How to adapt pedagogical practices Introduction Golab Discussion Paper n. 3

Transcription

Golab Discussion Paper n. 3
How to adapt pedagogical practices
Introduction
The main objective of the Go-Lab project is to create an educationally integrated
infrastructure (the Go-Lab platform and portal), which will provide access to a set of
online, remote and virtual labs, tools and datasets from worldwide renowned research
organizations, universities and institutions. These online labs can be used by
universities, schools, instructors, educators, teachers, students and lifelong learners to
extend regular learning activities with scientific experiments that can be conducted not
only by teachers as a demonstration, but also by students themselves giving them real
experience of scientific work. Thus the overall goal of the Go-Lab project is to provide
students an opportunity to gain hands-on experience in science and scientific research
by conducting experiments using online or virtual modern laboratory equipment, deepen
their knowledge in fundamental sciences, and to motivate them for making scientific
careers in the future.
To accomplish this goal the project has to provide not only the technical infrastructure
but also to chart the emerging trends, opportunities and challenges in the use of online
labs from school communities, through a carefully coordinated, intensive process of
critical forward thinking among all members of the consortium as well as other renowned
academics and field experts invited to participate.
This discussion paper is the third of a series of six “Challenges and Opportunities
Papers” that are developed, in the framework of the Go-Lab Project, to reflect on
changing science education in Europe. It aims to present the key challenges, issues,
trends, uncertainties and where possible, alternative future trajectories that might
emerge in the area of adaptation of pedagogical practices.
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Golab Discussion Paper “How to adapt pedagogical practices”
1.
Why we need to adapt pedagogical practices
Some of the most urgent questions requiring an answer in the world of education
relate to the fact that education is often unappealing to young people and to the
difficulties many students have in learning. Many students find it difficult to finish their
education, some get through it only after having experienced disappointment and
demotivation and others eventually give up altogether and drop out of school.
These are crucial questions that all those who work in the field of education - at
different levels and with various qualifications- have to deal with.
Motivation is a crucial element in teaching-learning processes: not only for the pure act
of learning, but specially because generates or feeds our ability to learn. Therefore, as
this has a very positive role in the performance, the teacher should have it in mind in the
design of the didactic strategies and methodology and in curriculum implementation.
Usually we distinguish between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, trying to
diversify the origin and cause of the motivation. We will present them briefly:
a) Intrinsic
Arises from the satisfaction that emerges from the activity itself, in our case could be
learning. In other words, motivation can be intrinsic if causes us satisfaction or awakens
our interest. In this case we would have a desire to understand, assimilate, discover,
question because of how rewarding it is learning to us.
b) Extrinsic Motivation
This is produced by factors external to the activity, as in the case of rewards and
punishments. In this case, the motivation may be extrinsic when moving towards
achieving something for the benefits that we can support. The motivating factors are
external, or outside, rewards such as money or grades. These rewards provide
satisfaction and pleasure that the task itself may not provide.
It is important to point out that in our daily life (and also in learning processes) both
types of motivation interact and both have a major importance in our desire and will to
learn. The reason for this is because there are subject-oriented learning goals and
subject-oriented performance goals. The former are more likely to be based on intrinsic
motivation and the extrinsic motivation the second ones.
2
No doubt that between the two, intrinsic motivation is much more valuable and more
complex. Within it we have the emotional or affective motivation, high-impact, defined as
the slope more or less intense than in the student produces praise or blame, for
example: satisfaction or dissatisfaction you may experience. This type of motivation,
along with the intellectual (supported in knowledge of results), is usually the most
convenient according to investigations. Today, however, also reaches a high profile and
importance the social motivation derived from teamwork or collaborative work.
Academic activities always have more than one meaning, as they contribute to the
achievement of different goals. However, not all goals are equally important for each
student. This varies in importance depending on their personal orientation and the
different situations they encounter on it throughout their educational itinerary. Therefore,
taking into account that different targets often have opposite effects on the results of the
learning experience, it seems important to know which are those effects so you know
how to help improving the motivation of your students.
The basic meaning that should surround the act of learning is that by itself increases the
capacities and competences of the learners, making them more competent, and by
doing so enjoying it. When this happens we say that the student works intrinsically
motivated, being able to stay absorbed in his work, overcoming boredom and anxiety,
looking for help and information spontaneously if really needed to solve the problems
encountered, reaching to the point self-regulating their learning process. So, the
question at this point is: how as a teacher can I help my students getting to this position
of intrinsic motivation? There are some elements that play a key role on that purpose,
amongst them:
Try to make the learning experience functional to the student: to learn something
useful. It is fundamental that we are able of making aware our students about
why it is important and useful, in short and long term, what we propose them to
learn
Try to use the learning experience as a tool to increase the self-esteem and
empowerment of the student
Base your methodologies on significant learning approaches rather than memory
and repetitive activities and methods
Collaborate with the students in the planning of the learning process and try not
to make them feel the imposition of it
Establish personal relationship with the students deeper than the teacher-learner
one
Make them aware of the fact that learning is a process that does not finish in a
certain moment and place, and so it not a goal or a finality in itself
Make them co-responsible of their learning experiences
3
2.
What is the desired future?
In order to identify the roadmap that will lead to the ability of adaptation of
pedagogical practices, we need to define the main aspects to be acquired before
moving to a desired future.
Our main focus will be on the understanding of the learning continuum, on the
understanding of different learning strategies, on the understanding of the
importance of planning, plus the understanding of working on a planning model.
2.1 Understanding of the learning continuum
As the Council Resolution stated 1” lifelong learning must cover learning from the
pre-school age to that of post-retirement, including the entire spectrum of formal,
non-formal and informal learning. Furthermore, lifelong learning must be understood
as all learning activity undertaken throughout life, with the aim of improving
knowledge, skills and competences within a personal, civic social and/or
employment-related perspective., Finally the principles in this context should be: the
individual as the subject of learning highlighting the importance of an authentic
equality of opportunities and quality in learning”.
What has to be underlined clearly and strongly, is that in principle we cannot take for
granted that formal learning is synonymous with quality assurance and non-formal
and informal learning, since less structured and not so controlled, are not. On the
contrary that formal educational system is so structured and rigid that it can be seen
as repressive, too costly, generally cognitive and not able to support people’s
attitudes to becoming active life-long learners.
We can find excellent examples of valuable learning experiences in all three
formats.
In contrast, we can find people who perceive their past formal background as a
disastrous experience and they see themselves as failed learners. Alternatively we
can find informal and non-formal learning situations in which quality and the positive
results depend on variables which are not predefined and/or stable.
1
Official Journal of the European Communities “Council Resolution” of 27 June 2002 on Lifelong Learning
(2002/c 163/01)
4
It can be underlined that procedures and methods to design, assure, control and
assess the quality of learning and teaching experiences in formal settings have been
considered relevant in the policy agenda at European level. Less awareness and
effort have been given to introduce and assure quality approaches and tools in nonformal and informal learning sectors.
If we look at the three
elements/characteristics.
learning
formats
of
we
can
identify different
Some learning activities may be perceived as belonging exclusively to one format,
but they also may share aspects of the others.
In other words, each characteristic belongs to a continuum in which the effort to
define it within a specific format is more related to the need of labelling or classifying
than to read the real and concrete way the learning experiences are taking place.
There is a lot “informal” in the formal setting and vice versa there is a lot “formal” in
informal and non formal learning experiences.
The key issue involves how all three learning formats can be integrated and seen as
a
means
of
providing
a
unique
path/strategy
for
individualpersonal/organisational/societal development. The success element is determined
by the way each learning format can communicate and dialogue with the others, how
informal-and non-formal can be integrated in formal learning and how they can serve
and benefit the others.
CONTINUUM
INFORMAL/NON FORMAL/FORMAL
Tacit
Base
Knowledge
Explicit
Base
Knowledge
Non Documented
Documented
Unstructured
Structured
Accidental
Intentional
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Inductive
Deductive
Active
Passive
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Spontaneous
Planned
Self-Evaluation
Etero Evaluation
Not
Formalised
Recognition
and
Credit
Transfer
System
Agreed Recondition
System and Credit
Transfer
In particular:
Tacit Knowledge (TK) Base versus Explicit Knowledge Base: “Knowledge that
enters into the production of behaviours and/or the constitution of mental states but
is not ordinarily accessible to consciousness”. As Michael Polanyi (1967: 4) wrote in
The Tacit Dimension, we should start from the fact that 'we can know more than we
can tell'2. TK is a kind of hidden knowledge, which according to Polanyi can't be fully
specified by words (with language), which can only be shown, demonstrated by
actions”
“Informal Learning on the other hand is a kind of learning which proceeds both
unintentionally and "unconsciously" (better: without focal awareness) and can't
therefore be provided by pure language (transfer of words)” 3.
As it can be seen there is a strong connection between Informal Learning and Tacit
Knowledge, nevertheless there are experiences in non-formal setting which are
based on “explicit knowledge”.
At the same time, in formal setting the concept of tacit knowledge is not unknown
(even thought the dominant parading based on explicit knowledge) and didactic
methods applied such as discovery-learning, problem solving assignment can help
learner to use the tacit knowledge and to transform it in “explicit knowledge” and to
apply it in real tasks.
2
3
http://www.infed.org/thinkers/polanyi.htm
http://www.peter.baumgartner.name/addedValuesPI/stories/storyReader$832
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Non Documented versus documented and Unstructured versus structured:
Even thought the most common delivery way of the informal learning format are noncourse- based activities (e.g. talks or presentations, discussion, information, advice
and guidance) it is possible to find also planned and structured learning such as
short courses organized in response to identified interests and needs but delivered in
flexible and informal ways and in informal community settings. The key issues in
non-formal and informal settings is to introduce measures and procedures, which
can provide evidence, keep record and give visibility and recognition to the learning
occurred.
Accidental versus intentional, Active versus Passive, Intrinsic versus
exstinsic, Spontaneus versus planned:
By definition the informal learning is accidental, active, intrinsic and spontaneous and
these characteristics allow people with a non successful education background but
having interests, needs and priorities to start to gain knowledge/improve competence
and act in a learning environments which is less structured and less similar to the
previous school experience. The strength element is really related to the fact that
informal and non—formal learning can play a key role to make people to get back to
learn, to re-discover the pleasure and the joy of learning, to rebuilt self-esteem as
learner and to help them to approach formal learning with a different view.
Inductive versus deductive
The distinction is based on the learning process itself rather than on the effect of the
process i.e. the nature of the learning achieved. The distinction is 'input' based rather
than 'outcome' based.
In the majority of informal Learning experiences the process is largely inductive, the
source of information is through 'acting' (Active Experimentation) or 'observing'
(Reflective Observation,). In the majority of traditional Learning environment, the
source of information is 'symbolic' and is gained via lectures, tutorials, reading etc,
and the process is largely deductive.
As we mentioned before, we can find formal setting in which the content/subject
matters (e.g. physic, chemistry, technical,) and the objectives allow teachers to
choose a more deductive approaches in their didactics.
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Self-Evaluation versus etero-evaluation: in the informal learning the most adopted
methodology for assessing the learning occurred is based on a self-assessment
process. The process helps the learner to reflect on the path and on the
achievements and recognise the changes. In defining the results and the outcomes it
is important to take into consideration that a positive learning experience (in informal
settings) can often lead to outcomes such as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Significant increased self-confidence and self-esteem;
Perception and identification of themselves as learners,
Development of knowledge and understanding
Improved personal and social skills
Greater personal autonomy
New practical skills
Involvement in further learning in different places and at different levels
Wider involvement in the local community (more active citizenship).
Changes in personal life and quality of life.
Nevertheless a more structured approach, in particular for those who would like to
have the outcomes formally recognised is obviously necessary. Etero-assessment
could be done by different means and ways. Etero-evaluation can be introduce
within the informal learning by bringing in a great level of flexibility and the
personalisation (e.s. learning portfolio) that is fundamental for capturing the richness
of the experiences and do not discourage the learner who may feel the fear xof
failure with pre-established and standard assessment procedure.
The key concept is base on the fact that “learning” is “learning” whenever and
wherever took place.
One immediate consequence of an acceptance that an integrated process is
appropriate within an education/ training system is that ‘learning itself’ is placed at
the centre of the education process. Also, because of the wide range of
circumstances in which it is acknowledged that learning can take place, the
workplace or living space of the learner can be viewed as a potentially rich learning
environment. A further implication for education/training providers is that they should
devote a significant effort to maximise the opportunity afforded by such environments
for the optimisation of the learning, which can take place within them. An inevitable
consequence of this approach is that equal recognition must be given to learning
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whether it is gained formally in the classroom situation or informally through general
work and life experience.
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2.2 Understanding of different learning strategies
Education needs to wake up learners’ attention by means of their positive emotional
feeling and to encourage student’s interest in science and technology.
Teachers should be creative, motivated and design methods to increase the interest
of the students for science. It is necessary to promote a dynamic engagement of the
learners. The main objective of teachers should be the promotion of learners
independence and autonomy. In this way, the students can experience a wide
repertoire of learning practices and strategies to learn, including those that result
more engaging and motivating.4
It is important so to produce a methodology for helping teachers to upgrade their
current science teaching practices by using eLearning tools and resources and by
designing and presenting inquiry based educational activities in a structured and
simple way. The proposed methodology will also aim to describe ways of improving
key competences of teachers like using new technologies in daily practice,
organizing learning opportunities for students and dealing with students’
heterogeneity. Have been identified nine main science inquiry processes supported
by different computer environments: orienting and asking questions; generating
hypotheses; planning; investigating; analysing and interpreting; exploring and
creating models; evaluating and concluding; communicating; predicting. Such an
organisation could help teachers to support the development of partial abilities of the
students. Teachers need such tools (with clear educational objectives) that allow
them to orchestrate the implementation of an activity based on their students needs.
Such tools have to support inquiry and the development of problem solving skills by
allowing users to personalize the experience as much as possible by deploying
different eLearning tools and developing learning pathways and their own inquiry
strategies. In the inquiry scenarios we will also include career orientations. The
intention is to shows students the excitement and challenge of doing science and
this will encourage them to choose science studies in the future. To enhance the
aspect further the design of the proposed activities will include interactive career
counselling approaches in order to increase awareness of the value of studying
science among students by demonstrating potential career opportunities.5
4
http://www.tlrp.org/pub/documents/TLRP_Schools_Commentary_FINAL.pdf
Project: Large Scale Experimentation Scenarios to Mainstream eLearning in Science, Mathematics and
Technology in Primary and Secondary Schools, 2013 (Acronym: Inspiring Science)
5
10
When education increases its focus on individual autonomy, meta-cognition and
critical thinking, the role of teachers is expected to shift from transmitting knowledge
to facilitating individual and reflective approaches to learning and knowledge
building. Less standardization in teaching is required. Key teacher competences
include the capacity to articulate the teaching/learning process in all its phases
(identification of needs, design and implementation, evaluation) adapting it to
individual and group needs.
The orchestrating role of teachers includes the definition of original and personalized
learning contexts which respond to differentiated learning needs and paces, and fully
profit of the opportunities offered by ICT. Digital competences (and their continuous
update) are obviously essential to make this possible and increasingly affect also the
capacity to produce, share and remix Education Resources.
The shift towards increased learner-centered approaches in education requires
teacher to be able to fully build on and value the life-wide learning experience of
students, being able to understand and master the continuum between learning
contexts. The “playing field” of formal education - including school - is getting
broader and requires teachers to develop competences to bridge the gap between
the “in and out” of formal education. In the case of science education, the capacity to
use and integrate external opportunities such as science labs, science centres and
museums, outdoor learning experiences is fundamental.
Collaborative, informal and peer learning are increasingly widespread practices in
the teaching community. ICT offers teachers the opportunity to share ideas and
resources in social communities, find learning resources online as well as
opportunities for their own professional development.
Experimentations and
innovations in teaching are already increasingly capitalized through teacher
networking.6
6
Project: Vision, Scenarios, Insights and Recommendations on how ICT may help making lifelong learning a reality
for all, 2011 (Acronym: Visir)
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2.3 Understanding of the importance of planning
It seems a truism, but it should be clear that planning is a fundamental moment of
classroom teaching process. We cannot imagine that an engineer or architect to build a
project without a detailed plan of action, just as, when we want to generate significant
knowledge students should be organized clearly all steps to ensure success.
The teaching task has a main characteristic of unpredictability. Often the minds of
students, some external event or any news should encourage the reformulation of
everyday practice. As to have the flexibility necessary, it is required that the action plan
is clear, flexible and proactive.
Planning it is fundamental to organize and conduct the learning processes necessary to
achieve educational goals.
Many times we have seen the process and planning tools only as a requirement by the
authorities, but the idea is that teachers internalize that this resource will help organizing
your work and save time.
In addition, instructional planning to reflect and make timely decisions, offers a guide
about what are the needs of students, how to organize methodological strategies,
interrogates if plans and processes of learning should be acquired by all and to which
extent, and thus gives attention to the diversity of students.
Another important aspect of planning is the preparation of a didactic learning
environment that allows teachers to design situations where student interactions arise
spontaneously and collaborative learning can be optimal. It also states that good
planning:
•
Avoids improvisation and reduces uncertainty (so teachers and students know
what to expect from each class);
• Unifies criteria for greater coherence in the efforts of teaching within institutions;
• Ensures efficient use of time;
• Coordinates the participation of all stakeholders in the educational process;
• Combines different teaching strategies focused on the daily (group activities,
case teaching, problem-based learning, debates, projects) for students to make
connections that give meaning to their learning.
Planning should begin with a reflection on what the capabilities and limitations of the
students, their experiences, interests and needs, the subject being treated and its logical
structure (selecting, sequencing and rank), resources, what is the purpose of the issue
and how it will be addressed.
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Essential elements in developing instructional planning:
Educational planning should not be limited to a single format. Therefore, you must take
into account the following elements in the order that the institution and / or teacher deem
appropriate:
•
Informative data: contains aspects like area, school level, the course, title,
duration, start date and end date, among others.
• Specific educational objectives, are given by the teacher and seek to
contextualize the updating, accomplishment and strengthening of the General
Curriculum.
• Skills with performance criteria: Found in the curriculum document. Its importance
in planning is that contains the skills, knowledge and the diverse levels of
accomplishment.
• Methodological strategies: are related to the activities of teachers, students and
assessment processes. Must be related to curriculum components mentioned
above.
• Essential indicators of assessment: based in the national curriculum which must
be met by all students in the country at the end of a school year. These indicators
will be evident in assessment activities that allow learning to collect and validate
with specific records.
• Resources: are the elements necessary to carry out the planning. It is important
to use resources detailing, not general enough to include as "readings", but must
be identified the text and bibliography. This will analyze the resources above and
ensure its relevance to the achievement of performance criteria skills is
guaranteed. In addition, where appropriate, resources must be contained in a file,
as a backup.
• Bibliography: will include all library resources used in the teaching-learning
process, i.e. bibliographic materials used Internet and both students and
teachers. This is important to create in the country a culture of respect for
intellectual property rights. Bibliographic resources are varied, depending on the
socio-geographical context of the institution, however, is suggested to include a
bibliography, but this is minimal.
• Key indicators and evaluation skills: related to performance criteria and teachinglearning strategies relevant to the teaching situation to be planned, considering
the attention to diversity.
In general terms, teachers seek to integrate its planning knowledge with other areas
where appropriate and without forcing or create interdisciplinary relationships exist.
Successful planning has to be flexible and adapt to permanent changes as the situation
demands. To check if the schedule is met, must constantly monitor, verify, rethink
and adjust all elements, with the aim that students achieve mastery of skills with
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different performance criteria. The teacher should therefore be open to make
adjustments, in order to further planning.
It is most effective to use a variety of assessment and evaluation techniques. The
techniques selected will depend upon students’ learning styles, the curriculum objectives
and the intended purpose of the assessment. Students must be given opportunities to
demonstrate the extent of their knowledge, abilities and attitudes in a variety of ways. In
this respect there are some crucial elements when assessing the planning process:
•
•
•
•
•
It is important for teachers to communicate assessment and evaluation plans and
criteria to students in advance, informing the students of the objectives to be
assessed and assessment procedures to be used. Whenever possible and
appropriate, students should have opportunities to input into developing the
assessment criteria.
Assessment and evaluation should be fair and equitable, demonstrating
sensitivity to student, family, school and community situations. Techniques and
tools should be sensitive to cultural and gender requirements, and be free of bias.
Assessment and evaluation should help students. They should provide positive
feedback and encourage students to participate actively in their own assessment
in order to foster lifelong learning and enable students to transfer knowledge and
abilities to their life experiences.
Assessment and evaluation data should be communicated to students and
parents/ guardians regularly, in a variety of meaningful ways (e.g., descriptive
written comments, portfolio samples, parent-teacher interviews).
Using a variety of techniques and tools, teachers collect assessment information
about students’ development as learners. The data gathered during assessment
becomes the basis for an evaluation. Comparing assessment and evaluation
information to curriculum objectives allows teachers to make decisions about
further instructional requirements.
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2.4 Understanding of working on a planning model
We consider planning both as process planning and at the same time as the product of
that process. As a process, it involves our thoughts to generate a set of routines, scripts
and mental plans, whether or not it is expressed in written program. This means
anticipating, organize and decide action, consider beforehand for example, which
activities I will do with this group?, how can I teach such a topic? how to increase the
interest of students? etc.
It is important that all these thoughts are not just mentally represented, it is fundamental
that we make them operational and we register it by writing them in a planning
document. When writing we make explicit our overall proposal, the result of our thoughts
and decisions, and this is the moment in which the process becomes a product. A
question that can arise now is why has to be written? There are many reasons why it is
considered important registering the planning:
•
•
•
Organizes thinking coherently and consistently
Allows communication, analysis and modification of the process
Enables the comparison and contrast with other educational processes (past and
present)
• Facilitates reflection for decision-making and reformulation, change, improvement
• Allows immediate and constant access to an instrumental basic for the students
and teachers in organizing their practices.
• Helps ensure that you teach what you want to teach.
• Promotes the search for coherence between the various educational components
As summary, planning:
•
•
•
Represents the explanation of the proposal of the task you want to develop;
Is the advance and forecast of events and results;
Organizes and guides pedagogical practices pedagogical (teaching and learning)
in a time and certain space;
• Is manifested through a design and registration of what commonly called planning
document.
The plan is part of an institution, concrete and particular, and immersed in a social and
political context. In other words, educational planning is not an isolated incident but must
consider its place in relation to the different levels of specification educational decisions.
From a macro-institutional level, curriculum design specification level is the most general
and main frame for school practices. It is relevant considering issues about culture and
school dynamics (relationships and linkages, information flows, exchange-spaces for
discussion, communication, etc.). The school curriculum has to be based on the national
policies but has to adapt also the specifications of the institution. All these elements
(macro level framed in the national policies, and the institutional level based on the
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school curriculum) should be taken into consideration when planning the educational
process.
It is also crucial taking into consideration the group of students as the planning has to
intended for a particular student group, and this implies therefore making adjustments
and adaptations, for which we need to have some kind of information the group with
which we will work, including:
•
•
•
Group size (number of students)
The social and cultural context of the students
Prior knowledge related to what is to be taught
So, the curriculum, the institution and the group provide relevant information to
contextualize the planning process. By attending to these elements, planning facilitates
consideration of viable proposals.
Through making explicit the planning what we intend to do in the classroom, although
we make a high quality task and although we intend to cover all aspects, many times
this task hardly reflects the richness of it all happen. It is impossible to "control" and take
into account all the variables that come into play in a pedagogical practice. What
happens in the classroom is always more complex and unpredictable than what we can
plan.
In other words, planning is a reference but does not answer everything. The complexity
and unpredictability of educational practices requires the ability to adapt to
circumstances and be prepared to change if necessary. Accordingly, even in its
dimension planning as product is never fully completed and closed. The everyday reality
often imposes rethinking and re-orientating the proposed plan. Therefore, flexibility is
necessary first of all when planning.
The planning and design means reflecting on what to teach, why, how, by what, when,
etc.. That is, explicit content, objectives, teaching strategies, learning activities,
resources, evaluation forms.
Each of these components make sense for their involvement and relationship with
others so that leads to an objective, an activity or resource that requires specific
teaching strategy and it is possible to develop such content, etc.. So, planning is an
integrated system, an organized one whose parts or elements are interrelated and are
consistent. The basic parts or elements or components are:
•
The objectives
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• Content
• Activities
• The resources
• Evaluation
Certainly, there are some questions that we can incorporate into the planning, which are
connected with the above components:
•
•
What am I going to teach this group, why and for what?
How is related to the content of previous years? How I can build bridges between
the previous year and the new teaching?
• What are the basic knowledge and prerequisites for better understanding of the
subject?
• How to organize content so that they express significant relationships? (Take into
account the concept of concept map)
• How to identify students' prior knowledge on the subject?
• What activities proposed regarding the subject, the student group, time,
resources, etc.? How to organize and sequence them?
• What role I play in each of the situations?
• How to organize the class in terms of the types of spaces and groupings of
students?
• What resources story, what I need and what I use or I have to elaborate?
• How will I introduce the topic?
• What type of work selected: workshop, seminar, class?
• How to spark interest in students?
• How can I evaluate and certify learning?
Based on the work of Gagne (1985), this classification and guide has been extensively
used and quoted during the last years. Gagne's book, The Conditions of Learning, first
published in 1965, identified the mental conditions for learning. These were based on
the information processing model of the mental events that occur when learners are
presented with various stimuli. Gagne generated a nine-step process called the events
of instruction, which are associated to and address the conditions of learning.
Gagne’s 9 Events of Instruction
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Gain attention
Inform learners of objectives
Stimulate recall of prior learning
Present the content
Provide "learning guidance"
Elicit performance (practice).
Provide feedback
Assess performance
Enhance retention and transfer to the job
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The following information includes an explanation of each of the 9 events as well as
examples of how an instructor may apply the 9 Events of Instruction in the development
and instruction of a regular enrolment course.
1. Gain attention: Functions to obtain the students' attention so that they will watch
and listen, while the instructor presents the learning content.
o Utilize ice breaker activities, current news and events, brainstorming, case
studies, YouTube videos, and so on. The object is to quickly grab student
attention and interest in the topic.
2. Inform learners of objectives: Allows the students to organize their thoughts
and around what they are about to see, hear, and/or do.
o Include learning objectives in lecture slides, the syllabus, and in
instructions for activities, projects, papers, and so on.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning: Allows the students to build on their previous
knowledge or skills.
o Recall events from previous lecture, integrate results of activities into the
current topic, relate previous information to the current topic.
4. Present the content:
o Utilize a variety of methods including lecture, readings, activities, projects,
multimedia, and others.
5. Provide "learning guidance": Provides student instructions on how to learn
such as in guided activities. With learning guidance, the rate of learning increases
because students are less likely to lose time or become frustrated by basing
performance on incorrect facts or poorly understood concepts.
o Include detailed information such as rubrics in projects. Provide
expectations, instructions, and timelines.
6. Elicit performance (practice): Allows students to apply knowledge and skills
learned.
o Allow students to apply knowledge in group or individual projects and
activities, written assignments, lab practices, and so on.
7. Provide feedback: Allows students to receive feedback on individualized tasks,
thereby correcting isolated problems rather than having little idea of where
problems and inconsistencies in learning are occurring.
o Provide detailed feedback on assignments showing students what was
done correctly, what must be improved, and why. Utilize rubrics when
possible. Give formative (practice) feedback as well as on assessments.
8. Assess performance: Allows students to see content areas that they have not
mastered.
o Utilize a variety of assessment methods including exams/quizzes, written
assignments, projects, and so on. Utilize rubrics when grading activities
that are not standard exam and quiz questions.
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job: Allows the student to apply
information to personal contexts. Increases retention by personalizing
information.
18
o
Provide opportunities for students to relate the work to their personal
experiences such as in how essays and projects are structured.
An example on how to use the Nine Events process in our teaching:
1. Gain attention
o Present a new problem or situation.
o Use an interesting way to gain attention such as:
Demonstration
Comedy
Case Study
Presenting a Problem to be solved
Storytelling
Debate
Polls
Images or Graphics
Video or Audio clips
2. Inform learners of objectives
o Describe the goal of a lesson.
o State what the learners will be able to accomplish and how they will be
able to transfer the knowledge to their own interests.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning
o Remind the students of prior knowledge relevant to the current lesson.
o Provide the students with a framework that helps learning and
remembering.
4. Present the content
o Utilize a variety of methods such as lecture, mediasite, blogs, wikis,
podcasts, multimedia such as YouTube presentations, and so on.
5. Provide "learning guidance"
o Provide the student with instructions on how to learn.
o Give detailed instructions and expectations
6. Elicit performance (practice)
o Provide students with activities that provide students with appropriate
feedback to improve their learning.
o Activities may include debate, discussion, case studies, brainstorming,
concept mapping, reflection papers, and so on.
7. Provide feedback
o Provide quick and detailed feedback that specifically addresses what is
being done correctly and what is being done incorrectly.
o Utilize relevant technologies such as rubrics, change tracking, and others
to provide timely and detailed feedback.
8. Assess performance
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job
19
o
o
3.
Inform the student about similar problem situations and provide
opportunities for the student to transfer learned knowledge in addressing a
new problem.
Provide additional practice that allows students to apply information in
personal contexts.
How to change
Introducing innovative learning pathways in a single classroom is a meaningful
micro-innovation and may not be easy, but the well know challenge is scaling-up
innovation from a classroom to a school, from a school to a network of innovative
schools, from the innovation network to potentially all schools.
In order to do that a combination of top-down initiatives from Governments and
bottom-up experiences generated at school level is necessary. Go-Lab is trying to
offer a platform for collaboration in which major national and international science
resources and laboratories are offered to schools in order to stimulate their capacity
to innovate at grass root level, and their capacity to collaborate and compare their
experiences, also contributing to the creation of new resources and learning
pathways.
In order to be successful, also the capacity to assess innovation results has to be
developed and shared among all involved schools and stakeholders: when good
results are achieved, they need to be shared, when difficulties prove unbeatable, this
also need to be shared to strengthen the long-term capacity to innovate.
Without the shared ownership of innovation, any good project risks to produce only
short term results.
It is well established that people learn better in non-conflictual or non-threatening
environments which provide stability and comfort. Providing such an environment
should be one of the first priorities for any teacher at any level. The classroom
should be a shared, safe and welcoming environment that belongs to both the
teacher and the students, a community. This is a key element and too often the
classroom becomes threatening to one or other of the parties and degenerates in to
a battleground rather than a place of learning. The exercise of authority by the
teacher should relate to creating a safe haven for learning. Students need to feel
welcome and this necessitates that teachers make a reasonable effort to understand
the diversity of their students, their backgrounds and interests. This should be done
as early as possible in the process. Understanding or at least having an idea of what
20
might be the special needs, learning preferences and styles of newly arriving
students allows teachers to reach out and connect better with the students from the
start. Where possible teachers should try and evaluate the prior experiences and
knowledge that have had the potential to shape the attitudes and behaviours of the
individual students and that in turn may influence the dynamic of the classroom. In
so doing the teacher can proactively manage the classroom identifying potential
synergies and where necessary adopt risk mitigation to ensure the harmony of the
learning environment is maintained. Furthermore, prior knowledge of student
background and experience allows the teacher create or develop group structures
based on shared interests or backgrounds as well as the positive aspects of diversity
where such are considered beneficial to the group Students should be encouraged
to talk about themselves and their educational goals and asked to outline (write
down or talk about) their hopes and or concerns with respect to their new class. Ask
students how they learn best. Such initial activities also provide important indicators
with respect to communication skills or issues relating to lack of confidence and
shyness etc and provide the teacher with the opportunity to identify special needs or
requirements which necessitate the integration of particular strategies in the
approach taken with individual students.
The time taken to learn about each other can also prove beneficial to the students.
Through the sharing of information relating to their backgrounds and experience
students are given the opportunity to encounter and appreciate diversity. Learning is
an active process in which, students are involved in a creative act, constructing
meaning based on their own prior experiences and new information. In mixed group
classes (background, age, experience etc) students should be encouraged to
understand and appreciate what skills or abilities each can contribute to the learning
process and how to learn from each other.
4.
Issues for debate
• What is the level of understanding of the learning continuum in teachers?
• Are teachers able to identify and use knowledge, skills and abilities of the
learners that have not been acquired in the school context?
• What is the level of the understanding of different learning strategies of the
learners?
• Are the teachers able to take advantage the different learning strategies of the
learners?
• What is the level of the understanding of the importance of planning?
21
• Are teachers able to design and implement a planning model?
• Are there adequate teacher training programs offered to active teachers?
References:
LLWings Teacher training modules, http://llwings.euproject.org/llwings/
http://www.league.org/gettingresults/web/module1/learning/how_know_students.html
SeeQuel “Quality Guide to non-formal and informal learning” 2004,
http://www.menon.org/publications/TQM%20Guide%20for%20informal%20learning.p
df
Gagne, R. M., (1985) The Conditions of Learning and Theory of Instruction. New
York: CBS College Publishing.
Official Journal of the European Communities “Council Resolution” of 27 June 2002
on Lifelong Learning (2002/c 163/01)
http://www.infed.org/thinkers/polanyi.htm
http://www.peter.baumgartner.name/addedValuesPI/stories/storyReader$832
http://www.tlrp.org/pub/documents/TLRP_Schools_Commentary_FINAL.pdf
Project: Vision, Scenarios, Insights and Recommendations on how ICT may help
making lifelong learning a reality for all, 2011 (Acronym: Visir)
Project: Large Scale Experimentation Scenarios to Mainstream eLearning in
Science, Mathematics and Technology in Primary and Secondary Schools, 2013
(Acronym: Inspiring Science)
22

How to adapt pedagogical practices Introduction Golab Discussion Paper n. 3

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