with acceptance of this as true, the only one who is responsible for people‟s
lives will be the people themselves. Are people in Java and Indonesia ready for that
responsibility? That is another question.
44
This concept is used by Hannah Arendt, Jewish German-American political theoretician who witnessed trial
of Nazi SS officers and one of the organizers of the Holocaust
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CHAPTER V
A. Conclusion
Semiotic signs and Postcolonial theory view toward paintings with Pangeran
Diponegoro reveal a lot how the concept of heroism in Indonesia changed during the time.
In 19th century just after the Java War was over and Pangeran Diponegoro captured, the
political situation in the Netherlands and its major colony the East Indies was settling. In
the painting of Pieneman we see that glory of establishing old-new order in Java. The
Dutch VOC (East Indies Company) was replaced by the Dutch state.
Nicolaas Pieneman‟s vision of capturing Diponegoro (1830-5) shows that. The
Dutch state – with its waving flag and coat of arms is above everyone in that picture. The
hero is not Pangeran Diponegoro – the hero is the man who captured him and the one who
ordered this artwork – General Baron de Kock. The west is dominant in this painting,
figures of the Dutch army and their supporters are encircling the Javanese figures. The
figures the head of the Dutch men are all above Diponegoro and his supporters. Pieneman‟s
vision can be a perfect illustration for Edward Said and his concept of Orientalization. But,
it also show us flaws in the Dutch vision of their subordinates – Diponegoro‟s followers
were depicted more as people from the Middle East, rather than Java, and it seems that
landscape represents hills in Central Europe, rather than volcano mountains in Central Java.
Raden Saleh vision in capturing Diponegoro is an intelligent answer to Pieneman‟s
vision (1857). In his painting the absence of signs tells more than their presence. There are
no signs of the nation: no flag, nor coat of arms. Diponegoro‟s gaze is challenging and
angry. Among Diponegoro‟s supporters the artist painted himself. It is hard to assume that
this painting is proto-Indonesian, but it is a clear artistic answer to injustice that Pieneman
painted. The most famous feature of Raden Saleh vision of capturing Diponegoro are the
big heads of the Dutch main officers. They symbolize arrogance and the absence of balance
from Western people in contrast to Javanese.
More than one hundred years later, the great Indonesian artist S. Sudjojono painted
Diponegoro. In the beginning of the 20th century he was shaping Indonesian painting by
asking questions about where art and painting should be in lives of Indonesian. S.
Sudjojono‟s paintings were engaging, but he never crossed the line to be punished by some
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political structures that were punishing artists‟ (and others‟) freedom to speak. After an
extensive period of nation building in 1950s and 1960s, S. Sudjojono painted his
Diponegoro in 1979. He painted him after battle. His painting is full of index signs, in
contrast to Pieneman‟s and Saleh‟s vision which can be interpreted as group portrait
paintings – icon signs. These index signs (smoke, fire, traces) are there to warn us about the
destructiveness of war and violence. The portraits of the three main characters in this
painting have the pride and dignity of victorious Javanese, but they also do not have
pathetic, ideological faces, rather they are painted in a more human approach, with
concerns and worries reflected in their gazes. Interesting is that in this vision the Indonesian
flag is present and it‟s above main three characters, while the Dutch one is folded and
crawling down from the center of the painting.
There are discussions and interpretations (and re-interpretations) of Pangeran
Diponegoro and his role in Indonesian history. For one he is a revolutionary character who
wanted changes in Java, for others he is not a revolutionary character – he is a keeper of the
old order in Java and he only wanted control and power on his side, rather than on the side
of foreign invaders. Almost every person from the list of national heroes in Indonesia is
controversial. Nation did not decide to declare and promote this people with their
complexity and their complicated biographies. Diponegoro is therefore „the light of the
nation‟, a fighter against Dutch, and the one before numerous fighters who will give their
lives to build and to maintain the Indonesian nation. That was the meaning and message of
the state declaring national heroes which can help partially in understanding S. Sudjojono
vision. Nevertheless this vision is much more complex and like it calls for debate.
After the New Order regime, Indonesia entered Reformation era. In 1994 the New
Order was still in power, but changes were visible. Artists and their expression became
more direct and provoking. One of the most interesting artists in this period is Agung
Kurniwan who created his homage to Prince Diponegoro. In this painting Diponegoro from
Raden Saleh‟s vision is floating in a re-make of that scene in a sci-fi setting. Figures are
miming people in Saleh‟s vision, but they look like toys or robots, rather than Javanese or
Dutch people. This message is strong – an artist who is famous for his action and
engagement ask his audience for the same amount of action and engagement.
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In 2007 Heri Dono again used Saleh‟s setting to deliver his message of corrupted
Indonesian politics. 150 years after Saleh painted the arrest of Diponegoro, Dono sets him
free and place him on the roof from where he observes this wayang like scene of false
capturing of Suharto. Art theoretician in the 2000s and beginning of the 2010s see
Indonesian art and artists like motor of change of society. Their visions are bold and direct.
One of the first and most constant motifs in Indonesian painting is the depiction of
Pangeran Diponegoro; Raden Saleh‟s response to Pieneman‟s vision is an icon for
Indonesian artist. It shows bravery, visionary and intelligence of an artist that many
followed. And many will continue to do that, because that is the role of heroes in art.
B.
Recommendations
One person‟s idiolect (Barthes, 1964) means that how many associations and
connotations one person can name in one image depends on that person‟s knowledge. This
is also a limit of this research, but hopefully it will be an open-call for more writings about
Pangeran Diponegoro as motif in Indonesian art. Here only relevant paintings were
examined, but Pangeran Diponegoro has also entered literature, graphic novels, theatres etc.
Also, there is room for an examination of other national heroes and their connection with
Indonesian art and culture. Even if the tradition of declaring new heroes stops today, there
are almost 160 names on this list. Behind their names and merits to nation, there are their
stories that inspired artists and people – this connection is yet to be discovered.
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SUMMARY
The concept of heroes is too broad: it is used to describe many deeds many people.
From popular media personas, to new Hollywood blockbusters, names of streets, statues…
we are surrounded (and guarded) by heroes. This research took the state definition of
national heroes of Indonesia and tried to examine how the status of hero has changed over
time in this country. There is an old saying „History is written by the victors‟ and we can
see that saying illustrated very well in the case of heroes.
In the 19th century Java became the prime colony of the Netherlands. At the
beginning of that century, however one man tried to stop that. He led Javanese people to
war against the foreign invader and its habits and culture. His motifs are questionable, but
what is not questionable is that he saw injustice and change and he wanted to stop it. His
name was Diponegoro, and in Java they call war that he led the Diponegoro War, elsewhere
it is remembered as the Java War. His fight ended with his capturing. The general-governor
in charge for doing this was Hendrick M de Kock. In that time he was celebrated as a hero
and peace and prosperity maker.
This was shown in the first painting analysed in this research – Nicolaas Pieneman,
a Dutch artist made a painting with Diponegoro‟s submission to General De Kock. In the
depiction of Diponegoro, yet this painting is always looked upon like an expression of
dominance and arrogance of the foreign invader towards the local population of Java. Signs
used in this painting prove its Orientalisation intention. Historical paintings in Europe were
made in same pattern – the main character is victorious and proud, the defeated side is
ashamed and subordinate.
The appearance of another painting in same time contributes to this discussion.
Raden Saleh was the first Javanese who was educated in Europe about painting. He painted
same scene as Pieneman, but he tried to give Javanese people their dignity back: he named
Diponegoro as Pangeran (Prince), in Pieneman‟s vision Diponegoro was just a rebel
without a title or history. Painting the Dutch heads slightly out of proportion and making
them too big he sent a clear message of injustice and arrogance of Hollanders. He even
painted himself in the group of Diponegoro‟s followers. Painting has always had
difficulties in Indonesia, so numerous researchers failed to see these signs from Saleh‟s
side, but saw one fade a copy of Pieneman‟s work, a servile message of an artist to the king
whom he sent this piece. When it was brought back to Indonesia it raised a lot of
nationalistic interpretations.
Indonesia gained its independence in 1945, but it was in 1950 when The
Netherlands officially recognized this fact that Indonesia achieved self-determination.
Sukarno was the prime man of that time, and with first few years of full democracy, he took
all power in his hand and the country entered in the period called Guided Democracy. It
was a period of consolidation and extensive national-building. In 1959 state apparatus also
started to declare national heroes. In 1965 there was a controversial killing of generals in
Indonesian Army, and Suharto rose to be the new national leader. Between 1966 and 1998
he ruled Indonesia and this period was called the New Order (as contrast to the old order of
Sukarno‟s rule). It was marked by extensive development in Indonesia, but also by
numerous human rights abuse. These turbulences in Indonesian politics were accompanied
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by events in the art world. The New Order regime continued to declare National Heroes,
but with a less energetic pace. In 1973 Pangeran Diponegoro was elevated to this status.
In 1979 the famous Indonesian painter S. Sudjojono painted Diponegoro. He was
one of the most influential Indonesian artists due to his constant revising and questioning of
the position of art and its role in one society. In his vision Diponegoro is on the battlefield,
he has the Indonesian flag, he is victorious and proud. There is no doubt that his message is
patriotic, Diponegoro is proto-Indonesian, and the values of freedom and dignity of the
Javanese people (Indonesian people) are values above any other. Nevertheless S. Sudjojono
would not be one of the greatest artist in Indonesia (he would be one of the greatest
propaganda-artist) if he had not left any other message in his work. In one analysed in this
research there are signs of the brutality of war and violence and Pyrrhic victory of
Diponegoro. S. Sudjojono painted numerous national heroes (most famous is his depiction
of Sultan Agung), and he followed national narrative and did not make mockery of national
ideology, but he always sent intelligent and humanistic messages through his artwork.
The end of the New Order was felt already in the beginning of the 1990‟s, but it was
not until 1998 that unsatisfied Indonesian overthrew Suharto and entered Reformation Era.
One art critic coined the term „New Disorder‟ to describe this part of Indonesian history
that Indonesian still live. It is true that numerous things are not clear in Indonesia today,
there is no strong national leader, national ideology is revising, Indonesia entered global
arena somehow vulnerable and not prepared. The one who were prepared for this were
artists – in 1994 Agung Kurniawan painted his homage to Prince Diponegoro, where he
identified him with TV super heroes, and Heri Dono in 2007 (and 2009) placed him on the
roof to observe Indonesian politics of today. They both used him as strong motif of fighter
for freedom, equality, and justice that Indonesia and its people still want to see.
Pangeran Diponegoro and his heroic fight continue to inspire artist in Indonesia. He
moved from academic painting of the 19th century to t-shirts, comic books, and videogames of 21st century. His deeds are being revised, like everything in history, but the
people of Indonesia, and their artists like to choose to remember that they have power to be
brave and to take control of their own lives, and that is the crucial message that Pangeran
Diponegoro (as a motif in painting, as well as from other art forms) is sending us.
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RINGKASAN
Konsep pahlawan terlalu luas: digunakan untuk menggambarkan berbagai perilaku
dan juga ditujukan kepada banyak orang. Dari personas media populer, sampai Hollywood
blockbuster baru, nama-nama jalan, patung ... kita dikelilingi (dan dilindungi) oleh
pahlawan. Penelitian ini mengambil definisi keadaan pahlawan nasional Indonesia dan
mencoba untuk mengkaji bagaimana status pahlawan berubah dari waktu ke waktu di
negeri ini. Ada pepatah lama yang mengatakan 'Sejarah ditulis oleh para pemenang' dan
kita dapat melihat bahwa pepatah diilustrasikan dengan sangat baik dalam kasus pahlawan
ini.
Pada abad XIX, Jawa menjadi koloni utama Belanda. Pada awal abad tersebut, satu
orang mencoba untuk menghentikannya. Ia memimpin orang Jawa berperang melawan
penjajah asing dan kebiasaan dan budaya. Motif nya dipertanyakan, namu hal itu tidak
dipertanyakan bahwasanya ia melihat ketidakadilan dan perubahan dan ia ingin
menghentikan itu semua. Namanya Diponegoro, dan di Jawa mereka sebut dengan perang
Diponegoro. Di tempat lain, itu dikenang sebagai Perang Jawa. Perjuangannya berakhir
dengan tertangkapnya dia. Gubernur Jenderal Hendrick M de Kock adalah yang
bertanggung jawab dalam melakukan hal ini. Pada waktu itu ia diagungkan sebagai
pahlawan dan pembuat perdamaian dan kemakmuran.
Hal ini terlihat dalam lukisan pertama yang dianalisis dalam penelitian ini Nicolaas Pieneman, seniman Belanda membuat sebuah lukisan dengan penyerahan
Diponegoro kepada Jenderal De Kock. Dalam lukisan ini terlihat martabat dan kebanggaan
Diponegoro, namun lukisan ini selalu dipandang seperti ekspresi dominasi dan arogansi
penjajah asing terhadap penduduk Jawa setempat. Tanda yang digunakan dalam lukisan ini
membuktikan niat sebenarnya. Lukisan sejarah di Eropa dibuat dalam pola yang sama karakter utama adalah kemenangan dan kebanggaan, mengalahkan sisi kemaluan dan
kerendahan. Lukisan ini menunjukan orang-orang yang mengalami kolonisasi dan setelah
mendapatkan kemerdekaan negara, mereka juga ingin martabat mereka kembali.
Penampilan lukisan lain dalam waktu yang sama memberikan kontribusi untuk diskusi ini.
Raden Saleh merupakan orang Jawa pertama yang menempuh pendidikan di Eropa
mengenai lukisan. Ia melukis adegan yang sama dengan Pieneman, tapi ia mencoba untuk
membawa kembali martabat orang Jawa: dia memberi nama Diponegoro sebagai Pangeran,
dalam visi Pieneman, Diponegoro hanya pemberont tanpa gelar dan sejarah. Dengan
lukisan kepala Belanda sedikit keluar dari proporsi dan membuat mereka terlalu besar, ia
mengirim pesan yang jelas ketidakadilan dan arogansi orang Belanda. Dia bahkan melukis
dirinya sendiri dalam kelompok pengikut Diponegoro. Mungkin karena dibawa dari barat lukisan selalu mengalami kesulitan di Indonesia, sehingga banyak peneliti gagal untuk
melihat tanda-tanda ini dari sisi Saleh, tapi melihat satu salinan memudar karya Pieneman
itu, pesan merendahkan seorang seniman untuk raja yang ia kirim dalam bagian ini. Ketika
dibawa kembali ke Indonesia, itu mengangkat banyak interpretasi nasionalistik.
Indonesia merdeka pada tahun 1945, tetapi itu hingga 1950 ketika Belanda resmi
mengakui kenyataan bahwa Indonesia memasuki penentuan nasib nya. Sukarno adalah
seorang pria utama pada saat itu, dan dengan beberapa tahun pertama demokrasi penuh. Ia
mengambil semua kekuasaan di tangannya dan negara masuk dalam periode yang disebut
Demokrasi Terpimpin. Itu adalah periode konsolidasi dan pembangunan nasional yang luas.
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Pada tahun 1959 aparat negara juga mulai mendeklarasikan pahlawan nasional. Pada tahun
1965 ada pembunuhan kontroversial jenderal di Tentara Nasional Indonesia, dan Soeharto
naik menjadi pemimpin nasional yang baru. Antara tahun 1966 dan 1998 ia memerintah
Indonesia dan periode ini disebut Orde Baru (sebagai kontras dengan orde lama
pemerintahan Sukarno). Hal itu ditandai dengan pengembangan yang luas di Indonesia,
tetapi juga diikuti oleh berbagai pelanggaran hak asasi manusia. Gejolak ini dalam politik
Indonesia diikuti pula oleh peristiwa dalam dunia seni. Rezim Orde Baru terus menyatakan
Pahlawan Nasional, namun dengan kecepatan yang kurang energik. Pada tahun 1973
Pangeran Diponegoro diangkat ke dalam status tersebut.
Pada tahun 1979, pelukis terkenal Indonesia S. Sudjojono melukis Diponegoro. Dia
merupakan salah satu seniman Indonesia yang paling berpengaruh karena revisi konstan
dan posisinya dalam mempertanyakan seni dan perannya dalam satu masyarakat. Dalam
visinya Diponegoro di dalam medan perang. ia memiliki bendera Indonesia, dia menang
dan membanggakan. Tidak ada keraguan bahwa pesannya adalah patriotik, Diponegoro
adalah proto-Indonesia, dan nilai-nilai kebebasan dan martabat masyarakat Jawa
(masyarakat Indonesia) adalah merupakan nilai-nilai di atas apapun. Namun demikian S.
Sudjojono tidak akan menjadi salah satu seniman terbesar di Indonesia (dia akan menjadi
salah satu propaganda-seniman terbesar) jika dia tidak meninggalkan pesan lain dalam
karyanya. Dalam satu analisis dalam penelitian ini, ada tanda-tanda dari kebrutalan perang
dan kekerasan dan kemenangan Pyrrhic Diponegoro. S. Sudjojono melukis banyak
pahlawan nasional (yang paling terkenal adalah gambaran tentang Sultan Agung), dan ia
mengikuti narasi nasional dan tidak melecehkan ideologi nasional, tapi dia selalu mengirim
pesan cerdas dan humanis melalui karya seninya.
Akhir Orde Baru dirasakan pada awal 1990-an, namun itu sampai tahun 1998 ketika
Indonesia menunjukan ketidak puasannya sehingga menggulingkan Soeharto dan akhirnya
memasuki Era Reformasi. Salah satu kritikus seni menciptakan istilah 'Disorder Baru' ini
bagian dari sejarah Indonesia ketika Indonesia masih hidup. Memang benar bahwa banyak
hal yang tidak jelas di Indonesia saat ini, tidak ada pemimpin nasional yang kuat, ideologi
nasional direvisi, Indonesia memasuki arena global entah bagaimana kerentanan dan
ketidak siapannya. Orang yang siap untuk ini adalah seniman - pada tahun 1994 Agung
Kurniawan melukis Pangeran Diponegoro sebagai penghormatannya, di mana ia
mengidentifikasi dirinya dengan pahlawan TV super, dan Heri Dono pada tahun 2007 (dan
2009) menempatkan dia di atap untuk mengamati politik Indonesia hari ini . Mereka berdua
menggunakan Diponegoro sebagai motif kuat pejuang kebebasan, kesetaraan, dan keadilan
bahwa Indonesia dan rakyatnya masih ingin melihat itu semua.
Pangeran Diponegoro dan pertarungan gagahnya terus menginspirasi seniman di
Indonesia. Dia berpindah dari lukisan akademik abad XIX menjadi untuk t-shirt, buku
komik, dan video game abad XXI. Tindakannya merevisi, seperti segala sesuatu dalam
sejarah, tapi orang-orang dari Indonesia, dan mereka seniman ingin memilih untuk
mengingat bahwa mereka memiliki kekuatan untuk berani dan mengambil kendali atas
kehidupan mereka sendiri, dan itulah pesan terpenting bahwa Pangeran Diponegoro
(sebagai motif dalam lukisan, serta dari bentuk-bentuk seni lainnya) yang dikirimkannya.
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APPENDICES
The concept of national hero in Indonesia is somehow easy to access, but yet it was
rarely the subject of the analyses of researches in domain of cultural studies. It is said that
they are promoting the national ideology of Indonesia, but without any clear definition what
that ideology is. During its history as independent nation Indonesia had different
ideologies, yet the tradition of declaring national heroes did not stop. The next pages are
dedicated to the modest analyses of who are behind names of the national heroes and the
attempt to grasp pieces of the national ideology within it
Table one is full list of the national heroes of Indonesia with date of their elevation
to the national heroes. The list is sorted by alphabetical order of names of heroes. Beside
the name is year of birth and death and under it is short insert from a biography and how
they are remembered in the nation.
Table 1 – NATIONAL HEROES IN INDONESIA
Indonesian National Hero & Year when they are elevated to that status
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Abdul Halim (1911-1988)
Independence activist and politician, fourth Prime Minister of Indonesia
Abdul Haris Nasution (1918-2000)
General in the Army, twice appointed Army Chief of Staff
Abdul Kadir (1771-1875)
Nobleman from Melawi, promoted economic development, fought against the Dutch colonial
forces
Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah (1908 – 1981)
Islamic scholar and author
Abdul Muis (1883- 1959)
Politician, later author
Abdul Rahman Saleh (1909 – 1947)
Early figure in Air Force, killed when his medical flight was shot down by the Dutch
Andi Abdullah Bau Massepe (1918 – 1947)
Bugis nobleman, led attacks against the Dutch forces during the National Revolution
Achmad Subarjo (1896 – 1947)
Independence activist and government minister
Adam Malik (1917 – 1984)
Journalist and independence activist, third Vice President of Indonesia
Adnan Kapau Gani (1905 – 1968)
Independence activist turned government minister, smuggled weapons to support the National
Revolution
Nyi Ageng Serang (1752 – 1828)
Javanese guerrilla leader who led attacks on the Dutch colonials on several occasions
Agus Salim (1884 – 1954)
Minang Islamic leader, politician, independence activist
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2002
1999
2011
1959
1974
2005
2009
1998
2007
1974
1961
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13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
Agustinus Adisucipto (1916 – 1947)
Early figure in Air Force, killed when his medical flight was shot down by the Dutch
Ahmad Dahlan (1868 – 1934)
Javanese Islamic leader, established Muhammadiyah
Ahmad Rifa’i (1786 – 1870)
Islamic thinker and writer known for his anti-Dutch stance
Ahmad Yani (1922 – 1965)
Leader of Army, killed by the 30 September Movement
Alimin (1889 – 1964)
Independence advocate, politician, and Communist Party of Indonesia figure
Amir Hamzah (1911 – 1946)
Poet and nationalist
Antasari (1809 – 1862)
Fought against the Dutch colonial forces in the Banjarmasin War
Arie Frederick Lasut (1918 – 1949)
Geologist and educator who was executed by the Dutch
Bagindo Azizchan (1910 – 1947)
Mayor of Padang resisted the Dutch forces during the National Revolution
Basuki Rahmat (1921 – 1969)
General, witness to the Supersemar
Teungku Chick di Tiro (1836 – 1891)
Acehnese Islamic figure and guerrilla leader who fought the Dutch colonial forces
Cilik Riwut (1918 – 1987)
Soldier and politician, promoted economic and cultural development in Central Kalimantan
Cipto Mangunkusumo (1886 – 1943)
Javanese politician, mentor to Sukarno
Cokroaminoto (1886 – 1943)
Politician, leader of Sarekat Islam, mentor to Sukarno
Ernest Douwes Dekker (1879 – 1950)
Indo journalist and politician who advocated Indonesian independence
Dewi Sartika (1884 – 1947)
Educator, established the country's first school for girls
Cut Nyak Dhien (1850 – 1908)
Acehnese guerrilla leader who fought against the Dutch colonial forces
Diponegoro (1785 – 1855)
Son of the Sultan of Yogyakarta, fought a war against the Dutch colonial forces
Donald Izacus Panjaitan (1925 – 1965)
General in the Army, killed by the 30 September Movement
Eddy Martadinata (1921 – 1966)
Admiral in the Navy and diplomat, killed in a helicopter crash
Fakruddin (1890 – 1929)
Islamic leader, negotiated protection of Indonesian hajj pilgrims
Fatmawati (1923 – 1980)
Sewed the first national flag, social activist, a wife of Sukarno
Ferdinand Lumbantobing (1899 – 1962)
Doctor and politician, fought for the rights of forced labourers
Frans Kaisiepo (1921 – 1979)
Papuan nationalist who helped in the acquisition of Papua
Gatot Mangkupraja (1896 – 1968)
Independence activist and politician, suggested the formation of Defenders of the Homeland
Gatot Subroto (1907 – 1962)
General, deputy chief-of-staff of the Army
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1974
1961
2004
1965
1964
1975
1968
1969
2005
1969
1973
1998
1964
1961
1961
1966
1964
1973
1965
1966
1964
2000
1962
1993
2004
1962
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39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
Halim Perdanakusuma (1922 – 1947)
Early figure in the Air Force, killed during the National Revolution
Hamengkubuwono I (1717 – 1792)
Sultan of Yogyakarta, fought against the Dutch East India Company, established Yogyakarta
Hamengkubuwono IX (1912 – 1988)
Sultan of Yogyakarta, independence activist, military leader, and politician; second Vice
President of Indonesia
Harun Bin Said (1947 – 1968)
Bombed the MacDonald House during the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation
Hasan Basri (1923 – 1984)
Soldier during the Indonesian National Revolution, supported the integration of
Kalimantan in Indonesia
Hasanuddin (1631 – 1670)
Sultan of Gowa, fought against the Dutch colonial forces
Hasyim Asy’ari (1875 – 1947)
Islamic leader, founder of Nahdlatul Ulama
Hazairin (1906 – 1975)
Legal scholar, independence activist, government minister, and educator
Herman Johannes (1912 – 1992)
Engineer, made weapons during the National Revolution, helped establish Gadjah Mada
University
Ida Anak Agung Gde Agung (1921 – 1999)
Independence activist and government minister
Idham Chalid (1921 – 2010)
Leader of Nahdlatul Ulama, politician
Ilyas Yakoub (1903 – 1958)
Independence activist, politician, and guerrilla fighter
Tuanku Imam Bonjol (1772 – 1864)
Islamic figure from West Sumatra who fought against Dutch colonial forces in the Padri War
Radin Inten II (1834 – 1856)
Nobleman from Lampung, led a revolution against the Dutch colonists
Iskandar Muda (1593 – 1636)
Sultan of Aceh, expanded the state's influence
Ismail Marzuki (1914 – 1958)
Composer known for numerous patriotic songs
Iswahyudi (1918 – 1947)
Early figure in the Air Force, killed during the National Revolution
Iwa Kusumasumantri (1899 – 1971)
Independence activist, lawyer, and politician
Izaak Huru Doko (1913 – 1985)
Independence activist and educator, helped establish Udayana University
Janatin (1943 – 1968)
Bombed the MacDonald House during the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation
Jatikusumo (1917 – 1992)
General in the Army and politician
Andi Jemma (1935 – 1965)
Independence activist, led attacks against the Dutch forces during the National Revolution
Johannes Abraham Dimara (1916 – 2000)
Papuan army officer who helped in the acquisition of Papua
Johannes Leimena (1905 – 1977)
Early Minister of Health, developed the Puskesmas clinic system
Juanda Kartawijaya (1911 – 1963)
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1975
2006
1990
1968
2001
1973
1964
1999
2009
2007
2011
1999
1973
1986
1993
2004
1975
2002
2006
1968
2002
2002
2010
2010
1963
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Sundanese politician, final Prime Minister of Indonesia
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
Karel Satsuit Tubun (1928 – 1965)
Police brigadier, killed by the 30 September Movement
Kartini (1879 – 1904)
Javanese women's rights figure
Ignatius Joseph Kasimo (1900 – 1986)
Independence activist, Catholic Party leader
Katamso Darmokusumo (1923 – 1965)
I Gusti Ketut Jelantik (XX – 1849)
Balinese leader who fought against the Dutch colonial forces
I Gusti Ketutu Puja (1904 – 1957)
First governor of Bali
Ki Hajar Dewantara (1889 – 1959)
Educator and government minister, established Taman Siswa
Ki Sarmidi Mangunsarkoro (1904 – 1957)
Educator with Budi Utomo and Taman Siswa, government minister
Kiras Bangun (1852 – 1942)
Batak guerrilla leader who fought the Dutch colonialists
Kusumah Atmaja (1898 – 1942)
First Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
La Maddukelleng (1700 – 1765)
Nobleman from Paser Sultanate, repelled the Dutch forces from Wajo Kingdom
Lambertus Nicodemus Palar (1900 – 1981)
Diplomat, negotiated recognition of Indonesia during the Revolution
John Lie (1911 – 1988)
Rear Admiral in the Navy, smuggled products to fund the National Revolution
Mahmud Badaruddin II (1767 – 1852)
Sultan of Palembang, fought against English and the Dutch colonists
Mangkunegara I (1725 – 1795)
Fought against the Dutch colonists and collaborators in Central Java
Andi Mappanyukki (1885 – 1967)
Bugis nobleman, led attacks against Dutch forces in the 1920s and 30s
Maria Walanda Maramis (1872 – 1924)
Women's rights advocate and educator
Martha Christina Tiahahu (1800 – 1818)
Guerrilla fighter from Maluku who died in the Dutch custody
Marthen Indey (1912 – 1986)
Nationalist and independence activist, promoted Papuan integration in Indonesia
Mas Mansur (1896 – 1946)
Islamic scholar, Muhammadiyah leader
Mas Tirtodarmo Haryono (1924 – 1965)
Maskun Sumadireja (1907 – 1986)
Independence activist and politician
Cut Nyak Meutia (1870 – 1910)
Mohammad Hatta (1902 – 1980)
Independence activist, First Vice-President of Indonesia
Mohammad Husni Thamrin (1894 – 1941)
Politician and independence activist
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1965
1964
2011
1965
1993
2011
1959
2011
2005
1965
1998
2013
2009
1984
1988
2004
1969
1969
1993
1964
1965
2004
1964
2012
1960
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89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
Mohammad Natsir (1908 – 1993)
Islamic scholar and politician, fifth Prime Minister of Indonesia
Teuku Muhammad Hasan (1906 – 1997)
Independence activist, first governor of Sumatra
Muhammad Yamin (1903 – 1962)
Poet turned politician and independence activist
Mustopo (1913 – 1986)
Leader during the Battle of Surabaya, established Dr. Moestopo Dental College
Muwardi (1907 – 1948)
Handled security for the Proclamation of Independence, established a hospital in Surakarta
Nani Wartabone (1907 – 1948)
Independence activist and politician, helped put down the Permesta rebellion
I Gusti Ngurah Rai (1917 – 1946)
Balinese military leader during National Revolution
Nuku Muhammad Amiruddin (1738 – 1805)
Sultan of Tidore, led several naval battles against the Dutch colonial forces
Noer Alie (1914 – 1992)
Islamic leader and educator, led student soldiers during the National Revolution
Teuku Nyak Arif (1899 – 1946)
Acehnese politician and resistance leader, first governor of Aceh
Opu Daeng Risaju (1880 – 1964)
Early woman politician, fought against the Dutch during the National Revolution
Oto Iskandar di Nata (1897 – 1945)
Pajonga Daeng Ngalie (1901 – 1958) - Coordinated attacks in South Sulawesi during
the National Revolution, promoted national integration
Pakubuwono VI (1807 – 1849)
Susuhunan of Surakarta, rebelled against the Dutch colonial forces
Pakubuwono X (1866 – 1939)
Susuhunan of Surakarta, supported various projects which furthered Native
Indonesian interests
Pattimura (1783 – 1817)
Guerrilla from Maluku who fought against the Dutch colonial forces
Pierre Tendean (1939 – 1965)
Soldier in the Army, killed by the 30 September Movement
Pong Tiku (1846 – 1907)
Torajan noble, fought against the Dutch colonialists
Raja Ali Haji (1809 – c. 1870)
Historian and poet from Riau
Raja Haji Fisabilillah (1727 – 1784)
Warrior from Riau who fought against the Dutch colonial forces
Rajiman Wediodiningrat (1879 – 1952)
First head of the People's Representative Council
Ranggong Daeng Romo (1915 – 1947)
Led troops in two battles against the Dutch forces during the National Revolution
Rasuna Said (1910 – 1965)
Women's rights advocate and nationalist
Robert Wolter Monginsidi (1925 – 1949)
Guerrilla fighter in Makassar during the National Revolution, executed by the Dutch
Saharjo (1909 – 1963)
Minister of Justice, pioneered legal reform in the country
Sam Ratulangi (1890 – 1949)
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2008
2006
1973
2007
1964
2003
1975
1995
2006
1974
2006
1973
2006
1964
2011
1973
1965
2002
2004
1997
2013
2001
1974
1973
1963
1961
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Minahasa politician and supporter of Indonesian independence
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
136.
137.
138.
Samanhudi (1878 – 1956)
Businessman, established Sarekat Islam
Silas Papare (1918 – 1978)
Fought for Papua's independence from the Netherlands, promoted Papuan integration in
Indonesia
Sisingamangaraja XII (1849 – 1907)
Batak leader who fought a lengthy guerrilla campaign against the Dutch forces
Siswondo Parman (1918 – 1965)
Siti Hartinah (1923 – 1996)
Wife of then-president Suharto, active in social work, established Taman Mini Indonesia
Indah
Siti Walidah (1872 – 1946)
Founder of Aisyiyah, Muhammadiyah figure
Slamet Riyadi (1927 – 1950)
Brigadier General in the Army, killed while putting down a rebellion in Sulawesi
Sudirman (1916 – 1950)
Commander in Chief of the Indonesian Armed Forces for most of the National Revolution
Albertus Sugiyapranata (1896 – 1963)
Javanese Catholic bishop and nationalist
Sugiyono Mangunwiyoto (1926 – 1965)
Colonel in the Army, killed by the 30 September Movement
Suharso (1912 – 1971)
Medical pioneer in prosthetics
Sukarjo Wiryopranoto (1903 – 1962)
Independence figure, diplomat, and politician
Sukarno (1901 – 1970)
Independence activist who read the Proclamation of Independence, first President of
Indonesia
Sultan Agung (1591 – 1645)
Sultan of Mataram, fought against encroaches by the Dutch East India Company
Andi Sultan Daeng Radja (1894 – 1963)
Independence activist and politician
Supeno (1916 – 1949)
Government minister, killed while fighting against the Dutch during the National Revolution
Supomo (1903 – 1958)
First Minister of Justice, helped write the Constitution
Suprapto (1920 – 1965)
Supriyadi (1925 – 1945)
Leader of a rebellion against the Japanese occupation forces in Blitar
Suroso (1893 – 1981)
Suryo (1896 – 1948)
Governor of East Java during the National Revolution
Suryopranoto (1871 – 1959)
Education and workers' rights figure
Sutan Syahrir (1909 – 1966)
Politician, first Prime Minister of Indonesia
Sutomo (1888 – 1938)
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1961
1993
1961
1965
1996
1971
2007
1964
1963
1965
1973
1962
2012
1975
2006
1970
1965
1965
1975
1986
1964
1959
1966
1961
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Javanese educator, established Budi Utomo
139.
140.
141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152.
153.
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
Sutomo (1920 – 1981)
Military officer who led troops in the Battle of Surabaya
Sutoyo Siswomiharjo (1922 – 1965)
Syafruddin Prawiranegara (1911 – 1989)
First governor of Bank Indonesia
Syarif Kasim II (1893 – 1968)
Sultan of Siak, promoted integration of the East Sumatran kingdoms
Tahi Bonar Simatupang (1920 – 1990)
General who served as chief of staff from 1950 to 1954
Tuanku Tambusai (1784 – 1882)
Islamic leader from Riau who fought against the Dutch forces in the Padri War
Tan Malaka (1884 – 1949)
Minang politician and communist activist
Thaha Syaifuddin (1816 – 1904)
Sultan of Jambi, led an armed revolution against the Dutch colonial forces
Tirtayasa (1631 – 1683)
Guerrilla from Banten who fought against the Dutch
Tirto Adhi Suryo (1880 – 1918)
Early journalist, exiled for his anti-Dutch editorials
Teuku Umar (1854 – 1899)
Untung Surapati (1660 – 1706)
Led several rebellions against the Dutch East India Company
Urip Sumoharjo (1893 – 1948)
Early leader of Indonesian Armed Forces, second in command to Sudirman
Wage Rudolf Supratman (1903 – 1938)
Composer of the national anthem “Indonesia Raya”
Wahid Hasyim (1914 – 1953)
Leader of Nahdlatul Ulama, first Minister of Religion of Indonesia
Wahidin Sudirohusodo (1852 – 1917)
Doctor and leader in Budi Utomo
Wilhelmus Zakaria Johannes (1895 – 1952)
Medical pioneer in radiology
Yos Sudarso (1925 – 1962)
Commodore of the Navy, killed in a confrontation with the Dutch over Netherlands New
Guinea
Yusuf Tajul Khalwati (1626 – 1699)
Islamic leader, led a guerrilla rebellion against the Dutch East India Company
Zainal Mustafa (1907 – 1944)
Islamic leader who fought against the Japanese occupation forces
Zainul Arifin (1909 – 1963)
Politician and guerrilla fighter, killed by an assassin targeting Sukarno
Source: Official Web Page of The Ministry of Social Affairs and Mirnawati (2013)
(http://www.kemsos.go.id/modules.php?name=Pahlawan&opsi=mulai-1
http://www.kemsos.go.id/modules.php?name=Pahlawan&opsi=mulai-2 – 12.12.2013.)
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2008
1961
2011
1998
2013
1995
1963
1977
1970
2006
1973
1975
1964
1971
1964
1973
1968
1973
1995
1972
1963
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STATISTICS BEHIND LIST OF NATONAL HEROES IN INDONESIA
The tradition of proclamation heroes started with 1959 when the first president of
Indonesia Sukarno declared three men the heroes of independence (Pahlawan
Kemerdekaan). Heroes were named like this until 1965 when in October 1965 twelve men
who died by 30 September Movement were declared the heroes of Revolution (Pahlawan
Revolusi). Overall 36 men and women are declared the heroes of independence. From 1966
until today the heroes are named – the national heroes (Pahlawan Nasional). Chart 1 is
showing the number of people who are declared heroes from the beginning of this practise
until today. Year 1964 was one with the biggest number of declared heroes – 14. Already
mentioned, turbulent year 1965 is following with 12 men entering the list, same as in 1973.
Eight people were declared in 1961 and 2006, seven in 1975 and 2011, and other years
usually less than five people entered the list. Fourteen years were without declared heroes,
between 1976 and 1992 there were only eight people who were declared national heroes.
Chart 1 – Number of declared (national) heroes from 1959 until 2013
Chart 2 –
Number of
declared heroes
by decades
If we group these data into decades we will get the data presented in Chart 2. As we
can see 1960s were years of the extensive national building which is visible in the chart
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where 35% of the heroes were declared. If we break this data into the Indonesian
ideological timeframe – Sukarno‟s Era (1945-1965) declared 37 people as heroes, transition
to the New Order (1965) is marked by 10 heroes of the Revolution, the New Order regime
(1966 – 1998) declared 64 new heroes and the Reformation (1998 – 2013) listed 53 new
people. An average number will show differences – from 1959 until 1966 an average six
people entered the list, 12 people entered in 1965, from 1966 until 1998 an average two
people per year entered the list, and from 1999 until today 3, 5 is an average number of the
people per year who entered the list. From this we can conclude that the national building
with usage of the national heroes was most active during late Sukarno‟s era (Guided
Democracy). The New Order regime was not so interested in this topic, it was mentioned in
research that the New Order regime prefered duplication and maintaing heroism from the
previous period and with the important adding of the heroes of Revolution. It is interesting
to see that the new era in Indonesia is trying to awake the national spirit with an active
promote of the new national heroes.
The national heroes of Indonesia are dominantly male – only 11 women entered the
list, which is only 7% of all the entries. From these eleven ladies – Kartini is the heroine
form Central Java whose day is celebrated as the Women Day in Indonesia. It is also
interesting to see that from these eleven women, two comes from Aceh – this is only sharia
ruled province in Indonesia and there are seven heroes from Aceh, which makes that one
third of Acehnese heroes are - heroines. The two controversial entries are Fatmawati –
second wife of Sukarno and Siti Hartinah – wife of Suharto who is declared heroine while
her husband was still ruling Indonesia in 1996 in the same year when she passed away. The
youngest declared hero is also heroine – Martha Cristina Tiahahu who died when she was
18 fighting the Dutch colonial powers in her native Moluccas.
Chart 3 – Age of
late national
heroes
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More than two thirds are people who had more than 50 years when they died. The
longest living hero is Abdul Kadir who died at the age of 104, Tuanku Tambusai lived 98
years, three more heroes lived more than 90 years, fourteen more than 80 years, and so on.
This shows that the majority of people who lived after their heroic acts did not compromise
themselves and they stayed in the good memory of the people who later propose them to
this title. It also shows that Indonesian culture in which elders are well respected part of the
community.
The idea of Indonesia appeared from the 20th century; nevertheless the national
heroes of Indonesia are also historical characters from the 17th century. Sultan Agung
(1591 – 1645) and Iskandar Muda (1593 – 1636) were born at the end of the 16th century.
The first one fought against the upcoming Dutch colonial powers trying to keep his
dominance over Java, and the second one was one of the greatest rulers of Aceh who
managed to expand territories of the sultanate and to make it a centre of Islamic learning
and trade.
They do not have too much in common, but
they are both historical characters that
Indonesian people (in this case the Javanese
and the Acehnese) are proud of, and they
are symbols of the local power, intelligence,
and the strength in contrast to the foreign
invaders. Chart 4 is showing the times when
Chart 4 – Hero’s Century
national heroes were living.
The majority (70%) are the people who lived and fight their battles in the 20th
century. Thus, Indonesia recognized its existence as nation from the 20th century, but also
does not want to give away its memory of people in the modern times (from the 17th
century). These people are considered as proto-Indonesians. Pangeran Diponegoro is one of
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those who „light the nation‟ and every local fighter against the Dutch along the Archipelago
is marked as „Diponegoro‟ of Sumba, Bali, etc.
Indonesia is dived in the 34 Provinces, the national heroes comes from all the parts
of Indonesia. Their geographical distribution is given in the charts below. It was hard to
make a easily readable chart with 34 provinces, so they were group in this manner: Sumatra
includes ten official Indonesian provinces which territory is either on Sumatra land (like
Jambi in central part or Aceh on north), or small archipelagos that gravitates toward it (Riau
Islands); Java and Sulawesi (with both having six Indonesian provinces in its territory);
Kalimantan (with five Indonesian provinces), Papua (with two) and other islands and
provinces are grouped in BNTNM (Bali, Nusa Tenggara islands, North Maluku and
Maluku).
The
chart
geographical
5
shows
distribution
of the heroes.
It
was
interesting to see and to
compare number of the
heroes with the number of
inhabitants of these islands.
Chart 5 – Geographical Distribution of Heroes
The chart 6 is showing this
comparison. We can see
that declared heroes are
ultimately political correct
and the number of declared
heroes almost fully support
the
number
of
people
living in the particular area
in Indonesia.
Chart 6 –
Geographical Distribution of Heroes and Population
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Chart 7 – Java and Heroes
Java is dominant in this way also, so it was interesting to see how the heroes are
distributed in this island. Chart 7 is showing this and reveals how Central Java and
Yogyakarta are dominant regions in Java for the national heroes.
West Java and Jakarta has greater population than these two provinces in Java,
but they are not backed with the national heroes. Similar findings are with Banten which
is western part of Java Island which has around 10 million people living there and there
is only one national hero there, while in Yogyakarta which is special city-province in
south-central Java there are around 3 million people and 17 national heroes. The ideas of
Indonesian nation were brought to light from the intelligentsia from Central Java (today
Central Java and Yogyakarta provinces) and the people from this region gave the biggest
contribution to the nation, both in the scholars and the fighters for this idea.
Sometimes it is hard to trace the national heroes by provinces, because most of them
moved during their lives. The procedure for declaring them national heroes said that the
people in respective provinces need to nominate them. Mirnawati (2013) divides heroes in
five categories which are related to their historical significance – Pahlawan Pejuangan
Kemeredekaan (The Heroes Who Fought for Independence – Proto-Indonesians),
Pahlawan Pergerakan Nasional (The Heroes of National Movement), Pahlawan Pembela
Kemerdekaan (The Heroes-Defenders of Independence), Pahlawan Revolusi (The Heroes
of Revolution who died in 1965), Pahlawan Nasional (The National Heroes – modern
historical figures), and Pahlawan Reformasi (The Reformation Heroes – four young men
who died in 12 May 1998 unrests).
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Chart 8 – Category of Heroes: Numerical and Percentage Value
Chart 10 – Category of Heroes based on key words, numerical value
Still there are some flaws in this taxonomy, especially with the first two categories
intervene each other. Chart 9 divides national heroes by key words that are attached to their
biography: Perjuangan (Struggle), Agama (Religion), Pembangunan (Development), Pers
(Mass Media), Integrasi (Integration), Pendidikan (Education), Seni (Art), Sastra
(Litarature),
Pergerakan
(Movement),
Revolusi
(Revolution),
Kemerdekaan
(Independence), Militer (Army), and Politik (Politics). Politics (50), Struggle (34), Army
(17) are three main key words connected to the national heroes. They are followed by
Independence (14), Religion (13), and Revolution (11). People from media and art have
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123
only one hero, people who work on integration have three entries, education and movement
are terms addressed to four people, and development and literature to five people. Majority
of terms are associated with the dynamic movement, action, changes, and those are the
terms related to the nation in the process and the transition. Hopefully, after 68 years of its
Independence Indonesia will see more heroes from the development, art, science, sport
category (last two do not have entry). Those categories are associated with the prosperity,
healthy competition, and stability.
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Poster of National Heroes in Indonesia as with 2011
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Language
Diponegoro
N L
P R
+
‫ب اإلن ج ل يزي ة‬
1
Arabic
► ►
(Diponegoro)
2
Banymasan
Dipanegara
►
蒂博尼哥罗
3
Chinese
► ►
(Diponegoro)
4
Dutch
Diponegoro
►
►
5
English
Diponegoro
► ►
6
Finish
Diponegoro
►
7
German
Diponegoro
►
8
Indonesian
Diponegoro
► ►
►
9
Javanese
Pangéran Dipanegara
► ►
디파 느 가라
10 Korean
►
►
(Diponegoro)
11 Malaysian
Diponegoro, Pangeran
►
12 Polish
Diponegoro
►
Дипонегоро
13 Russian
►
(Diponegoro)
14 Simple English
Diponegoro
►
Dipanegara (Siglo XIX)
15 Spanish
►
(Dipanegara – 19th century)
16 Turkish
Diponegoro
►
Java War
1
Azerbaijani
Yava müharibəsi (Java War)
►
2
Dutch
Java-oorlog (Java War)
►
►
3
English
Java War
►
4
French
Guerre de Java (Java War)
► ►
►
5
Indonesian
Perang Diponegoro (Diponegoro War)
►
►
6
Italian
Guerra di Giava (Java War)
► ►
►
7
Javanese
Perang Dipanegara (Diponegoro War)
►
8
Portuguese
Guerra de Java (Java War)
►
9
Russian
Яаванская война (Java War)
►
Chiến tranh Java (1825-1830)
10 Vietnamese
►
(Java War)
Legend: Entries on term Diponegoro and Java War, languages that have article (second column –
16 languages for Diponegoro and 10 for Java War), name of the article (third column), column N –
is for articles without illustrations, column L – is for one that are using lithography of Diponegoro
made by C. C. Anthony in 1835, column P – illustrate page with Pieneman‟s vision (1830-5),
column R – with Raden Saleh artwork (1857), and last column + uses different illustrations.
General-governor Hendrick Merkus de Kock has page in five languages: Dutch, English, German,
Indonesian, and Javanese. Only English page is illustrated with Pieneman‟s vision of Diponegoro‟s
submission together with Conelius Krusman portrait of baron de Kock. Other pages use only
Krusman‟s portrait (Dutch, Indonesian, and Javanese), while German page use only other portrait.
Nicolaas Pieneman (1809-1860) has page in five languages: Catalan, Dutch, English, German, and
Polish. Dutch page put his vision of Diponegoro‟s submission as his top five masterpieces; among
them is The Inauguration of William II of the Netherlands in Amsterdam on 28 November 1840
which is used to illustrate other pages as well.
Raden Saleh (1814 – 1880) has page in ten languages: Arabic, Dutch, English, French, German,
Indonesian, Italian, Javanese, Korean, and Sundanese. Only four of them (Arabic, French, Javanese,
and Sundanese) include other illustrations than Capture of Prince Diponegoro (1857) in their
articles about this painter.
Table 2 – Web visibility of key terms in this research from www.wikipedia.org
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One of the most used tool for high school students as reference to their papers and
researches are online encyclopaedias. Some, as the Britannica encyclopaedia have authors
of articles being an expert in their fields. The most common, and the biggest online
encyclopaedia is Wikipedia. It is created in 2001 and until now it has articles in more than
200 languages (and dialects) and more than 30 millions articles. Many critics about it are
concerned with its editing practise, because everyone is invite to contribute to this platform.
There are rules and the regulations about the quotes and guidelines how article should look
like, how to avoid plagiarism and so on. It is not common and welcomed research study
tool in any serious research. Some colleges and higher education institution strictly forbids
Wikipedia quotation. With all limitations and flaws that analysing Wikipedia contents can
occur, there are some interesting findings. If textbooks are analysed to see how one nation
and its educational system are shaping the young minds, Wikipedia is interesting to see
how global knowledge is presented to global audience.
First, two terms Diponegoro and the Java War were examined and other thing that
was analysed is what illustration is used to illustrate these two terms. Diponegoro has page
in 14 languages (with one entry to English and Simple English, and Banymasan is dialect
of the Javanese language). Authors writing in these languages used Diponegoro to name
their articles, Javanese (and Banymasan) and Spanish version named their articles Dipanegara. Spanish version also made a distinction referring to Diponegoro from the 19th
century, because there is also an article about Diponegoro from the 18th century, son of
Pakubuwono I. The version in Javanese names Diponegoro with his title – Pangeran
Dipanegara; version in Malaysian do same but with different writing Diponegoro,
Pangeran. Banymasan is considered as a „rude‟ version of Javanese, and usually people
who speak that dialect do not use kromo or madya (higher forms of Javanese) this is also
shown in name of article and omitting of the title.
The entries about Diponegoro usually have some illustrations. Only version in
Malaysian language and one in Banymasan do not have any illustrations. All other articles
(except Dutch one) used lithography made by C. C. Anthony in 1835. Seven articles used
only this illustration (articles in Finish, German, Polish, Russian, Simple English, Spanish,
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and Turkish), others have more illustrations. Next combination is an illustration with
lithography together with the Pieneman vision. This is the case for five pages: Arabic,
Chinese, English, Javanese, and Indonesian - which has more than these two illustrations.
This can be explained by copying and just translating the pages from either Simple English
or English page and use their design of the page.
It is striking that the Javanese page does not have more illustrations and content. It
is also interesting that the Indonesian page, have more illustrations and content, but it does
not include Raden Saleh artwork. The Dutch page is also reach in illustrations and content
(maybe the richest), and it is not surprise that this one not have Raden Saleh artwork. The
only page that uses this painting (together with lithography) is one written in Korean
language. It is disappointing to see that Indonesian and Javanese as main promoters of
Javanese (and Indonesian) culture and history do not use Raden Saleh artwork but continue
to copy other pages, or use some other illustrations instead of one that perfectly explains
their standing. This is also due to the lack of education in the painting and the art in the
educational system in Indonesia.
The Java War has pages in ten languages, and all except Indonesian and Javanese
call this war – the Java War. Indonesian and Javanese call it Perang Diponegoro
(Dipanegara) which means the Diponegoro War, which has dual meaning. One can be that
Diponegoro is acknowledge as a great leader and the war is named after him, other is that
Diponegoro and his supporters were fighting this war, not whole Java was included, and
not all Javanese were included. In both cases there is more justification for this war to be
called the Diponegoro War, rather than the Java War, which is term used by the Dutch.
After this war they gained control of Java, so for them this was war for Java – the Java war.
The two pages in Azerbaijani and Portuguese language do not have any
illustrations. Two pages – in French and Italian language are using lithography of
Diponegoro as one of the illustrations. These languages do not have separate page for
Diponegoro, so it is used as illustration of him. Other than two non-illustrations pages,
others use the Pieneman vision of Diponegoro‟s submission. There are four pages (Dutch,
French, Indonesian and Italian) that have more illustrations, but this time there is no page
that uses the Raden Saleh‟s vision.
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If there is a comfort in this small Wikipedia content research, General De Kock is
not a hero and he has three times less articles than Diponegoro. Javanese painter Raden
Saleh has two times more articles than the Dutch painter Nicolaas Pieneman (10 to 5).
These finding are explained more inside the table. There is possibility that Indonesian
person with good command of Arabic and Chinese could contribute to the more visibility
of Diponegoro and Raden Saleh, but there is still regret how Raden Saleh masterpiece is
rarely used and accessible via global network. During this study, Pieneman vision was
available to download in almost all the formats, while Saleh version had only news about
restoration.
The culture of one nation is now visible and available online. In the present day,
Indonesia is left behind in this process, but hopefully not for a long time. Good exception
for this rule is Indonesian Visual Art Archive (IVAA) which can be accessible from all
over the globe. In this small Wikipedia content research there was not entering for S.
Sudjojono, Agung Kurniawan, or Heri Dono, because their depiction of Pangeran
Diponegoro is not among their main artworks.
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_____. 2013b. Pangeran Diponegoro Menyaksikan Kemenangan, pp. 146-149 in
Supangkat, J. et al. Seabad S. Sudjojono.
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http://www.javafred.net/rd_enin_suprianto_1.htm. - 14.02.2014.
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_____2009. Bones of contention - The living archive of Vasil Levski and the making of
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SOURCE OF ILLUSTRATIONS
2. First Western Look at Pangeran Diponegoro
2.0. A. J. Bick, charcoal sketch, 1830 (scanned from Carey, 2008)
2.1. A. C. Anthony, lithography, 1830 (scanned from Carey, 2008)
2.2. Note of 100 Indonesian rupiah from 1952, source Web page of World Banknotes – 100
Rupiah 1952 – retrieved from: http://www.banknotes.com/ID46.JPG 08.02.2014.
3. Nicolaas Pieneman Submission of Diponegoro (1830-1835) from
https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/SK-A-2238 - Retrieved in 5. May 2013
3.0. Icon signs – Portraits of some of historical figures involved in this scene – Ibid.
3.1. Pangeran Diponegoro – Ibid.
3.2. General De Kock – Ibid.
3.3. Marks of Nation – Ibid.
3.4. People in Pienemaan‟s vision – Ibid.
3.5. Geography – Ibid.
3.6. (Un) Existing Symbol of Death – Ibid.
4.0. Batik Perang Diponegoro (Author‟s Photo from Batik Museum Danar Hadi, Solo)
4.1. Pangeran Diponegoro from Buku Kedung Kebo (scanned from Carey, 2008)
4.2. 16 years old Pangeran Diponegoro (scanned from Carey, 2008)
4.3. Wayang Diponegoro – Web encyclopedia about Kraton Jogjakarta http://kratonpedia.com/picturelight/2011/7/29/385/Wayang.Diponegoro.dari.Sono.Budoyo.html – 23.12.2013.
4.4. Wayang Diponegoro 2 – Jogjakarta‟s Info Portal http://infopublik.kominfo.go.id/album/91/foto-dalam-negeri-bulan-mei-2012/page/2 29.12.2013.
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5. Raden Saleh The Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro (1857)
5.0. First Sketch for The Arrest of Diponegoro (1856) cropped from Kraus, 2005
5.1. Icon signs– Portraits of some of historical figures involved in this scene, cropped from
Kraus, 2005
5.2. Pangeran Diponegoro Muda, Pangeran Diponegoro and General de Kock – photo from
Kraus, W. and Vogelsang, I. (2012)
5.3. Geography – Ibid.
5.4. People – Ibid.
6. Diponegoro as National Symbol in years after Independence (Periods of Liberal
Democracy and Guided Democracy led by President Sukarno – 1945-1965)
5.1. Equestrian Statue of Diponegoro in Monas (Monumen Nasional – National
Monument), Jakarta. Work of Italian sculptor Cobertaldo.
First photo is retrieved from Skyscraper forum about monuments in Jakarta:
http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=1486097 – 19.04.2014.
Second photo is retrieved from photo site Flickr:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/88774368@N00/6197349748/ - 15.05.2014.
5.2. Basuki Abdulah „Diponegoro Memimpin Pertempuran‟ (1940-1960) – accessed from
Indonesian Visual Art Archive (IVAA) available on: http://ivaa-online.org/ - 20.02.2014.
7. Pangeran Diponegoro in New Order Era (1966 – 1998)
6.1. Equestrian statue of Pangeran Diponegoro in main square (alun-alun) in Magelang
Google maps application – Panoramio: http://www.panoramio.com/photo/42035383 14.01.2013.
6.2. Sasana Wiratama (Pangeran Diponegro Museum Complex) in Tegalrejo, Jogjakarta
Web portal for tourism in Jogjakarta (In Indonesian)
http://yogyakarta.panduanwisata.com/wisata-sejarah-2/museum-sasana-wiratama-tempattinggal-bangasawan-pangeran-diponegoro-melawan-pejajah-belanda/ - 12.02.2014.
6.3. Equestrian statue of Pangeran Diponegoro in front of gate of Universitas Diponegoro
(University) in Semarang
Blog about life in Semarang: http://seputarsemarang.com/photo-gallery/patung_kuda/ 12.02.2014.
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8. S. Sudjojono: Diponego (1979)
8.0. One of the sketches – from IVAA
8.1. Author‟s photo of artwork from book Seabad S. Sudjojono 1913 -2013 (Supangkat et
al., 2013)
8.2. Photo of artwork from book Visible Soul Sidharta, A. 2006 – accessed from IVAA
8.3. Icon Signs: Portraits of Kyahi Mojo, Pangeran Diponegoro and Sentot – from sketch –
author‟s photo from Supangkat et al. (2013)
8.4. From artwork – Ibid.
8.5. From notes – Ibid.
9. S. Sudjojono. 1979. Pasukan Kita Yang Dipimpin Pangeran Diponegoro (Our Soldiers
Led Under Prince Diponegoro) – from Sotheby‟s auction catalogue (Chuan, 2014)
10. Djajeng Asmoro. 1980. Pangeran Diponegoro. Scanned from book Mulyadi, E. (edt.)
The Journey of Indonesian Painting. 2008. Jakarta: Bentara Budaya
11. Agung Kurniawan. 1994. Homage to Prince Diponegoro – from slide collection of
IVAA
10.1. Pangeran Diponegoro (detail) – Ibid.
10.2. Kesatria Baja Hitam (Kamen Rider Black) – Japanese superhero – retrieved from
Blog entry – My favorite superhero when I was kid…
http://andyhastiono.blogspot.com/2010/09/film-favorit-gw-waktu-kecil.html - 09.03.2014.
12. Heri Dono. 2007. Salah Tangkap Pangeran Diponegoro – IVAA
13. Heri Dono. 2002. Raden Saleh Jadi Londo – scanned from Kraus, 2005
14. Heri Dono. 2009. The Error of Pieneman‟s Perspective – from Arif Wibowo, Tempo
magaize - http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2009/07/22/114188358/Respons-TerhadapKengawuran - 20.03.2014.
14.1. Pangeran Diponegoro meets General de Kock, from Opera Diponegoro – from
official page of sponsor of Opera Diponegoro - Djarum Foundation http://www.djarumfoundation.org/galeri_foto_details.php?page=budaya&album=0&id=197
3&hal=3 - 15.02.2014.
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14.2. Dramatic reading about Pangeran Diponegoro, Satu Lingkar Web page about art,
design, and culure. Article written by Yuli Yanti
http://satulingkar.com/detail/read/9/2539/kisah-kesederhanaan-sang-pangeran - 10.02.2014.
14.3. Indieguerillas 2012. This Hegemony Life, from official site of Indieguerillas http://indieguerillas.com/2012/09/19/this-hegemony-life-1/ - 06.06.2014.
14.4. Manga-like Diponegoro
(first picture from - http://www.deviantart.com/morelikethis/10415843?view_mode=2 –
22.02.2014, second picture is author‟s photo)
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