Firearms in Crime

Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
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Firearms in Crime
by Bruce Culver
Firearm: a device that can be used as a weapon that fires either single or multiple projectiles propelled at high velocity by the gases produced through rapid, confined burning of a propellant. The National Firearms Act of 1934 defines a “firearm” as a weapon that can fire fixed ammunition (as opposed to weapons that use separated ammunition components, such as muzzle­loaded muskets). “Gun” is a synonym for “firearm” for the purposes of this paper.
History of Firearms
Firearms appeared in the 12 century, developed form the earlier fire lance. The earliest types of firearms were bulky and generally not for individual use. Personal firearms first appeared in the 15th century. There were several types of actions developed over the following centuries:
th
Matchlock: a lighted match or wick was used to light the powder – unreliable, dangerous.
Wheel­lock: a spinning abrasive wheel (like a cigarette lighter) was used to light the powder train. Unreliable, powder could get wet and not fire.
Flintlock: a spring powered flint struck sparks from a rough metal frizzen to light the powder. More reliable than earlier types, but powder still could get wet and fail. Percussion cap: an explosive metallic cap was struck by a hammer to light the powder in the barrel. Fairly reliable, as the powder was enclosed and less likely to get wet and fail.
Metallic cartridge: modern forearms use this form of fixed ammunition – primer (igniter), powder, and ball (or modern bullet) are all contained in one unit.
Types of Firearms
Single shot: can fire only one shot without reloading – usually have no magazine for reloads. Examples would be break­open shotguns or rifles, and single­shot pistols.
Repeating firearm: can fire multiple shots before reloading is necessary – usually has a magazine or clip to replenish ammunition during firing. Examples would be all weapons with magazines or clips – lever action rifles, bolt action rifles, pump action shotguns, revolvers, and pistols.
Self­loading firearm: a firearm that loads a cartridge into the firing chamber and re­cocks the action automatically, using the energy from the previous cartridge when it is fired.
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Semi­automatic firearm: a self­loading firearm that fires one cartridge (round) for each pull of the trigger. Examples would be the M1 Garand rifle and most autopistols. Fully automatic firearm: a self­loading firearm that continues to fire as long as the trigger is pulled. Examples would be machine guns, assault rifles and submachine guns. Note that many “assault rifles” today are semi­
automatic only, and are not machine guns.
Guns in Crime
Gun violence in the United States is associated with the majority of homicides and over half the suicides. It is a significant public concern, especially in urban areas and in conjunction with youth activity and gang violence. Many suffer non­fatal gunshot wounds, with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimating 52,447 violence­related and 23,237 accidental non­fatal gunshot injuries in the United States during 2000. The majority of gun­related deaths in the United States are suicides, with firearms used in 16,907 suicides in the United States during 2004. Legal policies at the federal, state, and local levels have attempted to address gun violence through a variety of methods, including restricting firearms purchasing by youths and other "at­risk" populations, setting waiting periods for firearm purchases, establishing gun "buy­back" programs, targeted law enforcement and policing strategies, stiff sentencing of gun law violators, education programs for parents and children, and community­
outreach programs. Gun policy in the United States is also highly influenced by the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution, which prohibits infringement of "the right of the People to keep and bear arms." Gun rights advocates generally encourage a strict preservation of the right protected by the Second Amendment. A pending Supreme Court ruling could change many gun laws in the USA.
Crime rates in the United States are similar to those of other developed countries. Nonetheless, many developing countries have significantly higher rates of homicide and in some cases, firearm usage in homicides, including Mexico, Brazil, Thailand, Guatemala, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Colombia, Estonia, and Russia. Overall homicide and gun homicide rates by country (2000) Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
During the 1980s and early 1990s, homicide rates surged in cities across the United States (see graphs). Handgun homicides accounted for nearly all of the overall increase in the homicide rate, from 1985 to 1993, while homicide rates involving other weapons declined during that time frame. Guns are favored because they allow an assailant (or potential victim) to stop or kill another person with far greater reach and with far less personal danger than any other class of weapon, such as knives or other edged weapons.
Homicides by weapon type, 1976­2004. The rising trend in homicide rates during the 1980s and early 1990s was most pronounced among youths and Hispanic and African American males in the United States, with the injury and death rates tripling for black males aged 13 through 17 and doubling for black males aged 18 through 24. The rise in crack cocaine use in cities across the United States is often cited as a factor for increased gun violence among youths during this time period. Homicide offenders by age, 1976 ­ 2004.
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In earlier times, many of the guns recovered were very cheap small handguns often referred as “Saturday night specials.” These were often made from cheap zinc castings and usually fired smaller bore, low­power cartridges. The 1986 gun control act banned the importation of these cheap guns, but most were made in the US, so the ban had little effect. These cheap guns are less common now, as peer pressure favors better models.
The most common type of gun confiscated by police and traced by the ATF are .38 Special revolvers, such as this Smith and Wesson Model 60 .38 Special revolver with a 3­inch barrel.
The top ten types of guns involved in crime in the U.S. show a definite trend in favoring handguns over long guns. The top ten guns used in crime, as reported by the ATF in 1993, included the Smith & Wesson .38 Special and .357 revolvers; Raven Arms .25 caliber, Davis P­380 .380 caliber, Ruger .22 caliber, Lorcin L­380 .380 caliber, and Smith & Wesson semi­automatic handguns; Mossberg and Remington 12 gauge shotguns; and the Tec DC­9, a high­capacity semi­auto pistol used in the Colombine shootings. An earlier 1985 study of 1,800 incarcerated felons showed that criminals prefer revolvers and other non­semi­
automatic firearms over semi­automatic firearms. In Pittsburgh, a change in preferences towards pistols occurred in the early 1990s, coinciding with the arrival of crack cocaine and rise of violent youth gangs. Background checks in California, during 1998 to 2000, resulted in 1% of sales being initially denied. The types of guns most often denied included semiautomatic pistols with short barrels and of medium caliber.
Among juveniles (i.e., minors under the age of 16, 17, or 18, depending on legal jurisdiction) serving in correctional facilities, 86% owned a gun at some point, with 66% acquiring their first gun by age 14. There is also a tendency for juvenile offenders to own many firearms, with 65% owning three or more. Juveniles most often acquire guns from family, friends, drug dealers, and street contacts. Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
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In addition, there has been a shift from revolvers and smaller automatic pistols to high­capacity medium caliber pistols and high­capacity “assault rifle” type paramilitary weapons. This appears to be in part a result of increased levels of violence in media, particularly motion pictures, television, and video games. Since automatic weapons are very dramatic, the entertainment industry has used them far more than they were ever a threat in the street, and this has given the high­capacity pistols and submachine guns a cachet on the street that juvenile criminals in particular seem to favor. Interestingly, a majority of older professional criminals favor the revolver over the autopistol. The revolver is somewhat more reliable than the pistol, and it leaves no tell­tale shell casings at the scene that would help the police identify a criminal’s weapon.
Citizen and State Reaction to Gun Crime
Right­to­carry laws expanded in the 1990s as homicide rates from gun violence in the United States increased, largely in response to incidents such as the Luby's massacre of 1991 in Texas which directly resulted in the passage of a carrying concealed weapon, or CCW, law in Texas in 1995. As Rorie Sherman, staff reporter for the National Law Journal wrote in an article published on April 18, 1994, "It is a time of unparalleled desperation about crime. But the mood is decidedly 'I'll do it myself' and 'Don't get in my way.'" Ronald Reagan, as governor of California, stated that citizens were arming themselves because they didn’t trust the local governments to protect them. The Rodney King riots in Los Angeles regrettably demonstrated how right they had been.
The result was laws that permitted persons to carry firearms openly, known as open carry, often without any permit required, in 22 states by 1998. Laws that permitted persons to carry concealed handguns, sometimes termed a concealed handgun license, CHL, or concealed pistol license, CPL in some jurisdictions instead of CCW, existed in 34 states in the United States by 2004. Since then, the number of states with CCW laws has increased; as of late 2006, 48 states have some form of CCW laws on the books. On the other hand, there are still jurisdictions in which citizens are not allowed to carry or, in some cases, even possess handguns, and local restrictions on “military­style” weapons or “assault rifles” are harsher than they have been in the past. Another recent twist has been the passage in several states of so­called “castle laws”, which essentially say that a citizen does not have the legal obligation to flee when confronted by criminal activity, but can stand his ground, or defend his property (home and surroundings) with increased protection against criminal prosecution or civil lawsuits from the relatives of the wounded or deceased criminals.
This is the environment in which modern police forces have to work. There are some 295,000,000 forearms in the United States. The overwhelming majority are not used in crimes at all, and there is evidence – statistical – that firearms may in fact be used as many times to prevent crimes (ca. 1.5 – 2 million times a year) as they are used to commit them. Figures are hard to confirm, since all these statistics are the results of surveys and reports, which are always vastly smaller than the gross numbers involved. In most of these incidents, the firearm was never used to fire a shot, but merely presented, by sight or implication, or in some cases, there was no firearm, only the threat of one.
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Firearms and the Police
Police agencies, including sheriff’s departments, and federal law enforcement agencies, must work in an environment in which their adversaries, the criminals, are in most cases armed, and sometimes are armed with better and more effective weaponry than the police have. The advances in police weapons over the last 10­20 years have, in large measure, been driven by the need to respond to the adoption of better weapons by criminals. There have also been cultural changes in the legal environment, leading to restrictions on use of deadly force. This has put many in law enforcement into a situation where the criminals have more powerful weapons and seem ever more ready to use them, while the police are constrained from shooting, fearing prosecution for excess force or civil lawsuits from the victims or their families.
Types of Guns Used by Police
Police forces and other law enforcement agencies usually issue duty weapons to their personnel, although in some smaller departments, it is usual for each patrol officer or deputy to purchase a duty weapon. In most cases, larger police departments will have a list of approved weapon types, models, calibers, and types of ammunition. These can have an effect on the use of firearms by law enforcement agencies.
Modern police agencies use four types of firearms: handguns, shotguns, submachine guns, and rifles. Handguns are broken into revolvers and autopistols (often called “automatic pistols”). Shotguns used by police are usually either pump­action (operated manually by the shooter to reload) or semi­automatic (self­loading). These are traditionally the weapons used by patrol officers in most police departments. Rifles and submachine guns have been usually reserved for special weapons (SWAT) teams, but there is movement now to equip patrol officers with tactical rifles as an answer to the escalation of criminal firepower. Tactical rifles are broken down into bolt­action types typically used for sniper duty and the paramilitary assault rifles, such as the AR­15 or military M16, the latter capable of burst fire. Submachine guns also have been reserved mostly for SWAT in recent years, although 40 years ago, the Nassau County Police Department issued Thompson submachine guns to anti­shoplifting patrols during the Christmas season. Liability concerns would not allow that to happen today.
In addition to the development of improved firearms, there have been comparable developments in ammunition, particularly handgun ammunition. These have made handguns considerably more useful and effective, and have also improved safety when using handguns in the performance of police duties. Improvements in ammunition have also been driven by liability concerns arising from several controversial shootings. As police departments and personnel have come under increasing scrutiny and criticism from citizens and prosecutors, many departments have had to change the way they train their officers in the use of firearms, in the ammunition and types of weapons issued, and in their policies regarding the use of deadly force. All of these things have made police work considerably different from the way it was done decades ago.
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Handguns for Police
Police handguns are broken down into revolvers and auto­loading pistols. Each type has advantages and disadvantages. The revolver is a firearm in which the cartridges are held in a rotating cylinder held in the weapon’s frame. As the cylinder rotates, unfired cartridges are moved in front of the barrel where they can be fired by pulling the trigger. There are two types of revolver actions: single­action, and double­action. In a single­action revolver, the hammer must be pulled back manually by the shooter to cock the weapon before firing. The most famous single­action revolver ever made was the Colt Model 1873 SAA (Single Action Army), also known as the “Peacemaker.” This was the classic “cowboy gun” seen in westerns. It was made continuously by Colt until 1941.
Double­action revolvers are fired by pulling the trigger to first cock the hammer in the rear position, then release it to fire the cartridge in the chamber. Many older double­action revolvers could also be used as single­
action weapons by cocking the hammer manually. This gives a very short and light trigger pull which usually makes the gun a bit more accurate, since less pressure is required to pull the trigger. Unfortunately, it also leads to accidental discharges in which the shooter did not intend to fire, but did so accidentally, sometimes with fatal results. As a result, liability concerns have forced a conversion of double­action revolvers to double­action­only (DAO). This helps prevent accidental discharges, and also helps training, since every trigger pull will be the same. Auto­loading pistols have become the most common type of police handgun over the last 20 years. For decades, most police used double­action revolvers, usually in .38 Police Special, a cartridge originally chosen for its accuracy on the range. As criminals started using more powerful handguns, police agencies began to issue more powerful weapons themselves. At first, revolvers were used, usually firing .357 Magnum cartridges, based on the size of the .38 Special (which can be fired in .357 revolvers for practice shooting). The Magnum cartridge was very effective, but the increasing prevalence of autopistols in the hands of criminals meant that police were often out­gunned, as the pistols typically held much more ammunition than the five or six rounds in the typical service revolver. In the 1980s, state police agencies began to issue semi­automatic pistols to replace the older revolvers. At first, the pistols were mostly in 9mm caliber, with some departments allowing the use of the .45 autopistols, often new manufacture US Government models, the famous “Colt .45”, designated the M1911 or M1911A1 by the Army.
The auto­loading pistol, or autopistol (often referred to as an “automatic pistol”) is a firearm in which the energy from a fired cartridge is used to operate the action. This involves ejecting the empty cartridge casing from the firing chamber, loading a new cartridge into the chamber, and cocking the firing mechanism to fire the next round. An autopistol is fed from a box magazine located in the grip of the frame. Magazine capacity can Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
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vary from 5­6 rounds up to 19­20, depending on the size of the pistol and the size (diameter) of the ammunition. Early 9mm pistols were sometimes called “wonder nines” because of their huge ammunition capacity. Autopistols have several types of actions in operating the trigger to fire the weapon. There are two firing systems: hammer fired, and striker­fired. They are similar in that the hammer hits a firing pin to ignite the cartridge, while the striker­fired system eliminates the hammer; the striker itself is the firing pin, and is released directly by the action of the trigger. Some striker­fired pistols have a double strike capability; if a cartridge doesn’t fire, a second pull ion the trigger cocks the striker and the pistol can fire again. Most striker­fired pistols do not have a second strike capability; if a cartridge does not fire, the slide has to be pulled back manually to eject the dud cartridge and reload the weapon.
In trigger actions, there are three variations: single­action, double­single­action, and double­action only. With a single­action autopistol, the hammer must be cocked to fire the weapon. This can be done by cycling the slide to load the pistol or by cocking the hammer with the thumb. Subsequent shots are all single­action, as the movement of the action during firing cocks the hammer for future shots. An example of a single­action autopistol is perhaps the most famous pistol of all: the M1911/1911A1 Government Model, often referred to as the “Colt .45 automatic.”
The double­single­action autopistol is one of the most common types. With this system, the first shot is double­
action, the trigger being pulled to cock the hammer or striker, and all subsequent shots are single­action, the hammer or striker being cocked by the action of the pistol’s operation. This does result in a different “feel” for the second and subsequent shots, which some people find distracting.
The third type of trigger action is double­action only (DAO), in which the trigger has to cock the hammer or striker for every shot. This requires a longer, heavier trigger pull, but the feel is the same every time, similar to the trigger pull on double­action revolvers. Since the single­action trigger mode has a much lighter and shorter trigger pull, it is susceptible to accidental discharges, so many police departments have adopted DAO pistols to reduce the chance of an accidental discharge In 1986, a new gun control act was passed, and among its provisions was a ban on new manufacture of high­
capacity pistol or rifle magazines. The legal limit was set at 10 rounds, a sizable reduction from the 17­18 rounds some of the newer 9mm pistols could carry. This in turn led to the development of new pistol cartridges larger than the 9mm most commonly being used by police and citizens alike. The thinking was that if you couldn’t carry more than 10 rounds, each of those 10 rounds had better be as big as possible. A loophole allowed the sale of used high­capacity magazines, and millions of magazines were manufactured to beat the ban before it took effect. This ban on high­capacity magazines also led to the development of smaller and smaller pistols for easier concealment, and concealment is still a major concern in modern pistol design.
Resulting from this impetus, ammunition designers developed the 10mm high­powered round, the .40 S&W (for Smith & Wesson) intermediate round, and then went back to the revolver world for the .357 SIG (for SIG­
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Sauer), a very high­power high­speed cartridge known for its flat trajectory and accuracy. It is currently the favored cartridge for a number of state police agencies, including the Texas DPS troopers.
Following the improvements in cartridge design, came a second wave: better bullets. Initially, police departments issued round nose lead bullets for revolvers and for years this was the standard load. It was not very effective in incapacitating criminals, but it was widely used. When the autopistols came along, the police agencies continued their ammunition type selection, limiting pistols to round nose jacketed bullets (the jackets reduced lead fouling the barrel, which could lead to jamming or failure to operate). These round nose military style bullets were called “full metal jacket” (FMJ) bullets, and they were used for most of the 1980s and early 1990s.
The problem with the .38 Spl round nose and FMJ pistol bullets was that they were very poor at stopping criminals who were attacking police officers. There were numerous accounts of police firing all six rounds from their revolvers or even a magazine full of ammunition from their pistols and failing to stop an assailant from wounding or killing the officers. In many cases, the officer died but the assailant lived to stand trial. The round nose bullets had been adopted partly because of tradition, but also because the Geneva Convention banned the use of expanding “dum­dum” bullets in warfare, so there was a bias to adopt solid bullets that would not disintegrate.
The failure of round nose bullets to protect police led to the development of many new types of bullets, the majority of which were designed to expand upon hitting a target. A number of new designs proved to be highly effective in stopping assailants by inducing shock, blood loss, and destruction of internal organs. The majority of these new bullets were jacketed bullets with nose cavities which expended on impact, in some cases almost doubling the effective diameter of the bullet in the assailant’s body. These are known as “jacketed hollow point” (JHP) bullets and are the most widely used police rounds today. They are designed to cause massive tissue damage to incapacitate assailants. A significant reason why the JHP bullets are almost universally used today is their increased safety. The older round lead and FMJ bullets often penetrated all the way through an assailant’s body and hit people behind the target. Today, the police are held responsible for every bullet fired. A bullet that goes through the intended target and strikes an innocent party can mean serious liability lawsuits. In addition, it has been found that the JHPs will usually cause an assailant to stop an attack faster than the older bullets.
Some departments, holding to tradition or not wanting to buy new ammunition, continued using the old FMJ solid bullets, sometimes even while street patrol officers requested better ammunition. One of these departments was the New York City Police Department. In early 1999, four police detectives shot and killed a 23­year­old man from Guinea named Amidou Diallo. Approached by the men, members of the Street Crimes Unit, Diallo produced a wallet which one of the policemen, in the dark, thought was a gun. Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
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The detective yelled “Gun!” and the police began to shoot. As the first shots were fired, one of the detectives fell, and the others believed he had been shot. The four men fired a total of 41 rounds. Diallo was unarmed at the time of the shooting, and a huge racial controversy erupted subsequent to the event as the circumstances of the shooting prompted outrage both within and outside New York City. Issues of police brutality, racial profiling, and “contagious shooting” were central to the ensuing arguments. All of the officers were exonerated by jury trial of any wrongdoing.
One of the reasons the police kept firing at Amidou Diallo was that he wouldn’t go down; he remained standing in spite of being hit by 19 of the 41 rounds fired. The main reason Diallo did not fall was that the 9mm FMJ solid bullets passed through his body without leaving incapacitating injuries; they punched small holes in him, but didn’t induce the shock that would have made him fall down and get the police to stop shooting. It was the Diallo shooting that convinced the NYPD brass to issue JHP (hollow­point) bullets to the police force, and NYPD has used JHPs ever since.
Environmental concerns have led to the latest development in bullet design: all­copper bullets that eliminate the lead core found in traditional JHP bullets. Additional work has been done to make the expanding function even better and more reliable when dealing with first penetrating car bodies, house walls, etc. The latest JHPs will expand and function properly under almost any circumstance. There are dozens of brands and designs on the market; some are available only to law enforcement agencies. Note that there is a real bias toward JHPs among some Das, and police as well as private citizens do get into trouble for using these “aggressive, cop­killer” bullets. It has been suggested that the best defense is to use exactly the same ammunition used by the local law enforcement agencies.
As far as police needs are concerned, modern pistol ammunition has gone about as far as it can go in the modern handgun. The ammunition is more expensive, and is used in great quantities. Court decisions in several states have ruled that if a police officer practices with cheaper target ammunition, the department can be held liable for any shooting that officer does, on the grounds he/she wasn’t qualified to use the service ammunition. Thus, many departments now must use costly ammunition for all practice and qualification. It’s an expense that has led some departments to relax training and qualification standards to save money. Other departments have decided to use cheaper ammunition for practice, and use the service ammunition for all qualification shooting.
This is the background for the police use of weapons in today’s law enforcement climate. In some jurisdictions, ambitious district attorneys have indicted police officers for shootings in the line of duty, and this also has affected how the police use their weapons. There are cases where police officers have been afraid or reluctant to fire their weapons and some have died as a result.
Many of the issues affecting police use of weapons have also involved private citizens. As those who have attended concealed handgun licensing classes know, much of the class time is taken up with discussions of when and where, and under what conditions, you are allowed to shoot another person. Changes in the concealed carry laws in Texas and other states have altered the rights and responsibilities of armed citizens as well. The Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
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new “castle doctrine” laws provide increased legal protection to citizens who use firearms to defend their families or property.
The Most Common Types of Police Handguns
Although police around the country use a bewildering array of handguns, there have been in recent years several brands and models that have captured a significant share of the police market. The following are several of the most commonly used handguns.
Colt Government M1911A1 .45 ACP autopistol
Colt Series 80 standard M1911A1 Colt Series 80 Customized – typical
Along with Colt, countless numbers of companies in the US and other countries manufactured more or less exact copies of the M1911. Some millions of guns were manufactured in the USA during the WW2 by numerous companies under US Government contracts, and probably even more were manufactured for commercial sales. The most common M1911 clones are manufactured by: Springfield Armory, Les Baer, Kimber, Wilson, STI, Para Ordnance and many others. Also, many M1911­patterned pistols are still custom built for service duty, sport shooting and self defense. The M1911A1 pistol family is probably still the most popular pistol in the world.
Data: M1911A1
Action: Single Caliber: .45 ACP Capacity: 7 rounds + 1 in the chamber
Barrel Length: 125 mm (5 inches)
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Weight: 1080 g (38 oz)
Overall Length: 216 mm (8 inches)
The M1911 pistols all have an external manually applied thumb safety located at the rear of the slide no the left side. Note the customized Series 80 pistol on the right (above). It has an ambidextrous thumb safety, usable from both sides. Some police consider a manual safety to be an important way to save an officer’s life if an assailant captures the service weapon.
Glock Pistols – Model 17 and 19
Glock 17, 9mm, 17 round magazine Glock 19, 9mm, 15 round magazine All Glocks feature polymer frames, steel slides made by a precision molding process and have Tenifer heat­
treatment to increase rust and wear resistance. Early Glocks had plain grips with slight serrations. Modern variants havec finger grooves on the front strap of the grip, and ambidextrous thumb rests. Also, modern versions featured an under barrel accessory rail. Barrels have hexagonal rifling in all calibers. Both front and rear sights are dovetailed and usually have white or luminous inserts. Adjustable sights are available for competition models.
Glock 17 (standard model)
Length: 186mm (7 ¼ inches)
Barrel length: 114mm (4.5 inches)
Weight: 625g (22 oz, unloaded)
Magazine: 17 rounds standard
Glock 19 (compact model)
Length: 174mm (6 7/8 inches)
Barrel length: 102mm (4 inches)
Weight: 595g (21 oz)
Magazine: 15 rounds standard
Glock pistols are perhaps the most popular police pistols in the US, and are used by many large police departments. Note that Glocks do not normally have an external manually applied safety, the internal safeties being considered sufficient. However, there is an aftermarket manual safety available for the Glock. It is called Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
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the Cominolli safety, after its designer, and is fitted to Glock pistols by a gunsmith. It blocks the trigger movement, but allows the slide to be cycled and pistol loaded or unloaded with the safety on. It operates easily with the right­hand thumb. Since most Glocks do not have this safety, it is very unlikely a criminal stealing, or gaining control of, the weapon could get it to operate, giving the officer a chance to escape or engage the suspect using a backup gun.
Note there are other models of the Glock, in different sizes and using different types of ammunition, from 9mm to .45 ACP. Refer to the Glock website for more information.
SIG­Sauer Pistols – Models P226 and P228/229
SIG P226 – decocking lever in left grip panel
SIG P226 – newer model in .40 S&W
Note no decocking lever on this DAO model.
SIG P228 – 9mm only, decocking lever
SIG P229 – 9mm, .40 S&W, .357 SIG
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The SIG­Sauer P226 pistol was developed as an improved, high capacity version of the SIG P220 for the US XM9 trials of 1982­84 won by the Beretta 92SB­F. Despite this, the P226 quickly became one of the most popular service pistols, used by police, military and security forces around the world. Initially available in 9mm, it was subsequently adapted to .40 S&W and .357 SIG calibers. The smaller P228/229 models are similar but lighter.
Type Double/Single Action or Double Action Only semi­
automatic Caliber: 9x19mm Parabellum, .357 SIG, .40 S&W Length, overall: 196 mm (7 5/8 inches)
Barrel length: 112 mm (4 3/8 inches)
Weight (with empty magazine) : aluminum frame: 870 g (9mm), 920 g (.40 and .357)
stainless steel frame: 1180 g
Magazine capacity: 15 rounds (9mm); 12 rounds (.40 and .357)
Beretta 92 SB and related models
Beretta Model 92SB, frame­mounted safety
Beretta Model 92FS, slide­mounted safety
First adopted in 1977, this pistol was later used in Italy in its Model 92S, “SB”, and finally “F” modifications. The US military adopted the Model 92SB­F (later renamed to model 92F) in 1985, as a result of the highly controversial XM9 trials. It should be noted that, while being entirely adequate as a combat pistol, the Beretta 92 is somewhat bulky for its caliber and magazine capacity, thus less suitable for users with average or smaller hands. Other than the basic 9mm, Beretta also makes these pistols in other calibers, such as .40 S&W (model Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
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96). Beretta also makes a wide variety of models based on the same design; these include not only variations in finishes and sights, but also different trigger types (DA/SA, DA/SA with decock only, DAO, DAO with manual safety).
The early Berettas had problems with slide failures, and they are not suitable for people with small or average size hands. The compact models are easier to handle. Beretta makes a large number of pistols, many of which are suitable for police use.
Caliber: 9x19mm Parabellum; also .40 S&W (in Model 96)
Action: Double action
Overall Length: 217 mm (8 ½ inches), 197 mm – compact versions (7 ¾ inches)
Barrel Length: 125 mm (5 inches), 109 mm – compact versions (4 ¼ inches)
Weight Unloaded: 950­975 grams (33 ½ to 34 3/8 oz), depending on model
Capacity: 15 rounds (all 92 and 98 models except compact); 13 rounds (Model 92 Compact); 11 rounds (Model 96 in .40 S&W); 8 rounds (Model 92 Compact type M)
Smith and Wesson Pistols
S&W Model 39, 9mm standard capacity
S&W Model 59, 9mm high capacity
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S&W Model 659, 9mm high capacity
S&W Model 5906, 9mm high capacity
S&W Model 4506, .45 ACP S&W M&P, .40 S&W
Smith and Wesson produced the first modern US autopistol, the Model 39, in 9mm, and subsequently made a huge variety of pistols in three generations, in different calibers and materials. Though many of the earlier models are out of production, they were purchased by many police departments and are still in service. For details, refer to S&W’s website.
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S&W M&P Pistol
The "Military and Police" pistol is the latest offering from the legendary American Smith & Wesson company. First appearing in the summer of 2005, this pistol is intended for police and military sales, but also will be offered for civilian markets. The "Military & Police" name was the trade mark of S&W for some 80 or so years, being permanently linked to the most successful double action revolver from this company, currently known as S&W Model 10.
The S&W Military and Police pistol is short recoil operated, locked breech pistol that uses a Browning­type locking system. The frame is made from high strength polymer; all steel components (including the barrel and slide) are made from stainless steel. The pistol is striker­fired, with a double­action­only (DAO) trigger. The S&W Military and Police pistol is fully ambidextrous, with slide release levers located on either side of the frame, and a reversible magazine release button. For improved ergonomics, the rear part of the grip is easily replaceable, and gun comes with three grip panels of different sizes and shapes.
Type – S&W M&P
Caliber(s) Weight unloaded Double Action Only (DAO) semiautomatic
9x19mm Parabellum, .357SIG, .40S&W
700 g (24.25 oz) Length 190 mm (7.5 inches)
Barrel length 114 mm (4.5 inches)
Magazine capacity 17 (9mm) or 15 (.357 and .40) rounds
Ruger Police Pistols
P85 Mk. 2, 9mm
P90, .45 ACP, double­action Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
P94DC, .45 ACP, double­action, decocker
18
P97DAO, .45 ACP double­action­only
Differences between the Ruger safety systems; the DAO has no external manual safeties.
Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
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Ruger Pistol Characteristics
Caliber:
P85
P89
P90
P91
P93
P94 / P944
P95
P97
9mm
9mm
.45
.40
9mm
9mm / .40
9mm
.45
DA DC DAO DA DC
DC DAO
DC DAO
DA DC DAO DA DC DAO DC DAO
200
200
200
200
184
191
185
185
114
114
114
110
99
108
99
99
?
980
900
870
930
780
860
Polymer
Polymer
Action(s) *: DA
Lenght,
mm:
Barrel
lenght,
mm:
Weight, g: 1077
Frame:
Capacity,
rounds
Years of
manufactu
re
Aluminum Aluminum
15
Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum
15 (10 post7
ban)
1987-199 19911
present
1992present
11
10
10
10
8
1992-1994
1994present
1994present
1996-present
1998present
* ­ note on action short codes:
DA = Double Action with safety / decocker switch
DC = Double Action with decocker switch
DAO = Double Action Only, without manual safeties
The Rugers' P­series of centerfire pistols began from the model P85. All P­series pistols were designed with the goal of producing high quality, reliable and affordable service and personal defense pistols. The P85 was designed in 1985, and entered the market in 1987. It had some design flaws, such as uncomfortable controls and average accuracy, so it was replaced by the P89 in 1991. Internally, all P­series pistols are recoil operated, locked breech semi­automatic pistols. All P­series pistols use SIG­Sauer P220 type locking, where one massive barrel lug locks into a large ejection port on the slide; All P­
series utilize a Browning­style tilting barrel.
The original P85 had only one trigger variant: a traditional double­action with an ambidextrous safety that also worked as a decocker when activated (blocking the firing pin and trigger and then lowering the hammer). Since the introduction of the P89, Ruger has offered three versions of the trigger mechanism – double­action (same as in P85), double­action with decocker only (the firing pin is locked by means of the internal safety that is actuated unless the trigger is pulled all the way back), and double­action­only (no manual safeties at all, after Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
20
each shot the hammer returns to the lowered position and must be cocked by a long trigger pull). An automatic internal firing pin safety is present in all modifications, regardless of the manual safety options. Ruger SR9 Pistol
Left side
Type
Caliber(s)
Weight unloaded
Right side
Ruger SR9, 9mm, double­action­only (DAO)
pre-cocked Double Action Only
semiautomatic
9x19 Luger / Parabellum
765 g / 26.5 oz (w. empty magazine)
Length
192 mm / 7.55"
Barrel length
105 mm / 4.125"
Magazine capacity
17 rounds
The Ruger SR9 pistol is the most recent product of the famous US arms company Sturm, Ruger & Co. It was introduced to the public in October, 2007, and is available on the US civilian market. The Ruger SR9 pistol is intended for civilian shooters (as a sporting or defensive arm, suitable for concealed carry) as well as for police and security use.. Ruger SR9 pistol is short­recoil operated, locked breech semiautomatic that uses a modified Browning­type lock with tilting barrel. The pistol is a double­action­only type, striker­fired. The striker is partially cocked during the reloading cycle; full cocking is achieved by pulling on the trigger. The SR9 has an automatic firing pin block safety, and an ambidextrous manual safety is provided on the frame. When engaged (lever pushed Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
21
up), the manual safety blocks the slide and trigger. To disengage the safety, the lever must be pushed down. Additional safety devices include a loaded chamber indicator on the top of the slide, and a magazine safety disconnector, which blocks firing once the magazine is removed. The magazine safety can be removed by the user through the partial disassembly of the gun and removal of the safety parts (although this is not encouraged by user manual). The slide and barrel of the SR9 are stainless steel; the frame is impact­resistant polymer. The pistol grip has a removable reversible backstrap. One side is a curved rear shape, the other is flat. Magazines are double stack, holding 17 rounds of 9mm ammunition. Kahr Compact Pistols
Kahr K9, 9mm, stainless steel frame and slide
Action: Double Action Only Caliber: 9x19 mm Luger
Overall Length: 153 mm (6 inches)
Barrel Length: 89 mm ( 3 ½ inches)
Width: 23 mm (7/8 inch)
Weight Unloaded: 650 g (23 oz)
Capacity: 7 rounds The Kahr line of compact pistols is a very popular choice for concealed carry weapons, and is widely used as backup guns by uniformed and plainclothes police officers and detectives. There is a full line of Kahr pistols in different sizes, in all­steel or polymer frames, and in different calibers. With minor changes, the K9 is available as the K40, using the .40 S&W cartridge. Larger models have been developed to fire the .45 ACP cartridge, and there are also very compact cut­down models for better concealment. The polymer frame models are now the most popular, but the heavier steel frame reduces felt recoil when firing full­power ammunition.
Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
22
Police Revolvers – S&W “K” Frame Models
Data for Model 10 revolver with 4 inch (102mm) barrel:
Type: Double Action Chamber: .38 Special; some models also .357 magnum Weight unloaded: ca. 1000 g Length: 236 mm Barrel length: 102 mm Capacity: 6 rounds The history of one of the most successful revolver designs of all times, the Smith & Wesson's "Military and Police", began in 1899, when S&W began to manufacture its "Hand Ejector" model in .38 Long Colt caliber. In 1902, S&W introduced the .38 Hand Ejector revolver in its new chambering, the .38 Special, and during the following years continued to slightly improve the design. The .38 Hand Ejector appeared in its current form in 1915. In the 1920s, Smith & Wesson renamed the .38 Hand Ejector the “Military and Police” model, and in 1958, after introduction of the model numbering system, S&W assigned to the Military & Police revolver the model number 10. During the century, the total numbers of M&Ps manufactured by S&W can be estimated at roughly six million units. This includes some 1 million revolvers delivered to the US Government during the WW 2, and a large number of revolvers manufactured for export to Britain and the Commonwealth countries. In general, the M&P was one of the most popular police revolvers in the USA. Some sources state that at one period, some 80% of ALL US Police departments were armed with M&P revolvers! These guns were also used by the US Military, especially the US Air Force and US Navy. The M&Ps were widely copied by numerous manufacturers in Spain, France and other countries. Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
23
Police Revolvers – Colt Models
Colt Detective Special, .38 Spl., 1st series
Colt Detective Special, .38 Spl., 3rd series These snub­nose compact revolvers were once almost universal among plainclothes detectives, but have been largely replaced as service weapons by compact autopistols. They were made by Colt until 1995, and are still to be found in some numbers as backup guns.
Type: Double Action Caliber: .38 Special Weight unloaded: 21 oz. Length: 178 mm (7 inches), 171 mm (6 5/8 inches) 1st issue Barrel length: 51 mm (2 inches) Capacity: 6 rounds
Colt Lawman Mk III, .357 Magnum Colt Trooper Mk III, .357 Magnum
Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
24
Colt Official Police Mk III, .38 Spl.
Type: Double Action Chamber: .38 Special and .357 Magnum Weight unloaded: varies with different models and barrel lengths Length: varies with different barrel lengths Barrel length: 2.5, 4 or 6 inches (64, 102 or 152 mm) Capacity: 6 rounds The Colt Mk. III family of revolvers appeared in the late 1960s as the first major development in Colt’s swing­
out cylinder revolver design since the early 1900s. The Mk III family consisted of the following major versions: Official Police Mk III revolver ­ improved version of the famous Colt Official Police, a strong service firearm chambered for .38 Special only, with fixed sights. Lawman Mk III revolver ­ heavy barreled service revolver chambered for the powerful .357 Magnum ammunition, with fixed sights Trooper Mk III revolver ­ service and target revolver, top­of­the line in the Mk III family. Chambered for .
357 Magnum ammunition, with heavy, ribbed barrel and ejector rod shroud, removable front blade sight and adjustable rear sights. Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
25
Police Shotguns
Remington Model 870 Police “Entry Gun”, 14 inch barrel (LE only)
Remington Model 870MCS (Modular Combat Shotgun), 18 inch barrel Type: pump­action Gauge: 12 Length: varies with model Barrel length: 355 mm (14 inches), 457 mm (18 inches) Weight 3­3.5 kg Capacity: up to 7 or 8 rounds in under­barrel tube magazine
The Remington 870 "Wingmaster" shotgun was introduced in 1950, and since then has become one of the most popular US­made pump­action all­purpose shotguns. Beginning its life as a versatile hunting weapon, available in many different configurations and gauges, in the early 1970s the Remington 870 was adopted by the US Military ­ in 1966, the US Marine Corps purchased several thousand Remington 870 Mk.1 shotguns (along with the Mossberg 590 and Winchester 1200). Military shotguns have extended magazines for 7 or 8 rounds, bayonet mounts, heat shields around the barrels and non­glare, protective and rust­resistant finishes.
The Remington 870 also is very popular police/security shotgun, available with extended magazines (up to 8 rounds), fixed or folding buttstocks, or with pistol grips. Usually, Remington police shotguns have 14 inch or 18 inch barrels with cylinder or improved cylinder chokes, capable of firing buckshot, slugs, and special purpose Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
26
munitions (tear gas grenades, non­lethal rubber bullets etc.). The M870 may be equipped with rifle­style or ghost­ring (peep) sights, with tactical flashlights and lasers, etc.
Police Submachine Guns
HK MP­5A2 with fixed stock and plastic S­E­F trigger group.
HK MP­5SD3. A silenced version with integral silencer and retractable stock of A3 version.
MP-5A2
Caliber
Weight,
empty
Length
Barrel
length
MP-5A3
9x19mm Parabellum (also .40S&W and 10mm Auto)
2.54 kg
2.88 kg
680 mm
490 / 660 mm
225 mm
Rate of fire
800 rounds per minute
Magazines
15 and 30 rounds
Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
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The Heckler and Koch MP­5 is one of the most widely used police submachine guns today. It is available in different models and several calibers of ammunition.
Police Tactical Rifles
M16A2 tactical rifle, military configuration, 5.56mm x 45 (.223 cal.)
M4A1 carbine, primarily SWAT use, 5.56mm x 45 (.223 cal.) M4A1 carbine with Remington 870MCS auxiliary shotgun – “Masterkey” system for SWAT breeching entries.
(Refer to the M16/M4 websites for full technical details.)
Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
28
Remington Model 700 Police, bolt­action sniper rifle, .223 and .308 calibers
Caliber: .223 Rem (5.56x45mm) and .308 Win (7.62x51mm, 7.62mm NATO)
Operation: Bolt­action, rotating bolt with 2 lugs
Weight: 4.08kg (9 lbs) empty without telescope
Length: 1662mm (65.4 inches)
Barrel: 660mm (26 inches) (other lengths available)
Feed: 4­round internal magazine (detachable magazine in Model 700 Police DM in .308 Win)
Stock: HS Precision
Sights: Variable telescopic
Max Effective Range: 800 meters
Expected Accuracy: Less than 1 MOA with M118 (Ammunition is the limiting factor)
Ruger PC-9 carbine, 9mm and .40 S&W, used as patrol rifle for squad cars
Type / action
Caliber(s)
Weight unloaded
Semi-automatic, blowback operated carbine
9x19 Luger/Parabellum and .40 S&W
2,9 kg (6.4 lbs)
Length
873 mm (34.4 inches)
Barrel length
413 mm (16.3 inches)
Magazine capacity
10 (.40) or 15 (9mm) rounds
Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
29
There are several small light carbines using pistol ammunition that have been marketed to police departments for use by patrol officers to expand their firepower without having to acquire military type weapons like the M16 or M4 carbine. The longer barrel does give better ballistic performance with the standard pistol ammunition.
Physio­Psychological Aspects of Violent Encounters
By Massad Ayoob
As fight or flight reflex kicks in during a deadly danger situation, the combatant experiences numerous body alarm reactions and altered perspectives. Knowledge can explain all of them, from their far­reaching dynamics, to how to cope with them ­­ both at the time, and in short­ and long­term aftermath.
If you understand the physio­psychological aspects of violent encounters ­­ if you know what's happening to you ­­ you are less apt to fear them. If you are involved in a violent incident, your perception of it may differ from what others see ­­ or what's on the videotape from the store's security camera. Understanding these altered perceptions can be a key to subsequent (courtroom) credibility. This has proven to be very valuable advice for citizens as well as police patrol officers.
What follows is a list of common physio­psychological effects that arise during life­or­death situations. It is rare for them all to appear, but that it's equally rare for none of them to. These reactions are normal, but often disorienting or even frightening.
Tachypsychia (literally: the speed of the mind) ­­ the distortion of perceived time. In a life­or­death situation, the mind kicks into overdrive, perceiving orders of magnitude more information than is customary. This causes the perception that things are happening in slow motion, even though you ­­ and your opponent ­­ are probably moving faster than you ever have. Tachypsychia can also work in reverse ("it all happened so fast"). The more experienced and highly trained a person is, the more likely that person is to experience tachypsychia. That is, a person who knows that "trouble happens" is less likely to be surprised by it, and more likely to respond with super­heightened awareness. A concrete upshot of tachypsychia is that one should not speak with responding officers on the question of how long an encounter took. Rather, say "officer, he was trying to kill me, and I didn't have time to check my watch." Tunnel Vision ­­ the mind focuses on the deadly threat to the exclusion of much of one's ordinary peripheral vision. It appears as if one is looking at the threat through a tube (or tunnel, precisely), and it requires conscious effort to see more than a few degrees to the right or left, or up or down. This can be a problem if you're dealing with multiple opponents. Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
30
Auditory Exclusion ­­ could also be called "tunnel hearing." Like tunnel vision, auditory exclusion is largely a function of the brain's cortex. That is, the brain has kicked into fight or flight reflex, focusing on the threat and screening out everything extraneous to immediate survival. One is still ­­ physically ­­ seeing and hearing as usual, but the brain is screening lots of things out. Tunnel vision and auditory exclusion may make things appear larger, therefore closer, often by as much as a 3­to­1 ratio. A man with a knife five yards away appears to be five feet away; .22s look like .44 Magnums. You may not hear the officer behind you yelling "don't shoot;" you may not even hear your own shots (rest assured however that 'clickers' will the the loudest sounds you've ever heard). If you experience such physio­psychological aspects in a violent encounter ­­ and don't recognize them for what they are ­­ and recount your (distorted) perceptions to police, you can be in world of trouble when your case goes to court. Precognition ­­ commonly called a "sixth sense" (a good phrase to avoid). Precognition has to do with having seen something so many times that you "see it coming" before the unthreatened observer ­­ such as a witness ­­ does. The connection with fight or flight reflex is that, in a deadly threat situation, the mind draws on memory resources that are not typically used. Precognition is a response to a subconsciously perceived queue, and has successfully been used in criminal defense. (Miami policeman Luis Alvarez, 1982).
Denial Response ­­ On an otherwise normal day, you get a call out of the blue telling you that your mother has died. Your first response? "No! Mother can't be dead!" Another common example is people yelling "no" at a car that's about to hit them, or hit someone else. Again citing Officer Alvarez, within 30 seconds he went from thinking it was about time for a coffee break, to having blown a person's brains out. His first radio transmission was "my gun went off," not "someone tried to kill me, and I shot him." The implications for the armed citizen are obvious... Amaurosis Fugax (temporary blindness) ­­ while "visual white out" is relatively rare, what is commonly called "hysterical blindness" is less so. The eyes have seen something so terrifying, the brain refuses to see it anymore. This is more likely to happen to the untrained, to those unprepared to deal with potential violence. One concrete upshot of this is that amaurosis fugax often translates into fleeing the scene of the shooting. In almost every court, flight equals guilt. The legal theory is that the person who did right will stand his or her ground to explain as need be; the person who flees does so because there is culpability involved. Again, the implications for the armed citizen are obvious...
Psychological Splitting ­­ the more highly trained a person is, the apt more he or she is to experience this (happened to Ayoob in 1971). When you have trained something to the point that you can do it on autopilot ­­ coupled with something that triggers fight or flight ­­ the body moves so fast that the conscious mind can't keep up. This can result in the perception of watching oneself do something. If one experiences this, one is well served not to mention it in the initial debrief to local law enforcement; they may think you're crazy. Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
31
Excorporation ­­ out of body experience, the highest manifestation of psychological splitting. This is most commonly seen on operating tables after clinical death, and is often combined with a white tunnel of light (see items above). It is also seen in gunfights with persons who think they are about to die. Its cause is that survival instinct is taking all the senses into overdrive, into hyper­perception one might say. In this state, the mind can generate 3­D images from sounds and recollected sights. Even when the body is unconscious, the ears still hear and ­­ if they are open ­­ the eyes can still see. Even at clinical death, much of the brain lives for another 8­10 minutes (ask any EMT). Fugue State ­­ somnambulant, zombie­like state. This is seen occasionally. Cognitive Dissonance ­­ or confusion, is more common. Common manifestations include remembering things out of sequence, trivial things looming large in the mind immediately after the incident, and important things being lost to short­term memory immediately after the incident. For example, after a shooting, a thing that really sticks in your mind is that you ripped a hole in your clothes in drawing your pistol. You mention this to the police ("damn, I tore my slacks" [and somebody else is lying there dead]). Aggressive lawyers might bring such a thing up in court as a "proof" of your cold­heartedness (Ayoob recounts a case where it did). In reality what you've manifested is a type of denial response, a proof of innocence in its own right. Cognitive dissonance can be one of the mind's ways of saying "no, I didn't just come within 5 seconds of being dead, that didn't happen to me." EMTs see this when they witness colleagues telling jokes and laughing at the site of a gruesome traffic accident. They're not hard­hearted; they are crushed by what they've had to look at. The net effect of all this is that one is well­advised not to recount things in detail to law enforcement officers (LEOs) immediately after a violent encounter. The perceptions of the victim (you) may well be warped, and passing them along to police will ill­serve the cause of justice. It sometimes takes time to sort things out. How many shots did you fire? I don't know; I didn't count. How close was the assailant? Close enough to kill me. What did you say to him? Words to the effect of ... something along the lines of ... How long did it take? I don't know; I didn't check my watch. Give yourself some time to sort things out before you recount them in detail to police. One does this not to "beat the rap," but to help make sure that justice is done. When you do tell it to the police in detail, let it be what really happened, not just how it seemed to you in the first moments after you survived a deadly encounter. Note that this applies equally to police officers involved in a shooting incident.
At the end of the video, Ayoob turns to a subject not specifically related to the physio­psychological aspects of violent encounters, but certainly related to "surviving the aftermath," and that is preconditional bias and prejudice. He points out that, if one in the habit of using terms such as nigger, wop, spic, etc., and if ­­ to defend innocent life ­­ one has to kill a African­American, Italian, or Hispanic, such verbal habits will come back to haunt you in the courtroom. Scatological language is less of a problem, but is still not a good idea. In your self­
defense case, you want to be able to present yourself as the innocent victim, not as a foul­mouthed roughneck who enraged the deceased by verbal abuse. Ayoob advises his students to lose such verbal habits, and to learn Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
32
verbal crisis de­escalation instead. Being able to demonstrate that one attempted to verbally de­escalate a situation goes a long way towards defeating the other side's allegations of malice. Police Responses to Officer­Involved Shootings
Final report submitted to NIJ, Police Responses to Officer­Involved Shootings, David Klinger, grant number 97–IC–CX–0029, available from NCJRS (NCJ 192286).
What goes through police officers’ minds when they are involved in shootings? How does facing deadly force affect what they see, hear, and feel? Prior research has found that many officers involved in shootings suffer from “postshooting trauma”—a form of posttraumatic stress disorder that may include guilt, depression, and even suicidal thoughts. However, it may be that officers are more resilient than previously thought. One study has found that most suffer few long­term negative emotional or physical effects after shooting a suspect.
[1]
The study explored the emotional, psychological, and physical reactions of 80 officers and sheriff’s deputies during and after 113 incidents in which they shot someone, using a combination of questionnaires and personal interviews. Among the findings: •
Most officers reported that just before and as they pulled the trigger on the suspect, they experienced a range of psychological, emotional, and physiological reactions that distorted time, distance, sight, and sound. (See table 1.) Many officers found their recollection of the events of the shooting to be imperfect. In extreme cases, officers could not recall firing their guns. In the days, weeks, and months that follow a shooting, officers may suffer adverse reactions such as sleep interruption, anxiety, and depression.
•
Although some officers did not feel fear during a shooting, they still sensed imminent danger to themselves or others that met the standard for using deadly force. •
Contrary to earlier research findings, few officers in the study suffered long­lasting negative effects following a shooting. Officers’ postshooting responses were influenced by the attitudes and actions of investigators, colleagues, family members, and friends; these reactions diminished markedly as attention and activity around the incident lessened. (See table 2.) Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
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Table 1. Officers’ perceptual distortions during shooting incidents (n = 113)
Distortion
At any time
Prior to firing
Upon firing
Tunnel vision
51%
31%
27%
Heightened visual detail
56%
37%
35%
Both visual distortions
15%
10%
11%
Auditory blunting
82%
42%
70%
Auditory acuity
20%
10%
5%
Both aural distortions
9%
0%
9%
Slow motion
56%
43%
40%
Fast motion
23%
12%
17%
Both time distortions
2%
0%
2%
Other
13%
6%
9%
Total
95%
88%
94%
Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
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Table 2. Officers’ responses following a shooting
Physical response
At any time
(n = 113)
First 24 hours
(n = 112)
First week
(n = 113)
48%
46%
36%
16%
11%
Fatigue
46%
39%
26%
7%
5%
Crying
24%
17%
7%
2%
2%
Appetite loss
17%
16%
8%
2%
1%
Headache
7%
6%
4%
1%
1%
Nausea
4%
4%
4%
0%
0%
19%
18%
11%
12%
6%
Recurrent thoughts
83%
82%
74%
52%
37%
Anxiety
40%
37%
28%
13%
10%
Fear of legal or administrative problems
34%
31%
25%
19%
11%
Elation
29%
26%
19%
11%
5%
Sadness
26%
18%
17%
5%
5%
Numbness
20%
18%
7%
4%
3%
Nightmares
18%
13%
13%
10%
6%
Fear for safety
18%
9%
10%
9%
8%
Guilt
12%
10%
5%
6%
2%
42%
33%
23%
20%
14%
Trouble
sleeping
Other
response
physical Within 3 After 3 months
months
(n = 111)
(n = 105)
Thoughts and feelings
Other thoughts
or feelings
Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
35
Note: The different n values reflect the timing of the 113 shootings. For example, two of the shootings occurred within 3 weeks before the interview and another six occurred between 2 and 3 months before the interviews. One officer was critically injured and unconscious for 48 hours following her shooting, so questions regarding the first 24 hours after her shooting did not apply to her.
What Happens in the Months Following a Shooting?
Most officers reported experiencing no negative reactions 3 months after the shooting, and fewer than one in five reported “severe” reactions (two or more negative emotional or physical reactions) 3 months after the shooting. Even in the short term, many officers experienced no or only one negative reaction during the first day and week following a shooting (38 and 52 percent, respectively). Only one specific reaction—recurrent thoughts—persisted past the 3­month mark in more than one­third of the cases, and only two other reactions exceeded 10 percent—fear of legal problems and trouble sleeping, both of which were reported in 11 percent of the cases. The emotions that officers experienced were not all negative. Following about one­third of the shootings, officers reported feelings of elation that included joy at being alive, residual excitement after a life­threatening situation, and satisfaction or pride in proving their ability to use deadly force appropriately.
Expressions of support from fellow officers, detailed discussions about the incident with officers who had previously shot a suspect, and taking department­mandated time off following the shooting were associated with slight or moderate reductions in officers’ negative reactions. Conversely, officers who felt a lack of support from their colleagues and supervisors or that aspects of the investigation into the shooting were unfair or unprofessional reported more severe and longer­lasting negative reactions following the shooting, particularly after 3 months. Less predictably, support from intimate partners or family members and attendance at mandatory mental health counseling sessions were not associated with officers’ post­shooting reactions.
What Does This Mean for Police Agencies?
Training. The finding that most officers in this study experienced little long­term disruption as a result of shooting a suspect calls into question the appropriateness of training that stresses the severe guilt and depression felt by some officers who shoot. Focusing on severe responses that occur infrequently may be misleading and counterproductive. Several officers indicated in interviews that they thought something might be wrong with them because they did not experience the symptoms that training taught them to expect; others felt that, through the power of suggestion, their reactions were more severe than they would have been otherwise. Mental health counseling. Many officers who underwent mandatory post­shooting counseling reported that the experience was not positive (although three officers who reported long­term depression found counseling to be helpful). Most officers who held this opinion said they believed their department required counseling to shield Bruce Culver – Firearms In Crime
36
itself from legal liability, not to help the officers themselves. They stated that they did not talk frankly to the counselors because they did not trust them to keep the sessions confidential; in some cases, they thought the counselors were incompetent. Several officers admitted that they lied to counselors about their reactions because they did not want to divulge their thoughts, feelings, and experiences to a stranger with ties to the department. This contrasts with officers’ willingness to discuss the shooting with fellow officers who had also been involved in shootings and suggests that peer counseling may be more helpful to these officers than mandatory critical incident debriefings. Officers may honestly say they cannot recall some aspect of the incident or report information that conflicts with other evidence. Investigators faced with problematic statements from officers can try to fill in the gaps or reconcile conflicting evidence through further investigation.
In addition, because officers may fire at a suspect without realizing it, investigators may want to check the weapons of all officers who were immediately present at a shooting for evidence of firing, even if the officers report that they did not fire.
National Institute of Justice
NIJ Journal No. 253 – January 2006
Useful URLs on the Web:
http://world.guns.ru/main­e.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm
http://www.ruger­firearms.com/
http://www.smith­wesson.com/webapp/wcs/stores/servlet/CustomContentDisplay?
langId=­1&storeId=10001&catalogId=10001&content=11001
http://www.coltsmfg.com/
http://www.kahr.com/
http://www.sigsauer.com/Default.aspx
http://www.glock.com/
http://www.berettausa.com/
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/journals/253/responses.html
http://www.theppsc.org/Staff_Views/Aveni/Contagious.Fire.htm
http://www.personaldefensesolutions.net/ayoob_article.htm
http://www.recguns.com/Sources/PhysPsych.html