Volume 2 - Forest Europe

CULTURAL HERITAGE
AND SUSTAINABLE
FOREST MANAGEMENT:
THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL
KNOWLEDGE
PROCEEDINGS OF THE CONFERENCE
8-11 June, 2006, Florence, Italy
Volume 2.
International Conference on Cultural Heritage and Sustainable Forest Management:
the role of traditional knowledge, held on 8-11 June, 2006 in Florence, Italy
Organized by:
IUFRO Task Force on Traditional Forest Knowledge
IUFRO Research Group on Forest and Woodland History
Ministero Per le Politiche Alimentari, Agricole e Forestali – Roma
Collaborating institutions
USDA – Forest Service
Italian Academy of Forestry Science
Italian Forest State Corp
University of Florence
City of Florence
Regional Government of Tuscany
UNESCO World Heritage Centre
FAO
MCPFE Liaison Unit Warsaw
Edited by:
John Parrotta, Mauro Agnoletti & Elisabeth Johann
Published by:
Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe
Liaison Unit Warsaw
ul. Bitwy Warszawskiej 1920 r. nr 3
00-973 Warsaw, Poland
tel.: +48 22 331 70 31 tel./fax: +48 22 331 70 32
e-mail: [email protected]
www.mcpfe.org
Disclaimer
This publication comprises the presentations and outcome of the international conference Cultural Heritage and Sustainable
Forest Management: the role of traditional knowledge, held on 8-11 June, 2006 in Florence, Italy. They reflect the views of
the authors which do not necessarily correspond to those of the Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe
(MCPFE). Neither the authors ,editors, the MCPFE, nor any person acting on their behalf are responsible for the use which might
be made of the information contained in this publication.
Design, layout and production:
www.meander.net.pl
© Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, 2006
VOLUME 2.
ISBN 10 83-922396-4-4
ISBN 13 978-83-922396-4-2
CONTENTS
VOLUME 1.
PREFACE MCPFE Liaison Unit Warsaw
9
FOREWORD Pekka Patosaari
11
INTRODUCTION Mauro Agnoletti
13
KEYNOTE PRESENTATIONS
Traditional knowledge and the European Common Agricultural Policy (PAC):
the case of the Italian National Rural Development Plan 2007-2013 Mauro Agnoletti
19
The European Landscape Convention Maguelonne Déjeant-Pons
28
Traditional Knowledge World Bank for safeguarding ecosystems Pietro Laureano
40
Bridging the gap: the IUFRO Task Force on Traditional Forest Knowledge John A. Parrotta
41
THEME 1: HISTORY OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE AND FOREST MANAGEMENT
Documentary sources for forest history and wood transportation in Veneto (15th-19th century) Giovanni Caniato
49
Traditional forest management under the influence of science and industry:
the story of the alpine cultural landscapes Elisabeth Johann
50
La scomparsa dell’utilizzazione dell’erica: un esempio di cancellazione di un paesaggio culturale
e dei suoi valori naturalistici
[The cessation of utilization of Erica arborea: an example of cancellation of a cultural landscape
and its naturalistic values]
Tommaso La Mantia, Giuseppe Giaimi, Veca D.S. La Mela, Alberto Tomeo
58
Relationships between local communities and forest administration:
The Cadore region after the napoleonic laws Antonio Lazzarini
67
Forest science and local experience in the management of the woodland:
The case of Extremadura’s dehesa Antonio M. Linares
71
History and refinement of TFK: an Asian perspective P.S. Ramakrishnan
80
Selection forestry between tradition and innovation: five centuries of practice in France Xavier Rochel
87
Woodland management in Bronze Age Scandinavia – evidences from rock-art sites Peter Skoglund
93
Indigenous influence on forest management on Indian reservations in the United States Ronald L. Trosper
94
Koguryo civilisation sustained by forest culture in the northern Korean peninsular and Manchuria Cheong-Ho Yi
102
THEME 2: CONFLICTS BETWEEN TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE AND SCIENTIFIC FORESTRY
The uses of forests and woodlands in New Spain from 16th to 18th centuries María de la Luz Ayala
111
Current status and problems with traditional forest-related knowledge in Russia
Vladimir Bocharnikov & Andrey Laletin
116
Conflicts between traditional knowledge and official applications on sustainable
forest management: a case from Turkey Emre Şahin Dölarslan & Kenan Ok
It all began with Adam. The historical roots of the conflicts between conventional resource management
and traditional local communities Jesús García Latorre & Juan García Latorre
Evolution of the forest landscapes and tribal practices, a case study of forest management
and its impacts in southern India Sylvie Guillerme
122
131
137
Richerche sperimentali per una gestione sostenibile dei cedui di leccio:
opzioni colurali a confronto Orazio La Marca
138
Cultural forest landscapes and ecological imperialism Colin Price
147
The “conflict” between traditional forest knowledge and scientific forest management
in twentieth-century Finland Harri Siiskonen
155
Problems with the practical implementation of laws regarding
the traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples in Russia Ludmila Zhirina
165
275
CONTENTS
THEME 3: CONSERVATION OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPES
Biocultural heritage – the missing link between culture and nature? Mårten Aronsson
169
Studying land use history to support ecosystem management – a case study on forest change
in the Swiss Alps Matthias Bürgi & Urs Gimmi
171
I principali sistemi di uccellagione con le reti fisse: storia, tecnica e paesaggio
Paolo Casanova, Anna Memoli & Lorenzo Pini
172
The role of pine forests for shaping Korean traditional cultural landscape Young Woo Chun & Kwang Il Tak
179
Restoration of selected beech coppices Matteo Coppini & Luigi Hermanin
185
Getting to living cultural landscapes of the boreal forest through holistic forest management.
The Whitefeather Forest Initiative of Pikangikum First Nation, Northwest Ontario Iain Davidson-Hunt
195
Meeting the challenges of preserving cultural character in a dynamic forest park landscape
Rolf Diamant, Nora J. Mitchell, Christina Marts & Ben Machin
197
The forest landscape of transhumance in Molise, Italy
P. Di Martino, P. Di Marzio, C. Giancola & M. Ottaviano
198
Scottish upland forests: History lessons for the future Kate Holl & Mike Smith
208
Working landscapes or recreational showcases – sustainable forest management and the implications
of cultural knowledge loss Ian D. Rotherham
211
European landscapes and forests as representations of culture
Franz Schmithuesen & Klaus Seeland
219
THEME 4: EUROPEAN INITIATIVES FOR TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE AND CULTURAL LANDSCAPES
Frammenti di storia forestale da ForEnCarb, progetto pilota della Regione Sardegna per la sostenibilità
dello sviluppo e la pianificazione forestale. Marisa Cadoni & Roberto Scotti
229
The conservation of cultural forest landscapes: the Vallombrosa Silvomuseum
Orazio Ciancio & Susanna Nocentini
239
MCPFE commitments – political framework for social and cultural dimension of SFM
Marta Gaworska & Bozena Kornatowska
245
“Forest + Culture” in Austria: basic principles, objectives and ongoing projects Alfred Grieshofer
252
Linking scientists with people – the role of the volunteer in British woodlands Peter Howard
257
Hidden heritage in Dutch forests: management in practice Patrick Jansen
258
Cultural re-animation and rural development forestry: examples of a Leader + cooperation project
between rural communities in Italy and ScotlandGary Servant, Nicola Gallinar & Jake Willis
262
Forest landscape cultural heritage inventory: an Estonian model
Lembitu Tarang, Jürgen Kusmin, Vaike Pommer, Airi Matila & Mart Külvik
270
VOLUME 2.
THEME 5: FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
276
Consequences of the cessation of traditional forest exploitation: the example
of the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park Gianpiero Andreatta
285
Techniche e attrezza per la valorizzazione del bene forestale attraverso modelli de allevamento semibrado di suini
– Techniques and equipments for the improvement of forest resources through extensive pigs breeding systems
Matteo Barbari, Leonardo Conti & Francesco Sorbetti Guerri
292
Recent changes in the landscape spatial pattern of forest lands in Italy: a local assessment
Anna Barbati, Geppino Carnevale, Piermaria Corona & Marco Marchetti
302
Two pines and the native tradition of burning North American landscapes Gary B. Blank
303
La memoria e l’attualità del paesaggio Ignazio Camarda
309
Mediterranean forest management, a tool to guarantee sustainability: evolution of the Catalan
agrarian landscape and the forestry regulations from the 18th century to the end of the 20th century
Teresa Cervera Zaragoza & Ramon Garrabou
310
Landscape history and heritage revaluation in Olzinelles valley (Montnegre, NE Spain):
a socioecological approach (1851-2006) Iago Otero, Martí Boada, Anna Badia, Sara Piqueras,
Geòrgia Rodoreda & Eduard Rojas
316
CONTENTS
Landscape dynamics of the Barbialla farm (Val d’Egola, Province of Florence)
in the second half of the 20th century Marco Paci, Livio Bianchi & Davide Travaglini
326
Variazioni della copertura vegetale, documentazione storica e toponomastica nel Lazio appenninico
Francesco Spada & Susanna Passigli
333
From integration to abandonment. Forest management in the Mediterranean agro-ecosystems
before and after the ‘green revolution’ (The Vallès County, Catalonia, Spain, 1860-1999)
Enric Tello, Ramon Garrabou, José Ramon Olarieta & Xavier Cussó
343
THEME 6: TRADITIONS, CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
Sustainable forest management in Europe’s East and West: trajectories of development
and the role of traditional knowledge Per Angelstam & Marine Elbakidze
353
A new culture for the development of new forests in the modern context Enrico Calvo & Francesca Ossola
362
The use of traditional knowledge in sustainable forest management in the Kaska traditional territory
in British Columbia and the Yukon David Crampton
365
Food security, fattori limitanti ambientali e strategie di gestione tradizionale delle
foreste nell’Amazzonia brasiliana Peppino Stefano Disperati
374
Role of traditional villages for sustainable forest landscapes: a case study in the Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains
Marine Elbakidze & Per Angelstam
375
Integrating traditional knowledge into global change analysis models. The case of Ridaura sessile oak
forestland (Natural Park of Montseny, NE Spain) Francisco Javier Gómez, Martí Boada & Sònia Sànchez
385
Linking physical, economic and institutional constraints of land use change and forest conservation
in the hills of Nepal Krishna Bahadur K.C.
393
THEME 7: CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
The effects of traditional and contemporary forestry understanding on drinking water: Istanbul example
Sultan Bekiroblu & Omer Eker
405
Customary traditions of self-governed institutions in mountain forests of northern India –1803-2003
Minoti Chakravarty Kaul
413
Cultural heritage, sustainable forest management and property in inland Spain Cristina Montiel Molina
421
Opportunities in Turkish cultural heritage for conservation of natural values Taner Okan & Kenan Ok
428
Learning from traditional knowledge on plants uses: a field investigation in the area
of Monte Ortobene (Nuoro, Sardinia) Maddalena Piredda, Piero Bruschi & Maria Adele Signorini
436
‘Vayal’, sacred landscape in the forest Chirakkal Ramapanikker Rajagopalan
439
A Blackfoot (Kainai) traditional land use study: preserving and protecting aboriginal
traditional knowledge through natural resource education in Alberta Lorne West & Francis First Charger
441
THEME 8: PLANNING AND MONITORING FOR CONSERVATION
Multi-temporal forest spatial patterns analysis in the framework of sustainable forest management
Gherardo Chirici
445
A methodology to integrate SFM standards on forest cultural heritage into meso-scale forest planning:
preliminary results of the Ri.Selv.Italia 4.2 research project Laura Secco, Silvia Agnoloni, Paolo Cantiani,
Isabella De Meo, Fabrizio Ferretti & Davide Pettenella
447
Analisi e valutazione degli indicatori per la caratterizazzione del paesaggio su scala locale
nell’Umbria centro meridionale Andrea Sisti
455
THEME 9: CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
The production of pitch in Calabria in the 18th century Maurizio Gangemi
459
Russian wooden architectural heritage: century-old traditions to use forest products
Margarita Kisternaya & Valery Kozlov
465
Cultural indigenous management systems as a basis for traditional community forestry in Cameroon:
a case of the Ijim mountain forest area Njuakom Nchii Francis
470
Humanity and bestiality in forests, with reference to the topic “Forests, Cultures and Religions” Paolo Vicentini
471
277
CONTENTS
POSTER SESSION
Tree carvings as witnesses of traditional forest use in central Sweden Rikard Andersson
481
Le pratiche agro-selvicolturali e le strutture per la caccia di selezione agli Ungulati come elementi
caratterizzanti il paesaggio forestale Paolo Casanova, Lorenzo Pini & Francesco Sorbetti Guerri
489
Sugumagi –The Korean traditional forest planted near Sugu by the backgrounds of Fengshui Jang Dong-su
495
Assessment of traditional cultural landscape visual quality loss by spontaneous afforestation
of abandoned lands Andrej Kobler
498
Rimboschimento ed incendi: un problema antico con un nuovo approccio
Raffaella Lovreglio, Vittorio Leone, Rossella Salvatore & Valentina Urbano
499
Temporal pattern over the last 200 years in the SCI Mt. Vigese (IT4050013). Northern Apennines (Italy)
G. Pezzi, S. Masi & C. Ferrari
507
Elementi della dendroflora sarda impiegati nella tradizione popolare di Putifigari e Villanova Monteleone
(Sardegna Nord-Occidentale) Giovanni Piras
512
On the environmental history in Molise: an approach to the sources of the
278
19th
century Emilia Sarno
521
Charcoal production in Sunart (Scotland) and Vavestino (Italy) – the legacy of traditional crafts and
silvicultural systems Gary Servant, Ken Henesy, Jake Willis, Michele Capretti, Elisa Carturan & Nicola Gallinaro
524
Toponimi e distribuzione de Quercus suber L. in Italia
B. Schirone, F. Spada, S. Passigli, E. Agrillo & L. Casella
528
Knowledge from 1832 cadastral maps: a source of information for present woodland management
Jim van Laar
535
STUDY TOUR
Study tour: the landscape park project at Moscheta, Mugello Valley (Florence)
guided by Prof. Mauro Agnoletti
539
CONFERENCE PARTICIPANTS AND LEAD AUTHORS
543
Theme 5.
FOREST HISTORY
AND LANDSCAPE
CHANGES
Consequences of the cessation of traditional forest exploitation:
the example of the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park
Gianpiero Andreatta
Corpo Forestale dello Stato
Coordinamento Territoriale per l’Ambiente del Parco Nazionale delle Dolomiti Bellunesi
Viale del Vincheto, n. 9 – Celarda, 32032 Feltre (BL), Italia
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The 31,512-hectare Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park lies in the province of Belluno, Veneto region,
north-eastern Italy. The forest populations of silvicultural interest are essentially the beech-woods
(approx. 4,700 ha). These woodlands were intensively exploited by coppicing in the past. This began in mediaeval times and continued until the 1960s, when lengthening rotations followed by total
abandonment resulted in an increase of the woody mass in the vegetation, with a notable growth in
size (diameter and height) of the individual trees. A consequence of the cessation of traditional forest exploitation – after some years of silvicultural interventions for conversion to tall trees – has been
the appearance of problems of mechanical instability in the form of falling beech trees – isolated or
in small groups – and the falling of scattered specimens of red fir growing in young beech-woods. the
uprooting of wider-diameter beech trees and the red firs topping the beech-wood canopy is caused
by poor anchorage of the root apparatus. Three possible silvicultural operations can be suggested to
improve this situation: in the short-term, maintaining the coppicing where possible; in the mediumterm intervening to initiate processes of natural renewal as soon as problems of mechanical instability begin to appear; in the long-term, improving soil properties through the distribution of necrosed
forest biomass in order to guarantee better anchoring conditions for the roots.
1. Introduction
A careful analysis of the man-woodland relationship throughout history demonstrates how, through
traditional knowledge, very often based on extremely localised territorial situations, an equilibrium
would have been reached in the management of forestry resources. This equilibrium has in many
cases remained stable for centuries (Andreatta 2003). In the past, the traditional management of
the forests forming part of what is now the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park was based on coppicing to satisfy the local populations’ requirements for woody materials (firewood and charcoal). In
recent decades, in common with the majority of italian mountain areas, changing social and economic conditions have led to a changed approach to silviculture and its implementation: in many
cases techniques that were applied for centuries have now been abandoned to make way for operations that follow rules more akin to forest ecology.
This transition, at times very abrupt, does not always present only positive aspects. In the mainly
beech woodlands of the Park, the discontinuation of coppicing and consequent transformation to
forms that are evolving towards tall trees has led to problems of mechanical instability that must
be considered in future forest management plans. This paper discusses the problems that have
emerged following the abandoning of centuries-old forest exploitation through a comparison between the historical cutting methods and current silvicultural practices. the difficulties linked to
mechanical instability should be taken into account when planning and carrying out future silvicultural operations, which must necessarily be aimed at remedying the situation. Possible technical
solutions to this are also proposed.
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Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
2. The study area
2.1. Physical features, geology and soils
The Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park, designated by Ministerial Decree on 20 april 1990, extends over approximately 31,152 hectares in the province of Belluno, Veneto region, north-eastern Italy. It covers the mountain areas from the Vette Feltrine in the west to Cadore in the east,
which include the Monti del Sole, Schiara-Pelf and Talvena mountain groups. The protected area
varies in altitude from 400 m a.s.l. in the valleys up to 2,565 m a.s.l. on Schiara, the mountain
with the highest summit. The existing woodlands represent the various forest types encompassing the sub-alpine belt to the treeline (Del Favero & Lasen 1993).
The geological substrate is principally rocks of sedimentary origin, in particular Triassic dolomite rocks. The valleys of the torrents that criss-cross the territory are mainly covered by quaternary deposits. The most significant geomorphological features in the area are glacial and
karstic phenomena. The orographical features of the territory are therefore strongly marked by
the recurrence of these geomorphological processes and erosion, which have resulted in an inaccessible geographical context, in which plateaux, “buse” and “van” of glacial origin alternate with
very steep mountainsides – where the wooded formations of silvicultural interest grow – and
narrow valleys.
The deepest and best soils, potentially better evolved and more fertile, are those originating
from the calcareous substrate. They are marly and/or terrigenous, and are to be found in the areas with gentler morphology, where the traditional mountain pastures lie. The soils in the northeastern sector of the Park (Cajada and Val del Grisol), where the more stable and evolved forest
formations are sited, also come into this category. primitive shallow soils have formed on the
very steep mountainsides, which are very gravelly and often have rocky outcrops. These soils are
subject to run-off and suffer from alternating very wet and arid conditions (Andrich 2005). The
pedogenetic processes of the soils on the steep slopes have been strongly affected, in the negative sense, by the intense – and prolonged – exploitation (mostly simple coppicing), which has
had the inevitable consequence of a notable impoverishment of the soil. This impoverishment
has also been accentuated by the processes of erosion on soil laid bare by frequent and repeated
tree felling on the often steep slopes (Sief 1998) and the recurrent fires, often of catastrophic
proportions, of which records exist going back even earlier than the period of venetian domination (Posocco 1970).
2.2. The forests
The forests in the protected area cover approximately 15,734 ha – almost half the total surface
area of the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park – and, with the exception of the dwarf mountain
pines and rare riparian communities in the valleys, grow almost exclusively on the steep slopes
of the valleys that deeply furrow the territory.
The sequence of altitudinal belts, following the Pignatti chart (1980), is not easy to define because of the complex mountain and microclimatic conditions that effect the vegetation cover.
However, the following are represented: a) the central-european belt, on an area of approximately
3,230 ha, which rises from the valleys up to 1,000 (1,200) m on south-facing slopes and up to
700 (800) m a.s.l. on the cooler mountainsides, with environments often strongly transformed by
man and characterised by broadleaved woodlands, usually hornbeam and manna ash-hornbeam,
only locally sycamore-ash that are confined almost exclusively to ravine environments; b) the
sub-oceanic belt, from 600-700 up to 1,600 (1,700) m a.s.l., which is very extensive and covered
282
Consequences of the cessation of traditional forest exploitation:
the example of the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park
by forests with a net prevalence of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), sometimes mixed with conifers (in
the Cajada forest, silver fir (Abies alba Miller) forms tree communities of immense value). The
various types of beech-woods cover an area of just over 4,700 ha, thus representing around one
third of the woodlands present in the Park. the most common types are primitive beech-woods
(1,723 ha), sub-montane beech-woods (1,143 ha), typical mountain beech-woods (1,295 ha) and
high-mountain beech-woods (545 ha). There are a further 360 ha approximately, where beech
grows in association with other species, and all the other areas where the plant is sporadic in
the vegetation (Andrich 2005); c) the boreal belt, with a surface area of approximately 3,980 ha,
normally from 1,500 – in particular conditions also from 1,200-1,300 m a.s.l. – to the treeline,
where the vegetation is often characterised by scattered red fir (Picea excelsa Link), frequently in
larch woodlands, and at the highest altitudes dwarf mountain pines. Although of no significant
silvicultural value, mention has to be made of the alpine belt, as it is the one of greatest botanical interest, being characterised by vast primary grasslands where many rare endemic species of
high phyto-sociological value grow (Argenti & Lasen 2000).
3. Forest management in the past
In the past, the forests forming part of what is now the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park were
subjected to strong human pressure (Hofmann 1991, Sief 1998). As early as neolithic times the
ancient veneti peoples had occupied the Val Belluna and all the major internal valleys. The Romans
provided a stimulus to the settlements by building a robust network of roads, whereas during the
period of the barbarian invasions the mountain area was more or less ignored by the colonisation
process and thus remained almost wholly in a natural state. In mediaeval times the human presence
in the area began to increase, with the consequent clear-felling of the lower parts of the hillsides,
and not always equilibrated tree cutting on the higher stretches.
The truly intensive exploitation of the territory began under the domination of the Venetian Republic, when massive amounts of wood and charcoal were necessary for the mining industry and
wide spaces for livestock grazing, especially sheep, for their sought-after production of wool: almost
all the beech-woods were subjected to intense coppicing. in the 1700s, demographic growth and
the strong demand for firewood and charcoal for industrial uses entailed, as well as coppicing, also
the clear felling, with the signs still visible today, of many of the higher slopes (Posocco 1970).
Intensive beech coppicing also continued during the 19th century, as testified to by the numerous
charcoal burning groves still to be seen in the woodlands.
Between the 1950s and 1960s, a time of crisis for the italian mountains, the Government Authority for State Forests, pursuing its institutional aims, began purchasing large areas of land covered
by pastures and forests along the southern belt of the Dolomites, so that by the beginning of the
1970s the State Forestry Administration was managing approximately 22,000 ha of land in the middle stretches of the River Piave and in Val Belluna. Between 1971 and 1975, these areas, given their
high environmental value, were classified as a “Nature Reserve”, and they later came to form more
than half the territory of the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park.
From the 1960s onwards, in both the state and privately-owned woodlands, initially with the lengthening of the rotations and subsequently by the abandoning of the mountain areas due to economic
and social reasons, coppicing practices reduced dramatically until, in many cases, they ceased altogether. So, during recent decades, woodland vegetation that had been heavily degraded and strongly
impoverished has regained vigour, increasing its woody mass and nearing a more natural state.
At the same time, the woodland has slowly begun to heal the wounds caused by intense human
283
Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
exploitation, expanding and re-colonising areas from which it had been forcibly removed in the
past. Since the mid-1990s, first of all under the management of the ex-Government Authority for
State Forests and subsequently under the auspices of the National Park, interventions by forestry
technicians have begun in the state woodlands to convert the beech vegetation into forests of tall
trees (Sief 1998).
4. Consequences of the cessation of traditional forest exploitation
The cessation of traditional forest exploitation does not only have positive consequences (increased
woody biomass, almost natural composition, evolution towards formations of tall trees), but also negative ones. In the different types of beech-woods, unusual problems of mechanical instability have recently been appearing. Unlike the normally occurring falls of trees in the Alpine forest populations,
which are due to exceptionally harsh weather, the problems of mechanical instability of beech vegetation in the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park are a consequence of weather factors (snow and wind) that
entirely within the normal course of events. two quite distinct types can be identified, which represent,
with all the transitional forms, the “typical situation” that can be observed in forest communities.
The first type is represented by what occurs in the pure beech stands, which, as mentioned above, were
at one time all coppiced. From direct observations it emerges that, within the woodlands – that are at
a stage of vigorous growth and still far from reaching maturity – individual trees are quite frequently
blown down by the wind or fall beneath the weight of snow. The other trees in the population (except
any directly involved in the fall), even if only a few metres from the fallen tree and with similar biometrical characteristics, suffer no damage. This situation is widespread in almost all the pure stands
of aged beech, whether or not they have been subjected to cuts for the establishment of tall trees. The
characteristic that unites all the isolated plants which fall to the ground is that they are always those
of largest diameter growing in the beech-woods. The diameter size, used as a parameter directly correlated to the dendrometric volume, which the plants reach before falling, varies according to the different cases and sites, indicating that a critical threshold exists that depends on the volumetric dimensions of the plant and the capacity of the root apparatus to support this biomass. A shallow gravelly
soil, and often steeply sloping, can only provide a sturdy anchorage until the plant reaches that critical
point determining mechanical instability. Trees most often fall down on windy days during the summer months, especially after heavy rainfall events that have the twin effect of making the crown heavier
and the ground less compact and stable. Fewer trees fall in autumn, with these being caused by the
first snowfalls of the season that may surprise the beeches with a still-dense crown as they have not yet
started to shed their leaves. the extent of the phenomenon varies greatly, with areas where dozens of
plants per hectare have fallen to the ground, others where there are only a few fallen trees and yet others
where there is no damage at all.
The second type is linked to the presence of red fir in the beech-woods. Over the years red fir has made
a comeback, by natural spread, in the sites with the poorest soil where the beech-wood is scattered, with
a number of specimens that can vary up to a few dozen per hectare. Red fir growth proceeds regularly
in the beech-woods until the conifer crowns rise some metres above the beech-wood canopy, and it is
the wind that causes the uprooting of plants, also in this case still at the growing stage and well short
of maturity. red fir has a notoriously shallow root apparatus (Gellini 1970), so they frequently fall down
in the above-described situation of soil and slope. Field observations have shown that the majority of
plants of red fir fall in the winter and early spring, when the beech-wood is bare of leaves and the action of the wind, both above and below the canopy, becomes more powerful. This phenomenon is also
rather variable, with areas where there are dozens of fallen specimens per hectare, areas with only a few
uprooted trees and others untouched.
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Consequences of the cessation of traditional forest exploitation:
the example of the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park
Figure 1.
Uprooted beech tree
Source: Corpo Forestale dello Stato archive
It should be stressed that these problems of mechanical instability did not exist in times past, when
coppicing of the beech woodlands was practiced and when there were no red firs in the vegetation.
This can still be seen today in some contexts used as coppice and where red fir is not present. The
stumps of the coppiced beech-woods form a vegetation that is renewed at relatively brief intervals
of time, of a lower height than the tall trees and, more importantly, with a much lower dendrometric
mass per tree stump than that of an individual tree a few dozen metres tall and with a diameter that
can exceed 50 centimetres. in the case of coppiced woodland, the root apparatus can therefore guarantee solid anchoring to the ground, but it cannot for tall trees. Furthermore, the presence of red
fir within beech populations was much rarer in the past than nowadays, if it was not entirely absent.
On the one hand, red fir had great difficulty growing in coppiced beech woodland, which quickly
suffocated it with the vigorous growth of shoots, and on the other, it was very often eliminated by
the woodman’s axe, as it is a less prized species for the supply of firewood and/or charcoal.
5. Possible silvicultural interventions
The problems of mechanical instability described above inevitably reflect on the silvicultural operations
to be carried out in the forests. The interventions differ substantially from those usually implemented
in the alpine woodlands where, in cases of mechanical instability, the aim is essentially to regulate
the vegetation density with appropriate alternating cuts to reduce the value of the coefficient of form
(height-diameter ratio) of the trees to render them less slender and consequently more resistant to the
mechanical stresses imposed by the weight of snow and force of the wind (Mazzucchi 1983, La Marca
1983, Piussi 1986, Mazzucchi & Casagrande 1986, La Marca 1986, Mazzucchi 1998). The silvicultural
operations should therefore be aimed at giving priority to the mechanical stability of the forests, with
direct and indirect actions to tackle and/or remove the causes of uprooting of the trees.
A first, very topical, intervention in areas of the forest populations that might potentially present problems of mechanical instability and which are still coppiced, would be to maintain this form of management – where conditions allow and the estovers are positive. This could even just be temporary, until
the stability conditions of the vegetation improve. Moreover, the maintenance of coppiced sections
within the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park, even if partly for other reasons, is also included in some
management proposals drawn up by Forestry Technicians (Andrich 2005). Much more difficult, if not
purely theoretical, is the hypothesis of a return to coppicing of the forests, or wide areas of them that
are more subject to phenomena of mechanical instability. However, this solution on the one hand clashes with the laws that do not allow conversion from tall forest to coppiced woodland (with greater reason
in a protected area like a National Park), and on the other, with the practical difficulty of maintaining
coppicing in forest populations which, given their location and the resulting difficulties of logging, are
decidedly negative for estovers.
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Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
A second possibility, in the short-term, consists of maintaining the model of conversion to tall
trees, but with suitable interventions for a tall forest. The forest population, of pure beech or mixed
with red fir, would be monitored constantly to check when, at the different sites, the dendrometric
volume is reached (well represented by the diameter at breast height) that is the critical threshold
beyond which problems of mechanical instability begin to appear. Once the woodland has reached
that stage – whether or not it has reached maturity – it would be necessary to take silvicultural
measures to begin processes of natural renewal, applying rotations based on the critical dimension
threshold alone. If red firs are growing in the beech communities, given the fact that the problems
of mechanical instability usually appear in the conifer before the broadleaf, an intervention hypothesis could be to fell only the plants of red fir that might potentially present problems of uprooting,
leaving the beech population to a more prolonged growth.
A third intervention, planned for the medium– and long-term, would be to improve the soil conditions by favouring the pedogenic processes to render their properties more suitable for guaranteeing a solid anchorage for the plants. The aspect on which to intervene is that of increasing the soil
depth: confirmation of this is provided by situations that have been observed, either punctiform or
in small areas where, with deep soil, no gravel and in the absence of rocky outcrops, very large beech
trees are flourishing (with much greater diameters and heights than the trees apt to fall) and show
no problems of stability. To obtain an increase in the soil depth it is necessary to take action on the
accumulation of organic matter. As regards this, according to recent studies on the important role
of dead wood within forest ecosystems (Mason 2002, 2003, Tagliapietra 2003), the contribution of
leaf biomass alone is not considered sufficient. If it is wished to encourage a more rapid process of
soil improvement the contribution of dead wood of notable dimensions is also necessary.
6. Conclusions
As a consequence of the abandoning of traditional coppicing, the forests of silvicultural interest,
mainly beech-woods, growing in the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park present unusual problems of
mechanical instability. Unlike what usually occurs in alpine forests, in this case treefalls are caused
by harsh, but entirely normal, weather conditions (snowfalls and wind), with only single beech trees
or red firs being affected in vegetation at the stage of vigorous growth. the uprooting is facilitated
by the shallow soil that does not provide a solid anchorage for the roots. Given the fact that the
problem of natural treefalls currently affects “young” forests, it cannot be ruled out that that future
mechanical instability will no longer be restricted to isolated trees, but rather to groups of trees or
entire areas of woodland.
The silvicultural operations that are proposed in this paper consider different types of interventions that involve both the vegetation and the soil. Therefore, although it is no longer possible for
various reasons to re-introduce coppicing for all beech woodlands, it is equally advisable to temporarily retain this management form where conditions allow and problems of instability require it.
Felling should also be tested that aims, independently of the growth stages of the population, to
eliminate the unstable vegetation and best guarantee favourable conditions for natural regeneration, plus interspersed felling to encourage the establishment of tall trees, which leaves behind an
adequate amount of dead wood that is indispensable for improving the soil depth conditions, with
the distribution of organic matter that can offer a more solid anchorage for root systems. In this
way, by means of farsighted forestry operations, many of the causes of mechanical instability linked
to very shallow soils can eventually be removed, allowing the woodlands to grow and develop more
in line with the laws of forest ecology, reducing the impacts and effects of past human activities on
the vegetation to a minimum and optimising the many functions that forests have to offer.
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the example of the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park
7. References
Andreatta, G., 2003. Selvicoltura: gestione e salvaguardia dei popolamenti forestali. Professione
Montagna 71: 42-50.
Andrich, O., 2005. Progetto Speciale Selvicoltura e Piano di Riordino Forestale. Parco Nazionale
delle Dolomiti Bellunesi. Feltre (BL).
Argenti, C., Lasen, C., 2000. La flora. Parco Nazionale delle Dolomiti Bellunesi. Studi e Ricerche 3.
Feltre (BL).
Del Favero, R., Lasen, C., 1993. La vegetazione forestale del Veneto. Edizioni Progetto, Padova.
Hofmann, A., 1991. Il faggio e le faggete in Italia. M.A.F. – Corpo Forestale dello Stato, Collana
Verde 81: 14-17; 122-133.
Gellini, R., 1970. Botanica forestale. CLUSF, Firenze, I: 61-70; 91-97.
La Marca, O., 1983. Il problema degli schianti nei boschi. Ricerche sperimentali su alcuni popolamenti di conifere. Ann. Acc. Ital. Sc. For., 69-114.
La Marca, O., 1986. Gli schianti nei boschi: la gestione delle foreste e la difesa del suolo. Cellulosa
e Carta 4: 14-22.
Mason, F., 2002. Dinamica di una foresta della Pianura Padana – Bosco della Fontana. Corpo Forestale dello Stato – Centro Nazionale per lo Studio e la Conservazione della Biodiversità Forestale.
Arcari Editore, Mantova, 66-155.
Mason, F., 2003. Life nature project Nat/It/99/6245 “Bosco della Fontana: urgent conservation
actions on relict habitat”. In: Techniques for re-establishment of dead wood for saproxylic fauna
conservation. State Forestry Service – National Centre for the Study and Conservation of Forest
Biodiversity. Arcari Editore, Mantova, 17-22.
Mazzucchi, M., 1983. Neve e vento nell’alto bacino dell’Avisio: come mai tanti schianti nel bosco?
Linea Ecologica – E.M. 4: 8-14.
Mazzucchi, M., Casagrande, E., 1987. Bosco e neve: convivenza possibile a certe condizioni. Linea
Ecologica– E.M. 4: 3-10.
Mazzucchi, M., 1998. Perché cadono gli alberi? Aspetti tecnici e selvicolturali del fenomeno.
Sherwood 36: 5-10.
Pignatti, S., 1980. I piani di vegetazione in Italia. Giorn. Bot. Ital. 113: 411-428.
Piussi, P., 1986. Diradamenti e stabilità dei soprassuoli. Monti e Boschi 4: 9-13.
Posocco, F., 1970. Il Parco Nazionale delle Dolomiti Bellunesi: una proposta di riserva naturale per
la tutela del comprensorio pre-dolomitico veneto. Monti e Boschi 6: 7-20.
Sief, L., 1998. Selvicoltura e gestione delle aree protette, con particolare riguardo alle riserve naturali statali bellunesi. In: Atti della giornata preparatoria al secondo Congresso Nazionale di Selvicoltura. Regione Veneto, Direzione Foreste ed Economia Montana, 39-46.
Tagliapietra, A., 2003. The biological importance of dead wood. In: Techniques for re-establishment of dead wood for saproxylic fauna conservation. State Forestry Service – National Centre for
the Study and Conservation of Forest Biodiversity. Arcari Editore, Mantova, 23-29.
287
Techniche e attrezza per la valorizzazione del bene forestale
attraverso modelli de allevamento semibrado di suini
Matteo Barbari, Leonardo Conti & Francesco Sorbetti Guerri
Dipartimento di Ingegneria agraria e forestale,
Università degli Studi di Firenze, via San Bonaventura, 13-50145 Firenze, Italy
e-mail: matteo.barbari@unifi.it, leonardo.conti@unifi.it, francesco.sorbettiguerri@unifi.it
Abstract
In the last decades, our understanding of the principles regarding the relationship between the man
and the rural world has undergone significant changes. Innovative ideas for the evaluation of material and non-material forest resource values and sustainable forest management are reminiscent of
traditional forest resource management practices and values. For example, forests with little or no
economic value for wood production can find new functions through the use of secondary forest
products. Forest fruits, specifically acorns and chestnuts, can increase the value of livestock breeding systems (in particular for pigs) in order to improve animal nutrition and livestock quality as well
as to reduce the environmental impacts associated with their production, particularly their impact
on forest ecosystems. Italian and foreign experiences have been used to define common principles,
techniques and simple breeding structures (with reduced environmental impact) suitable for extensive pig breeding. These techniques can gain be highly profitable in high forest areas (for example in oak woods), which will have new, important, economic functions of enhanced aesthetic and
landscape value.
1. Introduzione
Secondo il Sereni (1962) col termine “paesaggio agrario” si deve intendere “quella forma che l’uomo,
nel corso ed ai fini delle sue attività produttive agricole, coscientemente e sistematicamente imprime al paesaggio
naturale”. In Italia, già prima della colonizzazione greca e della nascita delle città etrusche, i popoli
indigeni della penisola avevano iniziato a interagire, seppur sporadicamente e localmente, con gli
ambienti naturali dando inizio a quel processo di modellamento del paesaggio che, nel corso di fasi
storiche diverse, avrebbe portato ad una serie di trasformazioni permanenti del territorio fino agli
attuali assetti dello stesso.
Nel corso dei secoli l’interesse per l’utilizzazione rurale del territorio ha prodotto sia un rilevante
incremento delle terre messe a coltura, principalmente a scapito dei territori a foresta, che una profonda trasformazione di questi ultimi attraverso utilizzazioni economiche di vario tipo che hanno
accompagnato l’evolversi delle diverse civiltà e che hanno determinato il succedersi di forme di
assetto territoriale diverse.
Le aree forestali hanno rappresentato, nei tempi storici, una fonte essenziale di prodotti di varia
natura e, fondamentalmente, di prodotti materiali: in primis di legname ma anche di altre sostanze
di più disparata natura: i cosiddetti prodotti secondari del bosco, indispensabili alla vita delle comunità
rurali (selvaggina, frutti, erbe, secreti delle piante, ecc.).
Fra questi hanno sempre assunto un ruolo fondamentale i prodotti utili per l’allevamento del bestiame domestico (ghiande, castagne, faggiole, corniole, erbe, fogliame, radici, tuberi, ecc.) sia come
prodotti da asportare e da adoperare alla stalla che, e principalmente, come materiali utilizzabili
direttamente da parte degli animali attraverso il pascolamento del bosco, per integrare le spesso
insufficienti risorse foraggiere delle unità agricole.
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attraverso modelli de allevamento semibrado di suini
Il pascolo del bestiame nei boschi è un argomento di antichissima memoria e di stretta attinenza
con la gestione delle foreste. A tal proposto il Di Berenger (1859) nel trattare questo argomento nel
suo trattato “Studii di archeologia forestale” ricorda:
“Or quale relazione, dirà taluno, può avere tutto ciò (la pastorizia n.d.a.) con quest’opera di Storia ed Archeologia forestale? Noi francamente risponderemo: grande e strettissima. Premettasi il fatto che presso gli antichi
Greci e Romani la voce pascolo e bosco erano usate come sinonimi, ed in senso economico inseparabili; al modo
medesimo, che per noi pascolo e monte, non risguardano nel monte, o nella montagna, che un pascolo estivo;
d’onde il verbo monticare, per mandar gli animali ai pascoli montani …. Lo stesso vocabolo bosco (che altri
vorrebbe mal a proposito trarre dal tedesco Busch, cespuglio, macchia) proviene dal greco equisono βόσχω (bosco); e fino al XII secolo, chi diceva pascolo, esprimeva un ceduo concedente diritto di pascolo; non già una selva
(silva), nome generico di luogo boschivo.”
Anche il Pianigiani (1907), autore di uno dei più famosi vocabolari etimologici italiani, fra le altre
radici ricorda, concordando col predetto Autore, il possibile collegamento fra il termine “pascolo”
e il termine “bosco”.
Figura 1.
Nell’affresco che rappresenta gli effetti del
Buon Governo un quadro delle attività rurali
illustra anche un contadino che riporta dal
pascolo un suino di razza Cinta senese
(da A. Lorenzetti)
E in certe epoche storiche, coincidenti con fasi di ripresa dell’economia pastorale, si è assistito
a grande diffusione del paesaggio del saltus, “paesaggio”, a dirla con il Sereni (1962), “informe “ubi
silvae et pastiones sunt”, cioè di selve e pascoli: solo interrotto, semmai, da qualche piccolo appezzamento a coltura, ad uso dei pastori e dei guardiani”.
Occorre ricordare però che la diffusa abitudine a condurre il pascolo nei boschi ha rappresentato,
per molti secoli, anche uno dei più grossi problemi per la salvaguardia degli stessi e per la messa
in pratica di una efficace gestione forestale. Ricorda il Gabbrielli (1980), che “In Maremma, come del
resto in tutta la Toscana, il bosco era una delle principali fonti di pascolo per ogni genere di animali” e, citando documenti storici1 che danno informazioni sui boschi maremmani del ‘700, mette in evidenza
le basse provvigioni di dette foreste e ne imputa le cause a due fattori: “i tagli intensi e devastatori,
protrattisi ininterrottamente dal 1740 ad oltre il’70 in tutta la Maremma, e la vitale necessità di conservare
1 Ristretto della qualità e quantità prossimamente delle piante da costruzione e da carbone che si ritrovano nelle boscaglie situate negli
infrascritti territori e che superano la grossezza di mezzo braccio di diametro colla estensione e misura parimenti prossima, del suolo occupato da dette boscaglie tralasciando gli spazi di macchia bassa ove non esistono dette piante (A.S.F. Miscell. Finanze 539 in Gabbrielli,
1980
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Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
a pascolo per ogni genere di animali vastissime estensioni di macchie e boscaglie” … “Così la dogana2 del Tallone
in territorio di Manciano “bosco di cerri con poche farnie” era in grado di ricevere in tempo di ghianda dai 16
ai 17 mila maiali. Si calcolava che si trovassero sottoposte a dogana “36 mila moggia di terreno (circa 108 mila
ettari) nella Maremma … e si aveva un carico di 3043 vacche, 1085 cavalli, 10.046 porci, 73.246 fra pecore e
capre, una cosa come 350 mila zoccoli fra piccoli e grandi. E altrettanti pascolavano nelle bandite.
In tutte le epoche le vicende della storia forestale italiana sono state quindi caratterizzate da dibattiti incentrati sulle relazioni fra il patrimonio boschivo e il pascolo; nel corso dei secoli numerosi
autori hanno affrontato, in modo ricorrente, questo tema mettendo in evidenza i danni che il pascolo indiscriminato può produrre al bene forestale, altre volte evidenziando i benefici economici che
possono derivare da tale pratica. In questo ultimo caso si è spesso insistito sul valore aggiunto che
il pascolo può attribuire al bene forestale, sia in termini monetari diretti che in termini di interesse
alla conservazione e alla tutela dello stesso. Ma in tutte le epoche, comunque, norme specifiche
hanno cercato di regolare il pascolo del bestiame nel bosco, a testimonianza di quanto sia stata
sempre viva l’attenzione nei confronti di tale pratica.
E, per quanto riguarda il bosco, spesso le idee innovative che mirano alla rivalutazione dei beni materiali e immateriali nell’ottica di una gestione forestale sostenibile, riportano a schemi e a modelli
antichi, a prodotti e funzioni da tempo dimenticati.
Così, oggi, boschi con scarse o nulle potenzialità economiche per quanto riguarda la produzione
legnosa possono trovare valorizzazione attraverso l’esaltazione di nuove funzioni biologiche, sociali, economiche, ecc. Fra queste ultime pare utile ricordare, ad esempio, l’utilizzazione di prodotti
forestali secondari come ghiande e frutti del sottobosco idonei a valorizzare modelli di allevamento
zootecnico (in particolare suini) che tendano sempre più alla salvaguardia del benessere animale,
alla riduzione dell’impatto ambientale, a fornire produzioni di alto pregio ottenute nel completo
rispetto delle prescrizioni igienico-sanitarie. E ciò, se condotto attraverso pratiche razionali, potrebbe contribuire anche a fornire nuovi valori al bene forestale.
Negli ultimi decenni, sull’onda della profonda trasformazione sociale ed economica che ha investito il nostro Paese, anche i principi che avevano ispirato per un lungo periodo i rapporti dell’uomo
col mondo agricolo e forestale hanno subito cambiamenti significativi. Dopo un primo e non breve
periodo di disorientamento che aveva determinato una profonda crisi di identità nell’assetto del territorio, si sta finalmente assistendo allo svilupparsi di una nuova visione delle funzioni del mondo
rurale specialmente nei comprensori più marginali e meno produttivi come sono, in Italia, le aree
collinari e montane dell’Appennino.
Una più matura consapevolezza dell’esigenza di salvaguardia del bene ambientale, un sempre più
diffuso riconoscimento della necessità di difendere e ampliare la biodiversità, la maggiore attenzione agli aspetti legati alle produzioni “naturali”, “di nicchia”, “biologiche”, ecc. l’accettazione del
principio della multifunzionalità del bene forestale, assieme a innumerevoli altre considerazioni,
hanno contribuito a definire nuovi obbiettivi, finalità e funzioni del mondo rurale e forestale.
2 boschi di proprietà del Granduca venivano definiti Dogane e in Maremma erano in mano al Magistrato dei Paschi di Siena. Queste potevano essere affittata a privati o data per fida ai forestieri, mentre non era previsto alcun pagamento per gli abitanti del luogo. I boschi delle
Comunità o dei privati erano detti Bandite e potevano essere per usi quando i proprietari ivi residenti potevano far pascolare il bestiame
gratuitamente nell’ambito del loro terreno, mentre si chiamavano per fida quando erano per uso della comunità. I comunisti, ovvero i titolari di diritti della comunità, potevano far pascere il loro bestiame pagando una tassa proporzionale al numero dei capi.
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2. L’allevamento dei suini all’aperto
Quando si parla di allevamento suinicolo all’aperto è necessario precisare a quale tipologia si fa
riferimento. Sono infatti numerose le forme di conduzione possibili. Le modalità di allevamento di
suini all’aperto in Italia possono essere distinte in:
allevamento intensivo all’aperto (“en plein air”);
allevamento semibrado;
allevamento brado.
L’allevamento intensivo all’aperto (o allevamento “en plein air”) è una forma di allevamento indicata
soprattutto laddove si disponga di terreni non particolarmente produttivi dal punto di vista agronomico, e quindi non utilizzabili per altre coltivazioni, e non si disponga, invece, di ampie aree
da destinare al libero pascolo degli animali e comunque si voglia praticare un allevamento di tipo
intensivo. Per tali motivi i suini sono tenuti in recinti all’aperto ma il loro allevamento, che prevede
densità elevate, ricalca le tecniche di conduzione previste negli allevamenti intensivi al chiuso.
L’allevamento semibrado si presenta come un insieme diversificato di soluzioni intermedie fra l’intensivo e il brado e viene praticato, in Italia, in quelle aziende dove sono presenti superfici agrarie
idonee al pascolo di modeste dimensioni ma anche superfici forestali adeguate per estensione, specie arboree presenti, forme di governo e di trattamento a fornire alimento di pregio in talune fasi di
allevamento. Solo i soggetti all’ingrasso, nella fase di finissaggio, usufruiscono infatti del pascolo in
bosco nel periodo della caduta di ghiande e castagne mentre, a volte, le scrofe in gestazione vengono
fatte pascolare su erbai.
Il breve periodo di pascolo in bosco, condotto quando sono presenti abbondanti frutti, e l’adozione
di accorgimenti specifici consente di minimizzare l’impatto sull’ambiente forestale ed è in genere
sufficiente a garantire un notevole miglioramento delle caratteristiche organolettiche delle carni e,
quindi, a favorire la valorizzazione economica dei prodotti.
L’allevamento brado, al contrario, viene condotto in bosco o in terreni non attrezzati nei quali gli
animali sono liberi di svolgere tutte le funzioni vitali senza rilevanti interventi gestionali da parte
dell’uomo e senza apporti alimentari sistematici.
Questo sistema richiede la disponibilità di estese superfici boschive e pascolive in grado di fornire
produzioni di alimento in tutte le fasi dell’anno.
L’allevamento brado nel senso più stretto comprende tutte le fasi del ciclo produttivo, ma nella realtà
italiana si riscontra solo in aree geografiche molto particolari e circoscritte (Sardegna e Sicilia).
Sia l’allevamento semibrado che quello brado si rivolgono principalmente a razze rustiche autoctone o a incroci fra queste e suini bianchi, per la particolare robustezza, resistenza alle malattie e
attitudine di questi animali a vivere allo stato libero e ad alimentarsi in modo naturale al pascolo.
Nell’ultimo decennio il sistema di allevamento all’aperto dei suini ha avuto una diffusione crescente
in Europa; per esempio, in Inghilterra è allevato, con questa tecnica, il 20-25% del patrimonio nazionale di riproduttori suini, mentre in Francia tale quota è arrivata in alcune annate a circa il 10%.
Attualmente l’allevamento dei suini all’aperto è praticato in misura variabile in molti altri Paesi
europei ed extraeuropei.
In Italia a partire dall’inizio degli anni’90 hanno cominciato a svilupparsi diverse forme di allevamento all’aperto, con tutta la gamma di differenti tipologie descritte. L’allevamento all’aperto, che
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Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
all’inizio ha riguardato principalmente i riproduttori, oggi è esteso anche alla fase d’ingrasso, con
particolare riferimento al finissaggio, per la produzione di suini di qualità superiore. Gli eventuali
maggiori costi per l’ingrasso dei suini all’aperto possono essere compensati da una maggiore remunerazione alla vendita, attuabile nell’ambito di produzioni di qualità quali marchi individuali
o collettivi, sistemi qualità (DOP, IGP, Label rouge), produzioni biologiche, ecc.
Figura 2.
Suini al pascolo nei boschi della Montagnola senese
(F. Sorbetti Guerri)
In Italia il numero di allevamenti all’aperto è ancora esiguo rispetto a quello degli allevamenti intensivi al chiuso; tuttavia nell’ultimo decennio i primi hanno avuto una diffusione crescente sia
nell’ambito delle produzioni biologiche sia per l’allevamento di suini di razze autoctone destinati
alla produzione di alimenti tipici di alta qualità.
Tra le realtà di allevamento brado o semibrado più rappresentative in Italia sono da citare quelle del
centro e sud Italia (Cinta Senese e, in misura minore, Romagnola, Calabrese e Casertana) e quella
della Sicilia (Nero Siciliano).
3. Possibilità e limiti del pascolo suino in bosco
Oggi le possibilità di pascolo degli animali di interesse zootecnico e faunistico sono regolamentate
da leggi forestali. In Toscana la normativa forestale (LR 39 del 21/03/2000) consente il pascolo nei
boschi attribuendo al regolamento forestale, e alle competenze di Province e Comunità montane,
la sua disciplina.
In particolare, per quanto riguarda il pascolo suino, il Regolamento forestale della Toscana prevede
la possibilità di allevamento in aree recintate con l’immissione al pascolo di un numero di animali
e l’adozione di modalità di pascolo “commisurati alla effettiva possibilità di pascolo ed in modo da
evitare danni ai boschi, ai pascoli ed ai suoli” (art. 86). A tali fini lo stesso regolamento esclude la
possibilità di pascolo in presenza di talune forme di trattamento del bosco, in certe fasi di accrescimento del soprassuolo, nei boschi percorsi da incendio o qualora si verifichino o siano prevedibili
danni rilevanti ai boschi, ai pascoli o ai suoli per pascolo disordinato o eccessivo.
In questa regione è inoltre presente un vastissimo patrimonio forestale che risulta idoneo alla produzione di alimenti necessari per l’allevamento suino (querceti e castagneti in particolare). Per tale
motivo in questi ultimi anni si sta notevolmente diffondendo, come si è detto sopra, l’utilizzazione
del bosco come terreno di pascolo. Ma ciò avviene spesso senza porre in pratica quelle attenzioni
che devono essere adottate per rendere razionali le tecniche di allevamento e sostenibile lo sfruttamento delle risorse naturali.
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attraverso modelli de allevamento semibrado di suini
4. Tecnologie e attrezzature
Una razionale gestione dell’allevamento suino semibrado prevede:
l’adozione di adeguati criteri e tecniche di controllo per la turnazione del pascolo,
l’adozione di accorgimenti di limitazione del grufolamento e la realizzazione di recinzioni per
consentire la protezione del bosco e la salvaguardia sanitaria degli animali,
la realizzazione di strutture di allevamento di basso impatto ambientale.
Figura 3.
Monitoraggio del pascolamento con metodologie
GPS ed elaborazione in ambiente GIS (L. Conti)
4.1. Criteri e tecniche di controllo
Nello studio delle dinamiche di distribuzione degli animali sul territorio, la bibliografia in materia
mostra come negli anni si sia passati dalla semplice indagine visiva, all’utilizzo di strumentazioni
più adeguate che hanno permesso di passare da osservazioni sporadiche a valutazioni dettagliate
dei movimenti giornalieri e dell’uso dell’habitat da parte degli animali (Rodgers et al., 1996).
La continua evoluzione delle apparecchiature che utilizzano sistemi di posizionamento satellitare (GPS) ha permesso lo sviluppo di studi sugli spostamenti e sulla intensità di frequentazione
di aree diverse degli animali al pascolo, al fine di favorire e razionalizzare sistemi di allevamento
estensivi.
I dati di posizionamento GPS rilevati possono essere gestiti, con altri dati informativi territoriali,
in Sistemi Informativi Geografici (GIS) con lo scopo di analizzare e valutare le effettive caratteristiche comportamentali degli animali e il diverso grado di utilizzazione delle realtà pascolive
considerate (Fig. 3.).
Ciò può consentire di prevedere e gestire una corretta turnazione dei pascoli massimizzando la
loro produttività e limitando eventuali danni da sovrapascolamento.
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Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
4.2. Metodi e attrezzature per la protezione del bosco
Figura 4.
Doppia recinzione elettrificata per la gestione
del pascolo suino (M.Barbari)
La limitazione dei danni da pascolamento dei suini può essere oggi facilmente conseguita sia applicando anelli nasali antigrufolamento (che sono in grado di impedire i ben noti fenomeni di scalzamento del terreno tipici dei suini) sia frazionando le zone di pascolo. In tali aree la realizzazione
di adeguate recinzioni può consentire o precludere l’attività di pascolamento laddove si siano
esaurite le risorse alimentari costituite dai frutti caduti dagli alberi. La realizzazione di opportune
recinzioni rappresenta quindi l’esigenza di base per organizzare l’allevamento dei suini all’aperto.
La soluzione tecnica più semplice è rappresentata dalle recinzioni elettrificate, di tipo analogo
a quelle utilizzate per il pascolo di altri animali domestici (bovini, ovini, equini) (Fig. 4.).
Figura 5.
Semplice sistema di protezione del fusto di una
quercia all’intero di un recinto di concentrazione
di suini. (F. Sorbetti Guerri)
Questo tipo di recinzione permette, con costi accettabili, di confinare gli animali in aree di
dimensioni adeguate ed organizzate in base alle diverse fasi di allevamento e alle specifiche esigenze gestionali. Vengono comunemente usate però anche recinzioni in rete di tipo tradizionale.
Lungo il perimetro dell’allevamento è sempre opportuno prevedere un’adeguata recinzione in
rete per limitare il rischio di intrusione di animali selvatici dall’esterno. La soluzione migliore
consiste in una recinzione fissa in pali di castagno piantati nel terreno a una profondità non inferiore a 0,5 m e con un interasse di 1,5-2 m; sui pali sono fissati una robusta rete elettrosaldata
in acciaio zincato, a maglia quadrata o a maglia esagonale, dell’altezza di 1,5 m e, a volte, almeno tre ordini di filo spinato, di cui uno installato lungo il bordo superiore e gli altri due fissati
lungo il bordo inferiore in prossimità del terreno. Contro l’ingresso di cinghiali di grossa taglia
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Techniche e attrezza per la valorizzazione del bene forestale
attraverso modelli de allevamento semibrado di suini
la recinzione fissa deve essere installata prevedendo l’interramento di parte della rete metallica
fino alla profondità di 0,3-0,5 m. Recinzioni di questo tipo possono essere utilizzate anche per
la partizione interna dei recinti. Risulta sempre e comunque indispensabile prevedere doppie
recinzioni principalmente per motivi di protezione sanitaria dei suini allevati.
Nelle zone di pascolo maggiormente frequentate da parte degli animali, nelle aree di concentrazione degli stessi, vicino alle attrezzature di alimentazione e abbeveraggio, la parte basale del
tronco delle piante di maggiori dimensioni situate all’interno dei recinti deve essere protetta con
reti o altri materiali in modo da impedire lo scortecciamento dei fusti (Fig. 5.).
4.3. Strutture di allevamento
Figura 6.
Capannina-parto in legno progettata dagli autori
pronta per l’effettuazione di prove comparative
(L.Conti)
Per ottenere un miglioramento in termini di prestazioni produttive dei suini allevati allo stato
semibrado si deve, innanzitutto puntare a ottimizzare la gestione della fase parto e allattamento.
A tale scopo occorre raggiungere l’obbiettivo di ridurre le perdite di suinetti dopo il parto, minimizzando il numero delle perdite per schiacciamento e riducendo i rischi di attacchi da parte di
predatori, quali volpi, lupi, cani, ecc.
Alla luce di tali considerazioni risulta importante prevedere l’utilizzo di semplici manufatti, quali capannine mobili, ben dimensionate, dotate di accorgimenti atti a ridurre le perdite di suinetti
per schiacciamento, a consentire una adeguata protezione dei suinetti e costituire un ambiente
climaticamente confortevole per la scrofa allattante e la sua nidiata. Varie tipologie di strutture
possono essere reperiti sul mercato ma, anche per rispondere in modo adeguato ad esigenze
economiche e di corretto inserimento ambientale, potrebbe essere opportuno far ricorso alla
costruzione in azienda delle stesse utilizzando materiali il più possibile “ecologici”, facilmente
lavorabili e in grado di offrire prestazioni funzionali ottimali al manufatto stesso.
A tal riguardo, presso il Dipartimento di Ingegneria agraria e forestale dell’Università di Firenze
sono stati progettati e realizzati due diversi modelli di capannine parto. Il primo modello (Fig. 6.)
a pianta rettangolare (1,20x2,30 m) presenta sezione trasversale ad “A”, ed è interamente costruito con pali e tavole di legno non trattato e di produzione locale. La capannina è attrezzata in
basso con elementi laterali antischiacciamento in legno tondo, posti all’altezza di 0,25 m da terra
e presenta un cupolino mobile in lamiera di rame per migliorare la ventilazione e una finestra
regolabile sul lato opposto a quello in cui è ricavata la porta di ingresso.
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Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
La capannina è priva di pavimento e viene collocata a terra, avendo cura di predisporre una basamento sopraelevato e quindi sempre asciutto da ricoprire con paglia.
Il secondo modello (Fig. 7), a forma di arco, è costituito da una struttura di copertura in rete
metallica elettrosaldata, collegata mediante saldatura a un telaio di base in tubolare di acciaio;
la struttura è tamponata con presse di paglia rettangolari collocate sulla copertura e sui lati anteriore e posteriore. Le dimensioni sono di 2,20 m di lunghezza, 2,70 m di larghezza e 1,25 m
di altezza. Anteriormente è predisposta una porta di accesso di 0,70 m di larghezza e 0,90 m di
altezza, mentre sul lato opposto è ricavata un’apertura per la ventilazione.
Queste capannine sono state testate, assieme ad altri modelli commerciali, per oltre tre anni
presso varie aziende della Toscana ed hanno dimostrato un’ottima risposta alle esigenze di allevamento, sia nel periodo estivo che in quello invernale, e un particolare gradimento da parte
degli animali.
Fra i principali pregi di tali strutture si evidenziano la semplicità di realizzazione, il modestissimo costo dei materiali occorrenti, il gradevole inserimento ambientale e, soprattutto, la facilità
di gestione a fine ciclo, dei materiali con cui sono realizzate.
Nel caso della capannina in legno la durata di vita è ovviamente maggiore (fino a 10 anni senza
interventi considerevoli di manutenzione) e comunque il legno, non trattato con preservanti,
può essere facilmente riciclato.
Nel caso della capannina in paglia risulta semplicissima la rimozione e lo smaltimento delle vecchie presse (quando si sono deteriorate) e la loro sostituzione con altre nuove.
Figura 7.
Capannina in paglia in fase di realizzazione
(F. Sorbetti Guerri)
5. Conclusioni
L’antica pratica del pascolo degli animali domestici nei boschi ha creato innumerevoli problemi alla
selvicoltura di tutte le epoche ma ha anche contribuito a permettere a molte civiltà di superare i momenti più critici delle propria storia. Crediamo che sia sostenibile oggi proporre ancora il pascolo
nel bosco e riscoprire in chiave moderna questa antica pratica dal momento che la nostra cultura
e la nostra società attribuiscono un valore fondamentale alla salvaguardia dell’ambiente e possono
essere quindi in grado di attivare strumenti di controllo in altri tempi impensabili.
Esperienze italiane e straniere dimostrano che un corretto e attento pascolo del bosco, limitato nelle stagioni dell’anno e nel carico ammesso, può attribuire nuove funzioni e nuovi valori al bene forestale e può essere attività che si confà con certe forme selvicolturali che privilegiano la presenza nei
soprassuoli di un numero elevato di piante in grado di produrre abbondanti fruttificazioni. Forme
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Techniche e attrezza per la valorizzazione del bene forestale
attraverso modelli de allevamento semibrado di suini
di pascolamento che potremmo definire “leggere”, come quelle limitate alla sola fase di finissaggio
dei suini, sono tuttavia sufficienti a conferire particolari caratteristiche organolettiche e particolare
valore ai prodotti. Il pascolo dei suini in bosco non richiede quindi oggi uno sfruttamento continuato di questo ambiente ma presuppone il solo uso limitato di certi suoi frutti. Queste forme di
allevamento non richiedono inoltre la realizzazione di strutture fisse e impattanti, ma al contrario
soluzioni mobili e leggere che potrebbero rappresentare le nuove proposte costruttive conformi ad
una gestione zootecnica sostenibile del bene forestale.
Bibliografia
Barbari M., Conti L., Koostra B. K., Masi G., Sorbetti Guerri F., Workman S. R., 2005. Il monitoraggio GPS-GIS del pascolo semibrado. In: VIII Convegno Nazionale A.I.I.A., L’ingegneria agraria
per lo sviluppo sostenibile dell’area mediterranea, Catania. Pp 1-12.
Barbari M., Bianchi M., Conti L., Masi G., Monti M., Pellegrini P., Sorbetti Guerri F., 2004.
Solutions for the farrowing of outdoor kept sows. In: International Symposium of the C.I.G.R.,
New Trends in Farm Building, Evora (Portugal).
Conti L., 2005. Il monitoraggio del pascolo bovino semibrado: studio di una metodologia di analisi
ambientale mediante applicazioni GPS-GIS. Tesi di Dottorato di ricerca in Ingegneria Agro-Forestale, Università degli Studi di Firenze.
Gabbrielli A., 1980, Selvicoltura toscana nel ‘700 (prima parte). Annali Accademia italiana di scienze forestali, Firenze, pp. 211-242.
Gabbrielli A., 1985, Selvicoltura toscana nel ‘700 (seconda parte). Annali Accademia italiana di
scienze forestali, Firenze, pp. 179-226.
Di Berenger A., 1965. Studii di archeologia forestale. Accademia Italiana di Scienze Forestali,
Firenze.
Rodgers A. R., Rempel S., Abraham K. F., 1996. A GPS based telemetry system. Wildlife Society
Bulletin 24: 559-566.
Sereni E., 1962. Storia del paesaggio agrario italiano. Editori Laterza Bari.
297
Recent changes in the landscape spatial pattern of forest lands in Italy:
a local assessment
Anna Barbati, Geppino Carnevale, Piermaria Corona & Marco Marchetti
Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Ambiente Forestale e delle sue Risorse
Università della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Most European landscapes result from a long-lasting land use history. In Italy, starting from the
Roman time, extensive tracts of forest lands were cleared and accommodated to human use for
agriculture, which created cultural landscapes with unique land use mosaics. Different historical
stages with varying technical, cultural and socio-economical conditions overlaid with time, creating present day cultural landscapes. Forests are an important component of land use mosaics. In
uplands forestland appears as the dominant land cover type, with non-forest patches interspersed
within (agricultural, scrubland, grassland, urban, etc.); as the land quality for non-forest uses increases, the cultural footprint on forest landscape pattern becomes increasingly evident, with forest
found interspersed in agricultural mosaics. Socio-economic and technological changes in agriculture, urbanization and forest fires are the main drivers of changes in the landscape pattern of forest
land in Italy: e.g. urbanization often fragments intact forest tracts near urban areas, farmland abandonment adjacent to existing forest patches favours the natural expansion of forestland, forest fires
open new successional processes. Land cover maps are a key tool for monitoring and quantifying
these changes in a given territory, as they provide geo-referenced information on the distribution
of ecosystems and land use by human activities. In Europe, notably, the Corine Land Cover (CLC)
database is available for the years 1990 and 2000 providing comparable and consistent pictures of
the spatial arrangement of forest in the context of the surrounding landscape, at a fairly detailed
scale for a national application (1:100.000). In Italy, for selected geographical areas of central and
southern and central Italy, a CLC database for the year 1980 has been also produced. Based on the
available CLC 1980 and 2000 coverage, the paper investigates how the use of land for human activities (e.g. extension of settlement areas and infrastructures, intensification of agriculture) or conversely land abandonment (e.g. withdrawal of farming in rural areas) has affected in the past twenty
years the spatial pattern of forest land. Local changes in forest landscape pattern are also quantified
by means of landscape spatial metrics applied to CLC maps (class area, number of patches, Mean
Patch Size, Mean Nearest Neighbour).
298
Two Pines and the Native Tradition of Burning North American Landscapes
Gary B. Blank
North Carolina State University
Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources
Raleigh, NC 27695-8002
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Pinus echinata and P. palustris (Shortleaf and Longleaf) both occupy landscapes that evolved since
the last glacial cover retreated from eastern North America. Both species have characteristics that
allow them to tolerate fire at low intensity, whether ground fires are ignited naturally or by humans.
Millennia of fire management in the landscape of North America created vast areas where these
species occurred in pure and mixed forest stands. Changes in burning practice brought about by
population and related land use changes, especially federal emphasis on fire suppression in the 20th
century, have reduced the forest area where these two pine species compete effectively with other
species. Changes in land use pattern toward residential and commercial development make the potential for reinstating landscape scale fire regimes problematic. Efforts toward long term conservation and future site restoration that include these species must consider that their fire dependency
poses an impediment.
1. Introduction
Since retreat of the most recent glacial cover from eastern North America, forests have altered in
response to changes in climate and in human habitation of landscapes (Dickinson 2000). Primeval
forest development in the landscape of southeastern North America occurred in the presence of
repeated and extensive but usually low-intensity fires. In fact, as Frost (1998) illustrates convincingly, fire-modified landscapes existed throughout the 48 contiguous United States. Intense Indian
manipulation of North American landscapes until the natives’ demise in the 17th to 19th centuries
is finally being appreciated (Mann 2005).
Two pine species, Pinus echinata and P. palustris (Shortleaf and Longleaf) benefited enormously from
this prevalence of fire. Conversely, populations of both species have been profoundly, detrimentally affected by diminution of fire frequency and extent. Following European settlement in the
landscape, subsequent agriculture practices, modern forestry preferences, and current residential
development trends have imposed substantial constraints on the natural landscapes that these two
species would otherwise occupy. This paper examines relationships among their habitats, their
characteristics and their prospects for persisting in a modern world of markedly different land use
and vegetation management practices.
2. Fire Effects on Two Southern Pines
Effects on our two pine species as they evolved in fire prevalent regions are important. In fact, presence of these two species across large portions of North America gives strong evidence that Indians
burned widely and frequently. For when fire ceases to occur in the forest, both of these species eventually disappear. We recently documented decline of longleaf recruitment on one North Carolina
site over several decades (Blank 2004).
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Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
Fire-adaptive mechanisms of P. echinata and P. palustris are similar in some respects but different in
others. When mature, both trees have thick lower bark that protects cambium from heat of ground
fires. In developing stands, both species readily lose lower branches as crowns grow, preventing
ground fires from climbing into canopies. P. echinata, able to sprout after fire at young ages and
tolerant of moderate fire when mature, competes with hardwoods, persisting as fire-coppices and
in mixed stands over the long term on dry upland sites. Mature longleaf, with its abundant needle
production and annual shedding of old needles, creates a fire-prone condition that limits existence
of its competition. Meanwhile, longleaf seedlings endure a “grass stage” during which they develop
deep tap roots and buds that withstand low intensity fire though it chars their needles.
That fires occurred across landscapes of North America in prehistory and even since the arrival of
Europeans is now known (Frost 1993, 1998; Mann 2005). Smoke from this burning was remarked
by early explorers sailing along the eastern coast of North America, and effects on vegetation structure were observed by those who later penetrated the Southeastern interior. Indians burned to
maintain open canopy hunting grounds where herbivorous mammals and bird species could forage.
They burned to favor natural nutritional plants for their consumption, and they opened areas to
maize, squash and other crop cultivation. They burned to afford greater visibility and protection
from marauding enemies.
To understand the implications of this burning, we have to consider the concept of fire compartments: areas of the landscape where climate (humidity and heat) and terrain features (generally
flat to rolling) combine to allow fires from random ignitions to spread until they encounter natural
barriers. Barriers could be zones too wet to burn (inundated or moist riparian zones) or abrupt
downward terrain changes. The barriers must be downward slopes because upward terrain changes
enhance fire mobility as heat rises. Clearly in rugged terrain fire compartments are smaller than in
flatter terrain, but on the Great Plains compartments are huge. In the range of both longleaf and
shortleaf fire compartment size varies widely.
3. Historic Range
P. echinata occurs across a range of 1.14 million km2 (Table 1.), while the range of P. palustris includes
only 444,600 km2 (Mattoon 1915). Both species naturally occurred in mixed and pure stands across
their range, depending on site conditions. Estimates of area occupied by P. palustris stands within its
range exceed 24 million hectares (Means, 1996, Frost, 1993). Although Mattoon (1915) notes that
the commercial range of P. echinata was smaller than the total range, he does not provide a figure
for area dominated by the species. Together, P. echinata and P. palustris in the landscape bracketed
nutritionally richer sites typically dominated by deciduous forests, though P. echinata was usually
a component in hardwood forests as well (Mattoon 1915).
Observations about the appearance of the forests at various points make it clear that they were very
different from most forests we have today. Fire would have reduced competition and favored the
older and better established trees able to withstand both intermittent and frequent burning. Even
in the foothills, broadly open stands of trees were prevalent. Regarding the Coastal Plain, some
people now talk about longleaf pines being the keystone component of a pyro-climax community
across large areas of southern North America. Hence, the model of forest succession toward closed
canopy deciduous forest seems largely inapplicable wherever fire prevailed in the distant past.
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Two Pines and the Native Tradition of Burning North American Landscapes
Table 1. Comparative Distribution of Eight Pine Species in the U.S. (from Mattoon 1915)
Species
Ar Area of Distribution (km2)
States Represented
Shortleaf
1,144,000
24
White pine
990,600
23
Pitch pine
936,000
19
Western yellow pine
910,000
14
Scrub pine
824,200
14
Red pine
780,000
14
Loblolly pine
767,000
13
L Longleaf pine
444,600
10
4. Traditional and Changing Land Use Practices
We are limited in what we can say precisely about early Indians’ burning frequency at any particular
location. Moreover, relatively little documentation exists concerning practices at particular places
by settlers who moved into lands abandoned by Indians. Yet, evidence from various explorers’ accounts as mentioned above and extrapolations of historic vegetation studies provide convincing
arguments of Indian use of fire on a broad scale. We also know burning to maintain grazing forage
persisted in the central and southern Appalachian Mountains until the early 20th century and was
a major focus of federal fire control policy directed toward the states. Wahlenberg (1946) mistakenly decried frequent understory burning as detrimental to longleaf as late as the mid 20th century.
So even long after European colonization, woodland grazing and low intensity burning worked to
the advantage of shortleaf and longleaf pines in certain places.
But the major change in burning practices occurred as a result of catastrophic declines in native
populations plagued by introduced diseases. When native populations dwindled, their ancient tradition of wholesale landscape management suffered from neglect in a downward spiral of reduced
manpower, reduced resource demand, and eventual abandonment of large territories previously
under conscious management to meet game forage and human nutritional requirements (Mann
2005). The replacement regimes, colonists’ enclosure of pastures and conversion of land to plantation agriculture followed by later settlers carving out farms on the frontier, had pervasive effects.
Burning became more sporadic or ceased altogether. However, local conditions and ownership patterns varied considerably, with large plantation and small yeoman farm holders implementing different land use patterns with respect to land clearance and grazing.
One of the biggest overall changes was that Europeans extracted timber for building and to fuel
proto-industrial processes brought with them from the old world. The characteristics and qualities
of these species as mature trees made them likely to be extracted from mixed forests for domestic
use and commercial products during earliest landscape transformation. Selectively felling pines
that could be hewn and sawn into building material, colonists also began to change forest regeneration. Harvesting of both species for timber was widespread and, after 1720, P. palustris extraction
for tar and turpentine production endured for two centuries. Shortleaf in mixed forests persisted
to the extent they were periodically disturbed and openings created could regenerate with some
pine. In contrast, growth habits of longleaf pine pose disadvantages in mixed stands. Sporadic seed
production compared to shortleaf and loblolly pine (P. taeda) and the long duration of seedling
establishment, or “grass stage” of longleaf cedes growing space to competition. On relatively good
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Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
sites, other pines and hardwoods both get a better start and then maintain their advantage. Absent
fire or other release from competition, these competitors overwhelm longleaf seedlings and lead to
suppression of longleaf trees in the under story, possibly for many years, as we have seen on the
Harris Research Tract (Blank 2004).
Land clearance for agriculture and pasturage changed dynamics of tree species interaction even
more significantly, but the temporal scale was important. As Trimble (1974) demonstrates, scales
of agricultural production varied across the Piedmont both by region and timeframe. Thus, the
general trends that disfavored our two pine species might be mitigated in certain locations for
longer periods. Substantial land clearing through colonial and antebellum periods was followed by
considerable farmland abandonment in the post-Civil War era. Christensen (1989) says “there is
no doubt that shortleaf pine was a more successful invader in fields abandoned during the nineteenth century than in those abandoned after 1930” (p.122). Fields abandoned in the 1800s lacked
lime and nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers so “were probably considerably more sterile than their
twentieth-century counterparts”. Shortleaf stands in parts of the Piedmont landscape were mature
enough to harvest on considerable acreages by the early twentieth century.
Considering the landscape in 1915 and the position of shortleaf pine, as what Mattoon identifies
as the only commercial conifer on 29.5 million hectares, gives us some idea of its impending fate.
Harvest of mature shortleaf pine in this period occurred when regeneration by a variety of other
species was possible. Moreover, in the early 20th century, imposition of federal policy to reduce fires
tipped the balance against shortleaf and longleaf. Intentional ignitions were controlled and discouraged and accidental ignitions were extinguished as quickly as possible.
As early as 1915 Mattoon notes that “in the upper portions of the Atlantic coastal plain [shortleaf]
is to a considerable extent being replaced by loblolly pine on abandoned fields. The early clearing
for agriculture of the lighter and better drained soils greatly decreased the shortleaf trees and correspondingly increased the relative proportion of loblolly seed trees, which were left growing along
the watercourses and on low heavy soils” (p.3). He also notes that “by the thinning or removal of
the valuable shortleaf pine, opportunity [was] afforded for the more rapid reproduction of tolerant
hardwoods already on the ground. Thus some territory formerly dominated by shortleaf in mixture
is now held almost exclusively by hardwoods” (Mattoon 1915).
5. Current Status and Implications
Regarding these two pine species, we can see that growth habits and changes in uses of landscapes
conflicted. Characteristic adaptations that fostered survival in fire–prevalent landscapes were less
advantageous when forest management policy suppressed fire. Both species now appear peripherally important as commercial pines in forests of the Southeast United States. Less conducive conditions for regeneration and persistence of both species throughout their historic ranges was the
inevitable result of the focus on commercial management and protection of the forest resource.
South and Buckner (2003) estimated a 40 percent reduction in southern acreage of shortleaf pine
stands between 1953 and 1997 (1.25 million hectares) coupled with a loss of 526, 315 hectares (36%)
of northern mixed pine stands that included shortleaf. In 1986, Smalley observed that “the acreage
of shortleaf pine plantations established on old-fields [was] declining. Little agricultural land [was]
being abandoned, and practically none [was] being planted to shortleaf. Owners [were] replanting
harvested acres with the faster growing loblolly pine” (132). Smalley did note that on national forests thousands of acres of shortleaf were being planted, especially the Ouachita and Ozark National
Forests. Through the 1990s, though, less than two percent of southern pines planted were shortleaf
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Two Pines and the Native Tradition of Burning North American Landscapes
(South and Buckner 2003). Apparently, susceptibility to little leaf disease and predation by Nantucket pine tip moth have been influential reasons for foresters to avoid planting shortleaf (Smalley
1986).
The marginal status of both species has gained attention of foresters and other conservation minded people (Landers et al. 1995, Means 1996, South and Buckner 2003). A state meeting of North
Carolina foresters in 2005 and an upcoming national meeting in Missouri in November 2006 demonstrate increasing concern over the situation facing shortleaf pine. Means (1996) and many others
have been beating a drum for longleaf for over a decade. But large scale conservation and restoration
of these two species in the modern landscape face serious obstacles. Probably the biggest impediment is that so much of the landscape in which these trees occur is now inhabited by people not
especially interested in having nearby forest land burned for any reason. Alternative mechanical
practices to maintain these trees in mixed stands are prohibitively expensive. Chemical treatments
to control deciduous competition do not work against loblolly pine, now the main competitor on
most sites where shortleaf and longleaf grow. Preference for short commercial pine rotations also
works against these species.
Landers et al. (1995) suggest several reasons why longleaf pine should be valued as a timber species,
and shortleaf would be a good choice if larger diameter, high quality logs from selectively managed
stands were the target. But timber markets in the United States will have to change considerably
to pay the premium for logs from longer rotations. Yet, considering primary attributes of these two
pines, we might expect that one factor – their drought tolerance – might make them attractive species in a changing world where a hotter and dryer Southeast United States is predicted from global
warming. We will see what happens.
6. References
Blank, G.B. (2004).”A Case Integrating Historical Ecology to Restore a Transitional Pinus palustris
Community.” Chapter 16 In Honnay, O., K. Verheyen, B. Bossuyt and M. Hermy, (eds.). 2004. Forest
Biodiversity: Lessons from History for Conservation CABI Publishing, Wallingford, Oxon, UK.
Christensen, N. 1989. Landscape history and ecological change. Journal of Forest History. July:
116-124.
Dickinson, W.R. 2000 “Changing Times: the Holocene legacy.” Environmental History 5(4):
483-502.
Frost, C. 1993. Four centuries of changing landscape patterns in the longleaf pine ecosystem. In:
Proceedings 18th Tall Timbers Ecology Conference: The longleaf pine ecosystem: ecology restoration and management, Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, FL.
Frost, C. 1998. Presettlement fire frequency regimes of the United States: a first approximation. In:
Pruden, T.L and L.A. Brennan (eds.) Fire in ecosystem management: shifting the paradigm from
suppression to prescription, Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference Proceedings, No. 20, Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, FL, pp.70-81.
Landers, J.L., D.H. Van Lear and W.D. Boyer. 1995. The longleaf pine forests of the southeast:
requiem or renaissance? Journal of Forestry 93(11), 39-44.
Mann, C.C. 2005. 1491: new revelations of the Americas before Columbus. Alfred A. Knopf, New
York. 465 pp.
Mattoon, W.R. 1915. Life History of Shortleaf Pine. Bulletin of the United States Department of
Agriculture, No. 244. Washington, D.C. 46 pp.
Means, D.B. 1996. Longleaf pine forest, going, going.... In: M.B. Davis (ed.). Eastern old-growth
forests: prospects for rediscovery and recovery. Island Press, Washington, D.C. 383 pp.
303
Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
Smalley, G.W. 1986. Stand Dynamics of Unthinned and Thinned Shortleaf Pine Planatations. In
Murphy, P.A. (ed.). Symposium on the Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem: Proceedings, Little Rock, Arkansas March 31-April 2, 1986. Southern Forest Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service, Monticello
Arkansas. 272 pp.
South, D.B., and E.R. Buckner. 2003. The Decline of Southern Yellow Pine Timberland. Journal of
Forestry 101(1): 30-35.
Trimble, S.W. (1974) Man-induced soil erosion on the southern Piedmont 1700-1970. Soil Conservation Society of America.
Wahlenberg, W.G. 1946. Longleaf Pine, its Use, Ecology, Regeneration, Protection, Growth, and
Management. Charles Lathrop Pack Forestry Foundation and USDA Forest Service, Washington,
D.C. 429 pp.
304
La memoria e l’attualità del paesaggio
Ignazio Camarda
Dipartimento di Botanica ed Ecologia Vegetale, Università di Sassari
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
I toponimi rappresentano un elemento peculiare del rapporto uomo-territorio, in quanto danno
una lettura molto appropriata delle caratteristiche dell’ambiente naturale, degli eventi storici,
dell’occupazione del suolo e delle attività economiche in senso lato. I nomi di luogo persistono,
spesso, anche dopo radicali trasformazioni, a evidenziare la storia naturale e umana di un territorio. I toponimi della Sardegna desunti dalle carte I.G.M. 1:25.000 e dell’Ufficio Catastale dei
terreni (Paulis, 1987) sono circa 90.000 e la loro analisi dei toponimi ha consentito di evidenziare
che circa il 20% del totale si riferiscono a singole specie botaniche e formazioni vegetali o aspetti
che richiamano comunque attività legate al mondo delle piante. Tuttavia, il numero dei toponimi
e, conseguentemente anche quelli legati alle piante, è senza dubbio superiore a quanto riportato
sia dalle carte dell’I.G.M., sia da quelle catastali, in quanto la necessità delle popolazioni locali
di identificazione dei luoghi è, spesso, di gran lunga maggiore di quanto richiesto per gli aspetti
amministrativi da parte degli enti pubblici. Indagini svolte nei comuni da esperti locali mostrano un incremento notevole di dati. Così, nel paese di Dorgali, in provincia di Nuoro, si ha un
aumento in percentuale di oltre il 30% (Camarda, 1990), e nel paese di Abbasanta (Arca, 2003)
in provincia di Oristano, si ha addirittura un incremento da 29 a 65 fitonimi, pari al 105%. Nel
complesso si può verosimilmente ipotizzare che esistano oltre 30.000 nomi legati alle piante, che
danno un’idea molto precisa e di dettaglio delle condizioni ambientali e del paesaggio vegetale
della Regione. Considerato che la superficie della Sardegna è di circa 24.000 kmq, risulta che in
ogni Kmq esiste mediamente più di un toponimo legato ad una specie. Il valore assoluto dei fitotoponimi differisce in modo significativo da paese a paese e, di norma, dipende dall’estensione
del territorio, ma il quadro della densità nella loro distribuzione varia sensibilmente quando si
considera il rapporto tra estensione del territorio di ogni paese e numero assoluto. La fito-toponomastica sarda è stata, altresì, messa in luce da diverse indagini (Camarda, 1984; Camarda e Cossu,
1989; Baccetta, 2000). Variazioni significative si riscontrano anche dal punto di vista linguistico.
I fito-toponimi, inoltre, forniscono un quadro di particolare interesse sia per la definizione delle unità del paesaggio vegetale, ma anche per la ricostruzione della sua storia. La prima analisi di carattere
generale su questo tema è stata fatta per lo studio dei Piani Paesistici della Sardegna per definire
i tipi di paesaggio vegetale (Camarda, 1989) e riproposto come elemento identitario nella recente
stesura del Piano Paesaggistico Regionale ai sensi della legge 42/2004.
Keywords: fitotoponomastica, paesaggio, Sardegna.
Bibliografia
Arca, M. et al., 1993. I toponimi del Territorio di Abbasanta, 1993. Comune di Abbasanta.
Baccetta, G. et al. 2000 – Contributo alla conoscenza dei fitotoponimi del Sulcis (Sardegna Sud
Occidentale). Rend. Sem. Fac. Sci., Univ. Cagliari, suppl. Vol. 70.
Camarda, I., 1989. Convenzione per la definizione delle metodologie relative al tematismo manto vegetale per i piani paesistici della Sardegna. Regione Autonoma della Sardegna – Assessorato Pubblica
Istruzione, Beni Culturali; Dipartimento di Botanica ed Ecologia vegetale, Università di Sassari.
Camarda, I., 1990. Ricerche etnobotaniche nel comune di Dorgali (Sardegna centro-orientale). Boll.
Soc. Sarda Sci. Nat., 27: 147-204.
Camarda, I., and Cossu, A.. (eds). 1989 – Biotopi di Sardegna. Delfino Ed., Sassari.
Paulis G., 1987. I nomi di luogo della Sardegna. Delfino Ed., Sassari.
305
Mediterranean forest management, a tool to guarantee sustainability:
evolution of the Catalan agrarian landscape and the forestry
regulations from the 18th century to the end of the 20th century
Teresa Cervera Zaragoza & Ramon Garrabou
Departament d’Història Econòmica, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The present state of Catalan forests, mainly Mediterranean, with a total forest area of 1,8 million
hectares (of which 1 million are tree-covered) is the result of the different stages and transitions
passed through by the agrarian landscape over time. Sustainable forest management, from an economic, ecological and social multifunctional perspective, has not evolved until the end of the 20th
century. The most important change in the agrarian landscape took place during the 18th century,
triggered by a high demographic growth (mean annual growth of 1%) and the need to maximise
benefits in order to achieve a higher economic growth. During this period, and until the end of
the 19th century, wood resources were progressively reduced and, although some legal restrictions
arose, these were ephemeral and only led to the conservation of particular forest stands with very
specific conservation objectives. Forestry regulations began to expand and since the 18th century
more than 500 regulations appeared to regulate resource use in accordance to the current needs.
Based on these regulations and other specific studies on the Catalan agrarian landscape, the two
clearly defined stages that forests have passed through from the 18th century onwards are analysed.
In the first stage, from the 18th century towards the end of the 19th century, agriculture reached its
maximum area, due to the value of vineyards and olive trees, and thus forest area (forests and grasslands) was reduced. During this period, public and private ownership were in conflict to guarantee
forest capitalisation either through the inclusion of forests into the public domain, or through the
disentitlement processes. Despite this, the private land, which is dominant in Catalonia, remained
more or less stable. When the German forestry science was introduced by the forest engineers (mid
19th century), people realised the importance attaining an equilibrium, between forest resource
growth and its exploitation. Later on, the need to increase forest area also appeared, leading to
a wide implementation of forest reforestation projects. In a second stage, from the 20th century on,
while the agrarian sector remained profitable, the previously mentioned conservation ideas materialised and silvicultural guidelines appeared together with some forest management planning and
hydrological interventions. A higher control of forest exploitation and land use changes resulted in
an increase in forest area and tree-covered area. This change was accelerated by an increase in the
exploitation costs, the arrival of new energy resources and rural migration, leading to a 34% increase
in tree-covered area between 1969 and 2001. The forest management gap and the abandonment
of agriculture land enhanced biomass accumulation which created conditions that favoured large
forest fires. The present study shows the existing relation between landscape changes and profitability of resource exploitation as well as with the present need to recover forest management in
a sustainable way through adequate guidelines and regulations. The need to achieve the economic
sustainability of agrarian and forest resources with an adequate space structure is highlighted, in
order to create a new agrarian landscape that guarantees Mediterranean forest biodiversity.
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Mediterranean forest management, a tool to guarantee sustainability: evolution of the Catalan agrarian
landscape and the forestry regulations from the 18th century to the end of the 20th century
1. Introduction
Catalonia is a region of Spain with 3.199.011 hectares. The present state of Catalan forests, mainly
the Mediterranean ones, with a forest surface of 1,8 M hectares (of which 1M are tree covered) and
80% of the forest land of private ownership, is the result of the different stages and transition steps
passed through by the agrarian landscape over time, evolving in accordance to space structure, agriculture, grassland and forest , and natural resource use, wood and grass (V. Clement, 1993), mainly
during the last three centuries.
Sustainable forest management, from an economic, ecological and social multifunctional perspective, does not evolve until the end of the 20th century. At this time, the agrarian sector profitability
and the management of forests are reduced, leading to a biomass increment and an abandon of agriculture and grasslands, enabling the easier advance of large forest fires. It is in this latest stage that
the need to attain again the old forest management level within the frame of forest sustainability is
proclaimed to guarantee resource use for the future generations.
The forest area as well as the tree-covered area have been to disposal of the agricultural requirement, in the face of the development of the explotation according to the demographic variations
and the economic growth, and other factors how the type of ownership, of the technology, the commercialization of some products towards other, the adaptation of the different uses to more mountainous zones and the social demand from the multifunctionality of the forests.
During the period of study, of the 18th century until XX, we can analyze the evolution of the Catalan
agricultural landscape in function of the exploitation of the natural resources and the tools that the
company has used in its preservation for the generations future.
2. Methods
From an evolutive hypothesis of land uses (Figure1) this study analyses the forest evolution and
its tree-covered area from the 18th to 20th centuries (until 1975), based on:
the light of the agricultural sector and the population growth,
the regulations, in this period more than 500 regulations appear intending to rule resource use
in accordance with the existing needs at every particular moment,
other specific studies on the Catalan agrarian landscape.
Superfície total ha (Surface)
Població (Population)
6M
3,2M
3M
3M
Sòl agrícola
2M
2M
Matoll pastura
1
1M
2
1M
4
Sòl arbrat
3
5
Anys
1000
1100
1 - Artigues
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
2 - Fusta per a la marina
4 - Ordenacions forestals
1700
1800
1900
2000
3 - Pestes
5 - Màxim consum industrial
Figure 1. Evolutive hypothesis of land uses and population evolution. Foc Verd II, DARP 1999. Forest in green,
grasslands in yellow and agrarian use in orange color
307
Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Evolution of the Catalan agrarian landscape from the early 18th century
to the end 20th century
Some studies about population evolution highlight that the highest demographic growth begins
in the 18th century, with a mean annual growth near of 1% (Table1). Consequently, an important
change in the agrarian landscape begins to take place.
Table 1. Demographic growth of Catalonia
Years
Population
Annual growth %
1717
508.000
-
1787
899.531
0,82
1857
1.661.291
0,88
1910
2.084.868
0,43
1975
5.663.125
1,55
In this period, from 18th to 20th, it is possible to define two important stages that forest have
passed through: the first stage, from the 18th century towards the end of the 19th century, is
characterised by wood resources reduction and agriculture land increase, and the second stage,
from the 20th century onwards, with an important recovering of the tree-cover especially from
the second half of the century.
3.1.1. First stage, from the 18th century towards the end of the 19th century
This first phase is characterized by:
A high demographic growth that brings the need to increase the profits.
Agriculture reaches its maximum area, due to the value of vineyards and olive trees.
Forest area, forests and grasslands, decrease while land use changes increase.
The tree-covered area is reduced as a result of intensive exploitation, mainly for naval
uses, energy, construction and other domestic uses.
Although some legal restrictions arise, these are ephemera and only lead to the conservati
on of particular forest stands with very specific conservation objectives.
Public and private ownership are in an intense fight to guarantee forest capitalisation either
through the inclusion of forests in the public catalogue, (in 1855 and 1862) or through
processes of disentitlement (in 1837 and 1855). Finally private land remains more or less
stable.
German Dasonomic science is brought onto the scene by the forest engineers (mid 19th
century) and the people realise the importance of getting the forest stand equilibrium,
between resource growth and its exploitation.
Some ideas appear regarding the recuperation of the tree-covered area, leading to a wide
implementation of forest reforestation projects.
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Mediterranean forest management, a tool to guarantee sustainability: evolution of the Catalan agrarian
landscape and the forestry regulations from the 18th century to the end of the 20th century
3.1.2. Second stage, from the 20th century onwards
The second phase is characterized by:
At the beginning of the century the vineyards withdraw because of the filoxera and a process of natural recovering and reforestation starts.
While the agrarian sector stays profitable, the conservation ideas are materialised and
silvicultural guidelines appear together with some forest management planning and hydrological projects (Figure 2.).
Figure 2 . Hydrological project in Catalonia, 1901 (DMAiH)
higher control of forest exploitation and land use changes brings an increase of forest area.
There are more regulations and protection campaigns.
low agrarian profitability brings rural migration, mainly in the middle of the 20th century,
and the agriculture and grassland management are progressively reduced.
Wood exploitation is reduced due to the introduction of other energy sources and management decreases because of the high cost of exploitation.
In the 20th century the forest land and the tree-covered land is recovered (Figure 3.).
During the 1969-2001 period, the tree-covered area increases by 34%.
The forest management gap and the abandoning of agriculture land enhance biomass accumulation which brings the origin of large forest fires.
Figure 3. Evolution agrarian landscape during the 20th century: private forest in Espinelves, Catalonia,
1916 and 2003 (Mas Joan, 1916 & DMAiH, 2003)
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Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
3.2. Some tools to preserve the biodiversity and the tree-covered land for three
centuries
During the period from the 18th to 20th century, different tools were implemented to preserve the
forest surface and the tree-covered area. They were the following:
The genuine mechanisms of protection of the 17th century community exploitation, together
with low rates of demographic growth.
The techniques of marking for wood-cutting and immediate plantation during the 18th
century.
The German Dasonomic techniques based on technological or financial turns and a forest planning searching for the balance between forest exploitation and forest growth, at the end of 19th
century.
The disentitlement processes of the 19th century are considered a tool through which the private property can preserve its resources.
The public management is seen as a guarantee for the maintenance of the resources of long
capitalization.
The hydrological-forestry projects at the beginning of the 20th century for environmental
unctions, either in public or private land.
The forest law that rules the wood-cutting authorizations and allows its monitoring has an
important role in the first third of the 20th century.
4. Conclusions
During the 18th to the 20th century period, we can clearly identify two stages: the first one characterised by wood resources reduction and agriculture land increase, and the second one, starting
in the 20th century, with an important recovering of the tree-cover especially from the second half
of the century.
During the 18th century and even at first of the 19th century, the forest exploitation does not follow any environmental guideline and the extractions depend on the needs of the moment without
guaranteeing the preservation of the resources for the following generations.
At the end of the 19th century is introduced an accurate vision of the equilibrium of the nature
and the possibility of the forest through the dasonòmic science, through the forest engineers,
and a change fixes in the formality of the forests keeping at all times the regeneration natural or
artificial of the masses.
During the first half of the 20th century the tree-covered area is retrieved, the primary sector still
keeps viable and also the forest manegement. The loss of the agrarian sector profitability, from
half of century XX, with the progressive abandonment of the crops and pastures, entails an acceleration in the growth of the tree-cover and the forest surface, that it drives in some parts of the
territory to a structural imbalance and to the creation of continuous masses that at the end of 20th
century increases the advance of forest fires.
Landscape changes are related to the profitability of the exploitation but neither the rules nor the
increase of the profits are by themselves the guarantee for sustainability.
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Mediterranean forest management, a tool to guarantee sustainability: evolution of the Catalan agrarian
landscape and the forestry regulations from the 18th century to the end of the 20th century
We agree with the FAO’s statement (Roma, 17th March 2005) which sustains the hypothesis that
forestry planning and management, bearing the environmental and social aspects, requires economic sustainability.
Mediterranean forests need to have an adequate agrarian frame in order to achieve a good space
structure and to guarantee the biodiversity of the landscape to face the large forest fires.
5. References
Cervera, T., 2005. PhD: La sostenibilitat històrica dels boscos catalans. Normativa forestal des del
segle XVIII fins el XX. Study directed by Garrabou, R. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.
Adrián, L.M., 2005. Análisis de la evolución reciente de los bosques en Cataluña mediante la comparación de resultados del Inventario Forestal Nacional. Universidad Politécnica de Valencia.
Nadal, J.&Wolff,P., 1983. “La població”. Història de Catalunya. Oikos-tau, sa – ediciones, Barcelona, pp. 78-79.
311
Landscape history and heritage revaluation in Olzinelles valley (Montnegre, NE Spain):
a socioecological approach (1851-2006)
Iago Otero1, Martí Boada1,2, Anna Badia2, Sara Piqueras1, Geòrgia Rodoreda1 & Eduard Rojas3
1
Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
Edifici Ciències, Torre Àrea 9, 4a planta, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
e-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
2
Departament de Geografia, UAB, Edifici B, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
3
Departament de Producció Vegetal, Escola Tècnica Superior d’Enginyers Agrònoms
Universitat Politècnica de València. Camino de Vera s/n. 46022 València, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
One of the features of the new scientific framework that is emerging as a response to global environmental crises is the attempt to dissolve classical nature and culture separation and to overcome excessive
specialization in unconnected fields. In this context, disciplines as geography, agroecology, landscape
ecology and environmental history try to integrate social science and natural science to obtain a better
understanding of environmental problems and to find appropriate solutions. Land use and land cover
change, one of the most relevant components of global change in terrestrial ecosystems, can be studied
at a local and regional level through an environmental history analysis, which is specially useful considering temporal and spatial scale dependency of such phenomena. In this communication we report
the first results of an interdisciplinary research on landscape changes and heritage revaluation that is
being carried out in Olzinelles valley (Montnegre, NE Spain), considering the period 1851-2006. We
use the concept of socioecological heritage to describe a selection of evidences of historical evolution of
landscape, and we applied it to the study area, where we have detected 263 elements. We report an important depopulation process with a loss of 85% of the population of 1924 in 2006. Future research will
try to correlate demographic evolution of the twentieth century to changes in land use and land cover.
1. Introduction
The need to understand environmental problems and find suitable solutions, one of the biggest challenges that society faces nowadays, has driven science to new methodological and epistemological
approaches aimed at overcoming the classical nature/culture separation, integrating parcelled knowledge into interdisciplinary views and taking into account the importance of those forms of knowledge
that are not based in scientific method. This new conceptual paradigm has appeared in different
moments and in different fields of knowledge, following an opposite trend to contemporary science,
which tends to increase specialization in unconnected fields (Toledo, 1998). Nature and culture separation is being criticized by the Colombian philosopher Augusto Ángel, who stands that the deep
change in conceptual relation between man and nature that meant platonic split or dualism would
be the cultural basis of current environmental crisis (Ángel, 2001). The platonic division between
sensitive world (body and nature) and real world (soul) would have been incorporated by Christianity
into its dogma, and would have arrived to modernity under the forms of object and subject (Noguera,
2004), separated nature and culture. The critic to the “ontology of split”, as it has been named, is the
departure point for the construction of a new environmental philosophy whose main objective is to
recover the lost unity between these two domains. As Noguera (2004) points out, the construction of
this environmental thought can be compared with a rizomatic growth that breaks with linearity and
Cartesian order and that integrates unknown actors for anthropocentric modernity.
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Landscape history and heritage revaluation in Olzinelles valley (Montnegre, NE Spain):
a socioecological approach (1851-2006)
Nature and culture separation divides clearly the fields of study to undertake by scientific knowledge
(Boada & Saurí, 2002), and may lead to a subordination of social sciences to natural sciences (Wynne, 1994) in global change studies. Besides this clear division we see, as pointed out before, a big
specialization of knowledge in unconnected fields, which has been named as “Neo-obscurantism”
by Naredo (Toledo, 1998). According to Edgar Morin, the main limitation of the predominant style
of doing research is the “simplifier paradigm”, a way to organize knowledge that eludes the increasing complexity of contemporary reality (Toledo, 2005). In this context, hybrid disciplines are different proposals to integrate knowledge into interdisciplinary views. Among them we find agroecology,
environmental history and landscape ecology. Agroecology considers agriculture as a coevolution
between social systems and ecological systems, and as information comprised in local cultures.
While agronomists develop new technologies based in scientific knowledge to modernize traditional agriculture, agroecologists study traditional technologies of peasants and indigenous people
to obtain modern scientific knowledge (Norgaard, 1985). The role played by traditional primary
activities in maintaining landscape structure and biodiversity is taken into account by landscape
ecology, whose principles can be applied to ecosystem management and conservation practices. Not
considering or even forgetting the role of traditional management has been a distinctive feature
of the responsible staff in charge of protected areas in the province of Barcelona (Otero & Boada,
2006), as well as in any other protected areas worldwide.
Environmental history, born at the beginning of the seventies when environmental crisis was perceived by scientific international community and when the first ecologist movements appeared
(Worster, 1988; González de Molina, 1993), is another hybrid discipline. It provides an appropriate
framework to analyse regional consequences of global change (Otero, 2005), specially regional and
local land use and land cover changes. Geography, which is recovering the lost environmentalist
tradition after a period of dualism strengthening, makes important contributions to the study of
these changes through the application of the systemic approach into the international research programme LUCC (Boada & Saurí, 2002). Changes in land use and land cover are the main component
of global change in terrestrial ecosystems (Turner, 1990), and its effects may be more important
than those associated with potential climate change (IGBP, 2004). So a deeper understanding of
this phenomenon is needed to inform society about consequences of its socioeconomic activity and
to design adequate mitigation and adaptation strategies.
2. Objectives and methodology
Regional consequences of global change have been demonstrated in some Mediterranean regions of
Catalonia by different studies. Peñuelas et al. (2002) have provided evidence of altered life cycles for
some of the most abundant Mediterranean plants and birds, and one butterfly species for the period 1952-2000 in Cardedéu (Catalonia, NE Spain), as a consequence of an increase in temperature.
Because of the different responses of the species, these climate-driven changes may lead to a decoupling of species interactions and alter the structure and functioning of communities (Peñuelas
et al., 2002; Peñuelas & Filella, 2001). Peñuelas & Boada (2003) reported a progressive replacement
of cold-temperate ecosystems by Mediterranean ecosystems in Montseny mountains (Catalonia,
NE Spain), where beech (Fagus sylvatica) forest has shifted altitudinally upwards by ca. 70 m at
the highest latitudes (1600-1700 m) and is being replaced by holm oak (Quercus ilex) forest at medium altitudes (800-1400 m), as a consequence of warmer conditions complemented by the land
use changes. A logical hypothesis emerges when analysing global change-induced cover shifts in
Mediterranean mountains of Catalonia: forest appropriation, cultivation and farming have strongly
decreased in last 50 years and this would lead to an increase in forest area and forest density. The
landscape homogenization may have produced a decrease of open habitat and ecotonic species and
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Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
may have increased forest vulnerability to severe forest fires, in a complex process where increase in
mean temperature affects both causes and consequences of land cover change.
The area under study has an extension of 1.130 hectares and is mainly occupied by Olzinelles valley, located in Montnegre Mountain (province of Barcelona, NE Spain), which is part of the Catalan
Coastal mountain range. A 94% of the area is covered by forests, mainly cork oak (Quercus suber),
holm oak (Q. ilex) or mixed forest (holm oak with cork oak or holm oak with Q. humilis), while only
3% is covered by active fields. The population, 27 inhabitants, is scattered in masos, the traditional
cultivation and farming unit of Catalan countryside. Land tenure is private in all the area and 60%
of it belongs to properties bigger than 95 hectares (38% of study area belongs to one property).
Since 1989, 74% of the area is included in the Montnegre-Corredor Natural Park. Olzinelles used
to be an independent municipality since 1927, when it was annexed to Sant Celoni municipality.
The ongoing project is being carried out with support from its city council, in an attempt to revalue
a rich heritage that is being “buried” by forest. The objectives of the project are to analyse land use
and land cover change in an environmental history approach (1851-2006); to compile and revalue
the socioecological heritage of traditional activities, to compile traditional agrosilvopastoral knowledge and to use oral sources for the historical analysis. Methodology is based on generating a map
of current land use and land cover by means of different cartographic sources; inventorying fauna
and flora and studying its relation to different vegetation units; making an analysis of the evolution
of population and landscape based on historical documents (1851-2006); combining information
from photointerpretation of aerial photographs of 1956 and 2004 using GIS tools; inventorying elements of the socioecological heritage of traditional activities and compiling traditional knowledge
by means of personal interviews and the creation of an audio file collection.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Land use and land cover, flora and fauna
To create a current vegetation map we have used the cartographic information supplied by existing forest management plans of private properties1, which account for 71% of the study area, and
a vegetation map of Montnegre-Corredor Natural Park2. The basic cartography is topographic
maps and orthophotoimages of 2004 (scale 1:5.000). Field work has been carried out to check
source validity and to unify criteria in mapping land covers/uses3. Olzinelles valley is mainly occupied by forests: 30% of coppiced cork oak (Quercus suber), 22% of coppiced holm oak (Q. ilex)
and 31% of mixed forests (holm oak with cork oak or holm oak with Q. humilis). Another relevant
forest cover is European alder (Alnus glutinosa) forest along streams (3%). Coniferous cover (Pinus pinea, P. radiata and P. pinaster) accounts for 5% of the total area, while 3% is occupied by active fields and 2% by plantations of plane trees (Platanus sp.). Finally, quarries account for 1% of
the area. To inventor the fauna we have conducted a bibliographical review of species cited in the
study area and we have used direct or indirect observation in field work. The results, in number
of species, are: 9 amphibians and 10 reptiles (31% and 16% of the species in Spain according to
1 Plans Tècnics de Gestió i Millora Forestal. They provide a map with the vegetation and management units of the property (scale 1:5.000).
These documents are usually made by forest engineers and approved by Forest Property Centre, a body of the Catalan Government in
charge of private forest planning and management. Plans used (8) were drafted between 1998 and 2003.
2 Supplied by Natural Park technical staff (scale 1.10.000). It was made using fotointerpretation and field work in 1997.
3 According to Turner et al. (1995) land cover “is the biophysical state of the earth’s surface and immediate subsurface” and land use “involves both the manner in which biophysical attributes of the land are manipulated and the intent underlying that manipulation”, that is the
purpose for which the land is used. We realised that, as in other land use and land cover change studies, distinguishing use from cover is not
easy and it may not be even fruitful.
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Pleguezuelos et al., 20024), 4 fishes, 72 birds (3 of which are considered threatened in Catalonia
according to Estrada et al., 2004) and 23 mammals5 .
3.2. Socioecological heritage: a piece of history
Next step has been to study the heritage, to which it has been given a new conceptualization
to overcome the nature/culture division. The separation mentioned in the introduction is also
present in heritage conceptions and studies (natural vs. cultural heritage), and socioecological
heritage tries to integrate them into a broad category that could be defined as a selection of
evidences of historical evolution of landscape, or as environmental legacy. Elements of socioecological heritage have been georeferenced, described in a catalogue, classified in a database and
represented in maps. The results show a large number of elements with a positive relation with
the sampling effort: the more the researcher walks along the paths, through the forest or along
the edge of the fields, the more amount of socioecological heritage he will find. Landscape in
Olzinelles is very rich in environmental legacy, it incorporates history in its own structure. Table 1.
shows the results and classifies the elements of socioecological heritage into eight categories.
Table 1. Elements and categories of socioecological heritage in Olzinelles valley
Category
No of elements
Subcategories
Masos* (conserved and in ruins), water management
infrastructures, constructions related to agrosilvopastoral
activities, rural industries, constructions and ways related to
transport and mobility, religious buildings
Architectural and archeological
elements
190
Ancient and remarkable trees
49
Ancient trees, remarkable trees and singular trees
Disappeared elements
9
Masos, others
Habitats of interest
8
European interest, local and regional interest
Legends and stories
7
Legends, stories and anecdotes
Species of interest**
?
European interest, local and regional interest
Genetic varieties of cultivated
species***
—
Fruit trees, grapevine, vegetables
Tools3
—
Primary industries, domestic, others
Source: Field work, oral sources and review of local studies.
* Mas (or masia), in the sense used here, is the traditional familiar house of the Catalan countryside.
** The criteria to consider a species of interest (European and local/regional) is still being discussed.
*** Results not available.
Some explanation has to be given to the fact that we consider all categories in Table 1. as “socioecological”, that is, having a double nature. The existence of one type of habitat, an active
field for example, is the consequence of an interaction between biophysical and socioeconomic
factors, and its conservation depends on the maintenance of both driving forces. In the case of
species, flora and fauna have also an important cultural and socioeconomic dimension. For example, even though wild boars (Sus scrofa) haven’t biological adaptations to the night, they have
adopted nocturnal habits in order to avoid contact with human beings, the big predator that has
hunted them along centuries. The age and the form of an ancient or remarkable tree depend on
biological specific factors, but also on forestry practices. Similar arguments could be given for
the other categories. Local knowledge can be considered part of socioecological heritage, but it
will be treated separately.
4 This percentages may have changed due to the description of the new endemic species of brook newt Calotriton arnoldi in the Montseny
mountains (Catalonia, NE Spain) by Carranza & Amat (2005).
5 new one may be added if the sampling campaign of micromammal Arvicola sapidus, which has to be done along the river in recent future,
confirms the suspicions about its return to the valley (see 4. Provisional conclusions and next steps).
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Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
3.3. Changes in landscape and demographic evolution (1851-2006): first results
3.3.1. Changes in landscape between 1851 and 1862
To study the changes in landscape between 1852 and 1862 we have used the amillaramiento6 of Olzinelles municipality of 1862, as well as the interpretation that Nadal & Urteaga
(19977) made of the amillaramientos of 24 municipalities of the Montnegre-Corredor region,
including Olzinelles, from 1852 to 18628. According to these authors, two key factors were
influencing changes in landscape of Montnegre-Corredor region from the middle of the
nineteenth century. Arrival and expansion of railway from 1848 onwards were going to
drive urban and industrial growth in the region, and the expansion of pest Oidium tuckeri
in 1852 destroyed more than half of the vineyards in ten years, causing a decrease in agrarian area of about 11%. So the increase in agrarian area that took place in Catalonia during
the nineteenth century didn’t follow a linear trend and was not homogeneously distributed
throughout the country. Another distinctive aspect of landscape of Montnegre-Corredor
region was the existence of large extension of woods. In 1862 the percentage of agricultural
area was the lowest of the Coastal region in Catalonia, but the predominance of cereals and
vineyards in the cultivated land was a common feature, reflecting a quite high level of agrarian specialization linked with trading of products as wine (Nadal & Urteaga, op. cit.). Ac9
cording to these authors, the municipality of Olzinelles had the lowest population density
in the region in 1860 (13 h/km2 compared to a mean of 120 h/km2) and a lower percentage
of agricultural area in 1862 (11.8% compared to a mean of 26.7%). In the period 1851-1862
the agricultural area decreased a 6.8% and the relative importance of vineyards decreased
(from 64.9% to 56.5% of cultivated land), while cereals gained relative importance (from
33.7% to 41.2% of cultivated land), probably as a consequence of the pest. In 1862 there
were 119 ha of vineyards less than in 1851, but with the available data we can’t say whether
they evolved to forest or they were replanted with new grapevines.
3.3.2. Demographic evolution between 1924 and 2006
Population growth is considered a basic driving force of global change, and increase in
population can be associated with changes in land use and land cover (Turner et al., 1995).
In the case of the opposite trend, depopulation in rural areas, it has been stated in a polemical article published in Science, that it has allowed ecosystem recovery in Latin America,
and that conservation policies should focus on preparing rural migrants for an urban environment and should promote ecosystem recovery in the lands that are abandoned (Aide
& Grau, 2004). In Mediterranean forest ecosystems, however, it has been pointed out that
rural depopulation is causing environmental degradation (Boada & Saurí, 2002) or loss of
biodiversity (Boada, 2002), but it also has permitted an important recovery of the forest
area and cover.
6 The Amillaramiento is documentation derived from the fiscal reform of the Spanish government in 1845, which established a tax on the prod-
uct of properties, cultivations and livestock. It consists of a list of the land owners of the municipality and its properties, specifying the area,
the type of use (cereal, vineyard, forest, etc.) and the amount to pay for each parcel. The fact that it is documentation about taxes may
lead to the conclusion that they are not reliable due to a potentially high level of property hiding, but in the province of Barcelona and in
Montnegre-Corredor region it has been proved to be a reliable historiographical source (Source: see note 8).
7 Nadal, F., Urteaga, L., 1997. L’evolució del paisatge a les Serres del Montnegre i el Corredor (segles XVIII-XIX). Unpublished. Library of Montnegre-Corredor Natural Park. Municipality of Sant Celoni.
8 Data for Olzinelles municipality refer to the Amillaramiento of 1851.
9 The area of the municipality of Olzinelles in this period is 2.350 ha, about twice the study area. So the trends reported here don’t refer exactly
to study area but can be used to understand how landscape was changing and why.
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Landscape history and heritage revaluation in Olzinelles valley (Montnegre, NE Spain):
a socioecological approach (1851-2006)
We analysed demographic evolution in study area using administrative registers that range
from 1924 to 2006. Figure 1. shows the quantitative evolution of population in Olzinelles
valley, where the 179 inhabitants of 1924 have decreased to 27 in year 2006. New data from
the seventies may confirm our suspicion that the demographic minimum of the analysed
period took place in this decade.
200
180
160
Population
140
120
100
80
179
136
60
98
40
89
20
27
0
1924
1936
1943
1956
2006
Year
Figure 1. Evolution of population in Olzinelles valley in number of inhabitants (1924-2006).
Source: Census of Olzinelles municipality, 1924; Census of Sant Celoni municipality, 1936;
Book of Status animarum (Olzinelles parish), 1943-1956; Census of Sant Celoni municipality,
2006, and search in current inhabitants.
We find also a decrease in the number of inhabited houses (31, 29, 20, 18 and 10 for years
1924, 1936, 1943, 1956 and 2006), in a clear process of abandonment of masos and its related traditional management practices. In the field work eight masos in ruins have been found.
In 1924 and 1936 a third of the population older than 10 years had occupations related to
primary intervention (peasants, shepherds, etc.), but this is underestimated due to the
consideration of all women occupation as “domestic labours”, even though they may had
an important role in cultivation and farming10. Current analysis of the evolution of forest
utilization in the second half of the twentieth century and future fotointerpretation exercise
(see 4. Provisional conclusions and next steps) will try to correlate observed demographic evolution to changes in landscape, in order to demonstrate the initial hypothesis. As pointed
out by Ninyerola et al. (2004), future distribution of land covers in Montnegre-Corredor
Natural Park may be affected by increases in mean temperature and precipitation due to
climate change, so scenarios about evolution of land use and land cover will have to take
this into account.
3.4. Integrating traditional knowledge and oral sources into the “scientific” study
Traditional knowledge has been compiled by means of personal interviews to a sample of 8 people that is living or used to live in Olzinelles and that used to work on primary activities (timber
and firewood felling, charcoal production, cultivation and farming) or on feminine domestic
labours on masos11 (taking care of children, cooking, washing clothes), often forgotten in studies about traditional knowledge. Interviews were semi-conducted and interviewer used a simple
10 In addition, the sources of 1924 and 1936 (see Figure 2.) have allowed us to calculate the level of illiteracy in the population older than 10
years: 26.3% and 19.6% respectively.
11 See first note in Table 1. for the meaning of this word.
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Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
and even mimetic language, without technical terms, in an informal and friendly conversation.
Information to be obtained was previously organized in different categories and subcategories,
i.e.: 1. Management and utilization of natural resources: 1.1 Charcoal, 1.1.1 Process of production of charcoal, 1.1.2 Transport and trading of charcoal; 1.2 Timber and firewood, 1.2.1 Species
used and felling technique, 1.2.2 Number of workers and length of campaign, etc. The interviews
have been completed with other visits, conversations and field work with people of the sample,
in a participative research that has increased amount and quality of information supplied and
enriched researcher’s view of socioecological reality.
Interviews have been recorded with a digital recorder that has allowed introducing data to the PC,
where the different audio files of the interviews have been organized in folders. The total time
recorded is more than 9 hours. First of all the interviews have been listened and the information
contrasted and integrated into the socioecological heritage catalogue (see 2. Socioecological heritage:
a piece of history) and into the historical analysis. Secondly, we are starting the literal transcription
of the interviews, which will allow the analysis of information from a hermeneutical standpoint and
further integration in the study. The collection of interviews, with its transcriptions and data associated, will be placed in a library of Sant Celoni, where it will be able for future research and for
citizens and schools interested in using the information for different purposes.
4. Provisional conclusions and next steps
Global environmental crises drives science to reconsider its own bases, in a process of change that is
not only a scientific response. Capra (1998) generalises Kuhn’s concept of scientific paradigm to social
paradigm, and stands that we are living a change of social paradigm, a transformation similar to the big
cultural change that Ángel (2001, 2001b) is asking for from a philosophical standpoint. The challenge
for environmental science regards to the application of interdisciplinarity principles into concrete
methodologies without falling in a non rigorous or wrong analysis. Analysis of land use and land cover
change in agricultural and forest landscapes in Mediterranean areas offers the possibility to apply new
methodologies that contribute to global change understanding from a local and regional level study.
Environmental history, although it may reflect some of the existing tensions between social and natural science in global change research (Boada & Saurí, 2002), can be fruitful to analyse socioecological
land use and land cover changes in an attempt to dissolve nature and culture in history.
The concept of socioecological heritage has been used to apply the conceptual framework into the
study and to revaluate the heritage in Olzinelles valley, where a rich environmental legacy has been
detected. Even though we need further ontological discussion about what is and what can be considered as socioecological heritage, we are already applying the concept to other studies12 related to
nature conservation. The first historical results for the second half of the nineteenth century show
the importance of regional and local studies of land use and land cover change, in so far as these
changes are scale dependant. As it has been pointed out by Nadal & Urteaga (199713), agricultural
expansion in Catalonia during the nineteenth century needs to be clarified and studied in detail at
different spatial and temporal scales. With regard to the twentieth century, the impacts of rural
depopulation (a loss of 85% of population since 1924) in land use and land cover distribution will
be studied in immediate future.
12 Badia, A.; Boada, M.; Estany, G.; Maneja, R. i Otero, I., 2006. Diagnosi dels usos del sòl i qualitat ambiental del Tet – Mont-rodon. Institut de
Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (unpublished).
13 See note 8.
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Landscape history and heritage revaluation in Olzinelles valley (Montnegre, NE Spain):
a socioecological approach (1851-2006)
Rural depopulation in Olzinelles valley puts an end to traditional knowledge and its related management practices, meaning a loss of information that reduces the management options and decreases conservation possibilities from the landscape ecology point of view. Science hasn’t taken
into account the “other forms of knowledge” (Funtowicz & Ravetz, 2000), and in the study area
these haven’t been studied neither from anthropology. In the Fourth Ministerial Conference on
the Protection of Forests in Europe, held in Vienna in 2003, the Signatory States and the European
Community committed themselves to raise awareness of the contribution of traditional knowledge
and practices in sustainable forest management for the protection of landscapes, the conservation
of biological diversity as well as for protection against natural hazards (MCPFE, 2003). Although
some anthropologists are working on an interesting symmetric co-production of knowledge between lay
and expert views (Delgado, 2005), we have tested a methodology to compile traditional knowledge
and integrate the information supplied by oral sources into the study, in an attempt to gather some
of the huge amount of information that is being lost rapidly in the last decades. This methodology
is being adapted and improved for the project “Memòries d’una feixa. Matadepera 1931-1983”14,
which is going to make an analysis of the postwar period of dictatorship and the transition to democracy in the town of Matadepera (province of Barcelona), in an environmental history approach
based on oral sources. Disappearance of local culture from the ecosystem dynamics is already having negative effects for the system from the sustainable development perspective. Rural culture is
substituted by urban culture, which begins a new relation with forest resources, related to leisure
time and nature conservation in the new Natural Park framework. The transition from a historical
primary land use to a tertiary one would lead most probably land cover to Braun-Blanquet’s climax,
questioned by some ecologists15, and would increase vulnerability to severe forest fires as main
alteration factor. Other potential changes to be proved with further research are landscape homogenization and loss of ecotonic and open space species.
We are starting the combination of the aerial photograph of 1956 with that of 200416, to quantify
the changes in land use and land cover that have taken place. As we have seen, from the second
half of the nineteenth century Olzinelles valley has been a much forested area, but changes in
forests and fields still have to be studied in detail. The evolution of timber and firewood felling is
already being studied by means of the administrative registers of the forest authority (1956-2006),
a detailed documentation that may be used in future studies. A photographic diachronic analysis
will be used to complete the information obtained in the fotointerpretation. Considering that the
micromammal Arvicola sapidus may have returned to Olzinelles stream after two or three decades
of absence, and that it is a potential bioindicator species17, we will evaluate its role to monitor the
socioecological changes reported in the study. It will be done by sampling the potential population
with Sherman traps in selected areas along the stream and by reconstructing the evolution of the
species with oral sources. Finally, we will study the environmental impacts observed in Olzinelles
valley and make a proposal of environmental management of the area. The publication of a book for
the general public with the results of the research will contribute to the revaluation of an unknown
socioecological heritage and to a better understanding of socioecological changes in Olzinelles.
14 Ruiz, V. & Otero, I. (coord.): Methodology has been already designed, initial sample of interviewed people has been decided and research
team is being formed.
15 See Bazzaz, F., Sipe, T.W., 1987. Physiological ecology, disturbance and ecosystem recovery. In: Schulze, Wölfer, H. (Ed.) Potentials and Limi-
tations of Ecosystem Analyses. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
16 The photograph of 1956 (scale 1:32.000) comes from the flight of the Army and the one of 2004 (scale 1:5.000) has been displayed from ICC
(Cartographic Institute of Catalonia).
17 Personal communication of J. Ventura, from the Department of Animal Biology, Vegetal Biology and Ecology of the Universitat Autònoma
de Barcelona (2005).
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Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
5. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the following individuals for their assistance: Josep Travessa, Josep
Oms, Ramon Lleget, Angelina Pujol, Josep Bonamussa, Pere Amfrons, Maria Oms, Josep Oms, Antoni Soler, Maria José Navarro, Marta Miralles, Josep Maria Abril, Maite Martínez, Marta Bayona,
Luís Urtega.
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321
Landscape dynamics of the Barbialla farm (Val d’Egola, Province of Florence)
in the second half of the 20th century
Marco Paci, Livio Bianchi & Davide Travaglini
Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali Forestali, University of Florence
via San Bonaventura 13, 50145 Firenze, Italia
e-mail: marco.paci@unifi.it
Abstract
The evolution of the landscape of Barbialla farm (Val d’Egola, province of Florence) in the second
half of the 20th century was studied in a portion of the larger originally studied in a previous research project developed to establish a monitoring system for Tuscan landscape directed by Prof.
Mauro Agnoletti. The analysis was accomplished both at landscape and patch level. A large spatial
scale study has been necessary to define the variation of different land use types (pasture, forest,
shrub, agricultural, poplar plantations). The analysis of the landscape has been carried out by
means of documents (aerial photo surveys) that allowed a comparison of the present landscape
with the one of 1954, in a portion of the previous one, that was studied also for 1832. The comparison made possible to interpret the directions of modifications. A field study, at a lower spatial scale,
has been necessary to highlight the factors influencing secondary successions in abandoned fields,
pastures and woods. Index of dominance of Shannon and Weaver (calculated on the proportion of
coverage of different land use types) has been used in the study at large scale. Between 1954 and
1996, in the portion of the previous area where this study has been carried out, growth of forest and
shrubland cover (due to natural afforestation of old fields) is observed, as well as landscape enrichment as a consequence of (1) introduction of poplar for wood production, and (2) tillage aimed to
the creation of pastures. Both global landscape diversity and ecosystem diversity (due to secondary successions in old fields) increased in the investigated period. Finally, loss of cultural heritage
is underlined. Cultural landscape of Barbialla survives both in some land uses (Pinus pinea stands)
and in some buildings (drying rooms for tobacco). The management of Barbialla farm is a complex
problem that must take into consideration naturalistic, economic, cultural and aesthetic aspects.
Keywords: forest management, landscape, secondary successions.
1. Introduction
Landscape evolution is a consequence of relations between the included ecosystems: the relations
concern both abiotics and biotics factors. Landscape is usually the result of interactions between
man’s activities and environment factors: the interactions change according both to physical environment and to socio-economic characteristics of the historical period (Sereni 1961), also in relation with cultural and psychological factors.
The most important landscape modifications observed in Italy since the postwar period are imputable to the depopulation of countryside and mountain areas: the phenomenon is expressed, in time,
by wood colonization of abandoned fields and pastures (Vos and Stortelder 1992; Agnoletti and
Paci 1998). Important landscape modifications of the age we live in are also imputable to afforestation (Chirici et al., 1999; Agnoletti 2002) as well as to abandonment of woods: the interruption of
silviculture activities is related to a mentality change towards forest heritage but also to the costs
of the forest management, a crucial problem on account of the Italian wood surface property, wich
belongs for more than 50% to private owners.
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Landscape dynamics of the Barbialla farm (Val d’Egola, Province of Florence) in the second half of the 20th century
The object of this study is to define the landscape evolution of part of Barbialla estate (Barbialla
Vecchia) in the second half of the 20th century, imputable both to natural afforestation of abandoned
fields and to the introduction of plantations for wood production. These changes are strictly related
to social and economic factors which had a strong influence on the structure and dynamics of forest
and rural landscape. Barbialla is one of the study areas analyzed during the research project developed to establish a monitoring system for Tuscan landscape, organized in 13 study areas analyzed
from 1832 to 2000 (Agnoletti 2002), now also included in the regular monitoring of the environment carried out by the regional government of Tuscany,. In the present study a smaller portion of
the area compared to the original one has been analyzed for the years 1954 and 2001.
2. Historical aspects
Barbialla estate was a property of the counts Rasponi Dalle Teste since the 19th century until the
1980s. In 1987 “SRL Agricola Barbialla” was set up (property of Rasponi heirs). In 1988 the SRL
was bought from Montedison, included in “Gruppo Ferruzzi”, whose crisis, in 1994, caused the sale
of the estate, bought in 1996 from the present owner (Malay nationality).
Barbialla was the first Italian estate, at the beginning of the 20th century, to get from the Italian
State the authorization for tobacco cultivation. In 1962 the estate surface was spread over 1200 ha
(54 farms); in this year the estate was divided into two parts (respectively called Barbialla vecchia
and Barbialla nuova), corresponding to the same number of heirs. In sixties Barbialla was used to
produce mainly tobacco, wheat and game (wine and olive oil were additional products); nevertheless
the hunting, ever since that age, was a very important activity. A crucial year for the modifications
of Barbialla vecchia landscape was 1987, when poplar plantations deeply changed the landscape of
valley floor, till then characterized by traditional cultures (maize, wheat, tobacco). In 2001, the total
area of Barbialla vecchia (818 ha) included 94 ha of poplar plantations, 316 ha of woods, 183 ha of
cultivated land (mainly sown fields, but also olive groves and vineyards), 53 ha of abandoned fields
in “naturalization”, and 172 ha of pastures. The woods are very important for the estate balance:
wood production, however, is less profitable than game production: the main economic activity of
the estate is, nowadays, hunting. In 2003 poplar plantations have been removed and the valley floor
of Barbialla has recovered its traditional physiognomy.
3. Methods (including site description)
Barbialla vecchia estate (Val d’Egola, Tuscany, province of Florence) is included in an altitude belt
from 30 to 170 m above sea level. The geological substratum is characterized by two layers: Pliocene
sands are based on ashen-grays and azure-clays. In addition, the slopes are often very steep. The
result is the high frequency of unstable slides. The area is characterized by hill-mediterranean climate, with two dry summer months. According to Pavari (1916) phytoclimatic classification, the
area is included in the middle and cold zone of Lauretum-II type. Forest vegetation is attributable to
the following types: evergreen oak maquis mixed with pubescent oak; mixed coppices with standards, composed by evergreen oak, pubescent oak, turkey oak and with flowering ash; pinewoods of
umbrella pine, mixed with maritime pine.
3.1. Large scale surveys
Aerial photos dated 1954 were compared with digital aerial photographs acquired in 1996. Land
use map both for 1954 and 1996 was produced by means of photointerpretation (scale 1:10000)
on GIS environment. A map of land use modifications in the observed period was produced too.
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Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
In order to interpret the modifications of Barbialla vecchia territory from 1954 to 1996, the crosstabulation method was applied: cross tabulation allows an analysis of subsequent images of land
use type and cover.
As for the statistical processing, modifications were expressed by means of indexes of landscape analysis:
Share (% of surface) of land use types.
Number and average surface of landscape patches (tessera of landscape mosaic).
Dominance index of Shannon and Weaver (ID), calculated on the proportion of land use
types for year (O’ Neill et al. 1988).
It is necessary to underline that data of 1996 are not actual, because in 2003 the poplar plantations were removed, and most of the pastures converted to sowable fields. If large scale comparisons are referred to 1996, some considerations about recent modifications are proposed.
3.2. Ecosystem surveys (small scale surveys)
In order to interpret landscape dynamics, partly connected to secondary successions in abandoned fields and pastures, partly connected to plantations, large scale approach was supported
by ecosystem surveys, carried out in 2001. Detailed surveys concern eight zones, each corresponding to specific landscape dynamic.
Small scale investigation (woods and olive groves abandoned in different times) used sampling
plots 30 to 80 m long and 10 m wide. For each individual tree or shrub, species and height were
considered; also cover degree was determined. The diversity of woody species at ecosystem scale
was calculated by means of Shannon index.
4. Results
4.1. Large scale modifications
The landscape modifications in Barbialla vecchia farm, from 1954 to 1996, can be summarized
as follows (Figure 1.):
remarkable increase of pasture (expansion in the sixties, aimed to cattle breeding) and shrubsurface at a loss of cultivations must be emphasized (Table 1.): these modifications, in addition
to the poplar introduction in 1987, produced a substantial reduction of agrarian land, followed
by the abandonment of buildings (paysant homes, buildings for tobacco drying etcetera).
light increase of wood surface, imputable to secondary successions in abandoned fields, is registered (Table 2.).
In 1954 the landscape was dominated by two land uses: woods and cultivated fields. In 1996 the
reduction of cultivated fields is joined to the entry of a new land use type (poplar planta tion)
and to the increase of pastures and shrubs (Figure 2.). So, increase of land use types is joined to
more balanced surfaces of use type distribution. The consequence is that Dominance index ID,
that increases when the landscape is dominated by a less number of land use types and when
the distribution of land use types is not balanced, decreased from 0.85 to 0.41.
Both abandonment and transformation of cultivated fields produced an higher fragmentation
of agrarian land, whose patch nowadays occupy, on average, much lower surfaces in comparison
with the past ones. The average surface of shrub patches, on the contrary, is constant in the
observed period, even though number of patches increased; at last a remarkable increase of the
average surface was registered for woody patches (Table 3.).
324
Landscape dynamics of the Barbialla farm (Val d’Egola, Province of Florence) in the second half of the 20th century
Land use map (1954)
Land use map (1996)
Figure 1. Land use maps of the Barbialla vecchia estate, in 1956 (a) and 1996 (b)
(Graphics of G. Chirici and D. Travaglini)
Table 1. Surface of land use classes (expressed both in hectares and as percentage of total surface),
respectively in 1954 and 1996
Area in 1954
Land use classes
Cultivated land
Pastures
Area I n 1996
[ha]
[%]
[ha]
[%]
519.6
62.3
182.7
21.9
1.7
0.2
172.4
20.7
Shrubs
5.5
0.7
53.5
6.4
Woods
298.1
35.7
316.2
37.9
Water
0.0
0.0
7.9
0.9
Poplar plantations
0.0
0.0
93.6
11.2
Urban
Total
9.4
1.1
8.0
1.0
834.3
100.0
834.3
100.0
Table 2. Cross tabulation. Lines: land use types as in 1996; columns: land use types as in 1954. Referring
to a land use type in 1996 (line), the composition of the same class in 1954 and its surface in ha
is shown within columns. Referring to a land use type in 1954 (column), the modifications of the
class in the period 1954-1996 are shown in rows
1996
1954
Cul. land
Pastures
Shrubs
Woods
Urban
Total 1996
[ha]
[ha]
[ha]
[ha]
[ha]
[ha]
Cultivated land
174.2
0.9
0.0
5.4
2.2
182.7
Pastures
161.7
0.0
1.2
8.5
1.0
172.4
Shrubs
37.5
0.0
4.1
11.0
0.9
53.5
Woods
41.3
0.8
0.2
272.5
1.4
316.2
Water
7.6
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
7.9
Poplar plantations
92.3
0.0
0.0
0.6
0.7
93.6
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
8.0
519.6
1.7
5.5
298.1
9.4
834.3
Urban
Total 1954
325
Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
Table 3. Number of the landscape patches, calculated for each land use class, both for 1954 and 1996,
with average surface areas and standard deviations of means (SD)
Land use classes
1954
1996
Patch num.
Average area
SD
Patch num.
Average area
SD
[n]
[ha]
[ha]
[n]
[ha]
[ha]
Cultivated land
11
47.2
145.0
21
8.7
10.3
Pastures
3
0.6
0.7
13
13.3
13.8
Shrubs
2
2.8
1.0
19
2.8
0.5
Woods
18
16.6
41.7
14
22.6
50.0
Water
-
-
-
3
2.6
3.0
Poplar plantations
-
-
-
8
11.7
30.6
Urban
36
0.3
0.3
10
0.8
0.7
Total
70
-
-
88
-
-
4.2. Small scale modifications
Secondary successions mostly concern, in addition to pinewoods and aged coppices, abandoned
olive groves and vineyards. Growth of structural diversity inside patches was observed: colonization occurring in old fields is quite irregular, and structure is evolving towards a more complex
pattern also in aged coppice and pinewoods.
Two patterns of vegetation dynamic have been observed in fields: 1. Direct evolution towards forest vegetation, which is the consequence of progressive colonization by evergreen and pubescent
oaks: in this case, the physiognomy of the ancient culture is unrecognizable; 2. (more frequent) Evolution towards shrub vegetation, both uniform and linear. As a matter of the fact, often the main
culture has been abandoned on the edge of the terraces, but cultivation of fodder for the game kept
on in their central part: this gave rise to post cultivation hedges, as a consequence of natural afforestation of the tree cultivated line. The main woody species involved in the process are: Quercus
pubescens, Fraxinus ornus, Ulmus campestre, Prunus spinosa, Rubus spp., and Cornus sanguinea.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. Landscape evolution in Barbialla vecchia estate: comparison between 1954 (a) and 1996 (b). The
poplar plantations (carried out in 1987) deeply change the physiognomy of valley floor, traditionally cultivated with tobacco and wheat (vineyards on the border of the fields). The arrow in the 1996
landscape shows a post cultivation hedge characterized by the dominance of Acer campestre,
developed since 1973, when the row of vineyard was abandoned
As regards the woods, under the canopy of conifer stands broadleaved coming is evident (vegetation dynamics is towards the mixed “hill-mediterranean” broadleaved wood). The secondary successions are, all the same, frequently hindered from the bites of wild ungulates (fallow deer and
wild boar): in the estate, the ungulate density is largely above the one compatible with a correct
silviculture activity.
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Landscape dynamics of the Barbialla farm (Val d’Egola, Province of Florence) in the second half of the 20th century
5. Discussion
In opposition to the general trend observed in the Tuscan landscape in the second half of the 20th
century (Vos and Stortelder 1992, Farina 1998, Agnoletti 2002), the depopulation of Barbialla vecchia land produced, since the end of sixties, both an increase of land use types and a more balanced
distribution of the surfaces of use types. This has been observed also for other areas, however, the
number of land uses shows a general reduction from 1832 in the wider area previously studied. Nevertheless, the landscape enrichment doesn’t mean an increase of landscape “quality”: the introduction of poplars and the high expansion of pastures didn’t compensate for the loss of traditional uses
and for the building (farm houses, dryers for tobacco) abandonment. The landscape mosaic, in addition, is nowadays more fine-grained than one of 1954, and this is another exception to the general
trend observed in the most of the Italian landscapes, where woodland usually plays a connective
role among the patches of the ancient landscape mosaic, reducing global landscape diversity.
An increase of diversity (both floristic and structural) has been observed also at the ecosystem
level: in abandoned fields, this is the consequence of the enrichment of artificial monocultures, that
in time turned into stands expressing the natural dynamic of vegetation.
The modifications must be emphasized, in particular, referring to the consequences on the fauna.
Post cultivation hedges and thickets of thorn bushes play a crucial role for the wildlife: they are habitat suitable for cover, feeding and reproduction of birds and mammals, important from the hunting
point of view. In particular, the hedges, as ecological corridors, foster the biological fluxes, and mean
a resource for biodiversity (Taylor et al. 1993; Farina 1998).
As regards the diversity of land use types (richness of landscape mosaic), this parameter is positively correlated with the richness of both sedentary and migratory fauna. Actually, more than richness of land use types, the alternation of open and woody spaces (many birds prefer the former for
feeding and the latter for refuge) plays a crucial role. Really, the landscape modifications causing
the disappearance of open spaces (forest colonization of pastures and cultivations) are a factor limiting the animal biodiversity. In the case of Barbialla vecchia estate – all the more reason why poplars
were removed in the valley floor – the presence of open spaces is, nowadays, not compromised: as
a matter of the fact, the spread of forest and shrub vegetation occurred in a fragmentary way, at
a loss of fewer abandoned cultivated fields (Paci et al. 2005).
6. Conclusions
Some considerations about the management of Barbialla vecchia landscape are proposed.
Sustainability of landscape management must take into consideration aesthetics aspects of some
modifications, as well as psychological consequences of the changes (Sheppard and Harshow 2001,
Paci 2002). In the last fifty years, the country abandonment gave rise to disagreeable modifications,
as irregular invasion of shrub vegetation in abandoned fields, once a time in an orderly way cultivated. Besides, the interruption of silviculture produced similar effects in woods, abandoned to their
evolution. Loss of local practices and traditions, and loss of the skill to use small scale resources
must be emphasized too. If landscapes are memory containers, the management should be, in some
cases, directed towards the conservation of cultural heritages (Agnoletti 2002).
In the case of Barbialla vecchia estate, the management points to highlight are:
As a consequence of the variability of forest types, a multiple function forestry is needed. In fact,
in the territory are spread coppices for wood production (soft slopes), protection woods (in the
327
Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
steepest slopes), landscape woods (pinewoods surrounding the owner’s castle), coppices to con
vert to high forest (where wild pigeon, bird avoiding frequent canopy gaps and dense undergrowth
demanding, is more frequent).
Conservation of the main traditional characteristics of the estate, i. e. alternation of open and
woody spaces. The presence of thorn thickets, suitable for the game, should be respected.
Conservation and/or renovation of main historical buildings (over all the ones for tobacco drying,
called “tabaccaie”) and recovery of traditional paths, nowadays invaded by intrusive vegetation.
In the final analysis, landscape, production (wood and game) and protection requirements of Barbialla vecchia territory suggest a flexible management, according to the priorities of the case, with
respect to the traditional features of the estate.
7. References
Agnoletti M., Paci M., 1998. Landscape Evolution on a Central Tuscan Estate between the Eighteenth and the Twentieth Centuries. In Kirby K. J. and Watkins C. (Eds.), The Ecological History
of European Forests, 117-127. CAB International, Oxon-New York.
Agnoletti M., 2002. Il paesaggio agro-forestale toscano. Strumenti per l’analisi, la gestione e la conservazione. Firenze, Manuale ARSIA, Regione Toscana.
Chirici G., Corona P., Vannuccini M., 1999. Analisi paesaggistica dell’impatto di interventi di rimboschimento in una tenuta agricola. L’It. For. e Mont., 5, 236-247.
Farina A., 1998. Principles and Methods in Landscape Ecology. Chapman and Hall, N. Y. and London.
O’ Neill R. V., Krummel J. R., Gardner R.H., Sigihara G., Jackson B., De Angelis D.L., Milne B. T.,
Turner M. G., Zygmunt B., Christensen S. W., Dale V. H., Graham R. L., 1988. Indices of landscape
pattern. Lanscape Ecology, 1 (3), 153-162.
Paci M., 2002. L’Uomo e la Foresta. Meltemi, Roma.
Paci M., Travaglini D., Morgante L., 2005. Trasformazione del paesaggio della fattoria di Barbialla
(Val d’Egola, provincia di Firenze) nella seconda metà del XX secolo. In Corona P., Iovino E., Maetzke F., Marchetti M., Menguzzato G., Nocentini S., Portoghesi L. (Eds.), Foreste Ricerca Cultura,
scritti in onore di Orazio Ciancio, 413-427. Aula Magna, Università di Firenze. Accademia Italiana
di Scienze Forestali.
Pavari A., 1916. Studio preliminare sulla coltura delle specie forestali esotiche in Italia. Ann. R. Ist.
Super. For. Naz., 1, 159-379.
Sereni E., 1961. Storia del paesaggio agrario italiano. Laterza, Bari.
Sheppard S. R. J., Harshaw H. W. (Eds.), 2001. Forest and Landscapes – Linking Ecology, Sustainability and Aesthetics. CABI Publishing, UK.
Taylor P. D., Fahrig L., Henein K., Merriam G., 1993. Connectivity is a vital element of landscape
structure. Oikos, 68, 571-573.
Vos W., Stortelder A., 1992. Vanishing Tuscan Landscapes. Pudoc, Wageningen.
328
Variazioni della copertura vegetale, documentazione storica
e toponomastica nel Lazio appenninico
Francesco Spada1 e Susanna Passigli2
1
Dipartimento di Biologia vegetale dell’Università degli Studi di Roma, La Sapienza,
c/o Orto Botanico di Roma, Largo Cristina di Svezia, 40, 00100 Roma, Italia
e-mail: [email protected]
2
Università della Tuscia, Viterbo,
via di Trasone 22, 00199 Roma, Italia
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
We describe some cases of fluctuation in distribution areas of some arboreal species within the
Monti Simbruini district (central Italy), deducible from historical documentation, textual and cartographical. The object of this research is the analysis of toponyms, terms and expressions relative
to the arboreal vegetation, found in a section of monastery of Santa Scolatica in Subiaco territory,
between the XIV and XIX century. This analysis is consistently compared with the biogeographic
reality of the area. The ultimate purpose is an attempt for a realistic reconstruction of the role
of geographic names in the local perception, as well as the present species in the area, also, any
possible transformation of their distribution during the study period until the present day. Some
problematic elements induce us to improve the interpretation methodology of the sources, avoiding over simplified and anachronistic connections between place names and vegetative landscape.
In particular, we describe the case of the phytotoponyms, which date back to a relatively recent
period because of neolatin origine and in harmony with the dynamism of humanized vegetation.
The comparative method between the actual vegetation and the historical documentation in the
toponym research allows to attribute absolute dating to definite events of vegetation dynamism.
The problem is not only to establish a coherent relationship between the proper name and the real
species to which it can be referred to, but also to fix the topomastic evidence in the chronological
and local context, so that this can acquire a real documentary value.
Le relazioni fra meccanismi di fissazione di un toponimo e le testimonianze della presenza reale di
una specie botanica o di un aggregato di specie, forniscono dati preziosi su fenomeni di trasformazione della copertura vegetale di un determinato territorio nel corso del tempo. La microtoponomastica derivata da fitonimi può infatti validamente contribuire alla ricostruzione del dinamismo delle
trasformazioni determinate dall’intervento umano (come nel caso degli effetti del taglio selettivo
sulla composizione floristica di formazioni forestali), ma anche delle trasformazioni della copertura
vegetale attribuibili esclusivamente a fenomeni della successione naturale. Ma una disamina congiunta di tipo storico e di tipo naturalistico è quanto mai necessaria per evitare insidie legate a generalizzazioni, assonanze o incongruenze nella interpretazione di presunti fitotoponimi. Si considerino
gli esempi di Abeto e Aveto, toponimi a vasta distribuzione appenninica che nulla hanno a che fare
con Abies, così come Carpìno (torrente) e Carpinone (borgo rupestre sovrastante ) in Molise (Isernia) che non sembrano riferibili a Carpinus sp. ma piuttosto a termini di sostrato derivati da una base
*CAR, ‘roccia’1. Cfr. Carapello, fiume (Campobasso) e Carpello, fiume e borgo (Sora). Una volta
chiarita la necessità di interpretare in modo etimologicamente convincente sia un nome locale derivato da nomi vegetali, sia un termine relativo all’uso del suolo, si può arrivare a distinguere in modo
più analitico la funzione dei due tipi di testimonianza, sottoponendoli successivamente al confronto
critico sia della documentazione storica scritta, che della contestualizzazione naturalistica.
1Spada, Passigli, in corso di stampa.
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Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
L’indagine interdisciplinare può rispondere ad una serie di interrogativi, fra cui il perché della scelta
dei diversi termini reperibili nella documentazione testuale (silva, querquetum, sterparium, castagnetum,
terra cum quercubus) e, soprattutto, decodificare il meccanismo delle trasformazioni da una fase di
scenario vegetale ancora “naturale”, precolturale a quella di paesaggio vegetale di tipo ormai decisamente umanizzato.La ricerca qui presentata, riguarda un distretto esteso alla porzione occidentale del
versante tirrenico dei monti Simbruini, nel Lazio centrale. Sul fronte storico, essa si fonda sulla documentazione scritta e cartografica relativa alle comunità del comprensorio conservata presso l’Archivio
del monastero di Santa Scolastica di Subiaco2. Sono stati presi in considerazione i contratti notarili
di compra-vendita e affitto risalenti ai secoli XIV-XV, gli inventari dei beni monastici redatti nei secoli
XV, XVI e XVII (Inventario antico del 1476-1477 e Registrum maximum del 1570), il Catasto Gregoriano
dello Stato Pontificio del 1820 con mappe in scala 1: 2000 e con i relativi brogliardi descrittivi e infine
gli statuti rurali delle comunità risalenti ai secoli XVIII-XIX. La terminologia relativa all’uso del suolo
nelle singole parcelle dei catasti, fa riferimento di norma sia alla componente vegetale (spontanea
o coltivata ) sia al relativo uso produttivo nel determinato momento della stesura del documento.
Su fronte naturalistico la base documentaria è legata a conoscenze di matrice geobotanica sulla flora,
sulla composizione e distribuzione delle comunità vegetali, desunte da documenti di cartografia della
vegetazione editi ed inediti e da campagne di censimento in atto da parte degli scriventi.
Il paesaggio attuale rappresenta una tappa di un processo di trasformazione recentissimo che ha
avuto inizio a partire dagli anni Cinquanta del secolo XX, in conseguenza del massiccio esodo rurale
dell’ ultimo Dopoguerra. Abbandonati gli appezzamenti agricoli in quota, le lunette, i terrazzamenti, i ciglionamenti, le attività agricole si sono concentrate in piccole zone intorno ai centri della
valle dell’Aniene. Le aree abbandonate dall’agricoltura sono state in parte riconquistate dal bosco e
in parte trasformate in pascoli. Quest’ultima forma di utilizzazione a carattere estensivo, può oggi
localmente rivelarsi disfunzionale, in quanto, un eccessivo numero di capi viene inevitabilmente
concentrato in determinate aree non tanto in base alle disponibilità della risorsa stessa, quanto
piuttosto in funzione della viabilità moderna esistente (trasferimento autotrasportato dei capi),
che nulla ha a che fare con la tradizionale utilizzazione dei pascoli e rischia per questo di apportare
modifiche pericolose per la stabilità dei versanti (erosione concentrata).
Inoltre i vincoli di tutela stabiliti a partire dal 1985, anno di istituzione del Parco Regionale del Monti Simbruini, hanno comportato un sensibile incremento della superficie boscata rispetto a quella
di un passato preindustriale, capovolgendo verosimilmente rapporti areali pregressi e ormai consolidati fra diverse forme locali di uso del suolo, struttura peraltro già scardinata dalle trasformazioni
socioeconomiche e demografiche del Dopoguerra. Va comunque sottolineato il fatto che tali norme
di tutela dei valori naturalistici locali, valori identificati all’atto dei censimenti eseguiti sui resti di
vegetazione naturale del territorio regionale (in concomitanza con quelli nazionali ed europei, vedi
Natura 2000) comporteranno in prospettiva un graduale recupero della integrità originaria in senso
ecosistemico (con carattere di vero e proprio restauro ambientale “autogeno”) di tutta la maglia
della vegetazione naturale, frammentata e degradata da millenni di uso intensissimo. Seppur differenziato, sofisticato, “acculturato”, questo uso è stato solo apparentemente in equilibrio (come vorrebbe una prospettiva “etnografica”) con la capacità di carico del sistema naturale, avendo ormai da
secoli la pressione antropica in tutta la penisola superato di gran lunga quasi ovunque tale limite.
A un aumento subrecente della superficie boscata ha contribuito anche la realizzazione nel periodo
interbellico e in quello immediatamente successivo, di vasti rimboschimenti, prevalentementi a Pinus nigra, specie estranea alla flora locale ma pur sempre autoctona sui vicini Monti della Marsica e
lì accantonata in stazioni a circa 50 km in linea d’aria (anfiteatro della Camosciara e Villetta Barrea).
2 Per una descrizione accurata delle diverse fonti, si rinvia a Passigli, in corso di stampa
330
Variazioni della copertura vegetale, documentazione storica e toponomastica nel Lazio appenninico
Al progressivo abbandono della ceduazione a turno breve (dodici anni circa) si è accompagnata
inoltre una significativa diffusione del pascolo in bosco (comunque regolato da norme istituzionalizzate: vedi Legge Forestale della Regione Lazio, edizione 2001), condizione verosimilmente
ancestrale al di là di interpretazioni meccanicistiche3, in quanto propria di stadi iniziali di tutta
la colonizzazione agro-silvo-pastorale appenninica e di età variabilissima secondo i distretti (dal
Neolitico al secolo XIX).
Tali eventi hanno portato comunque oggi all’affermazione nel comprensorio di un rapporto fra superficie agraria e superficie forestale addirittura ribaltato rispetto a quello di un secolo fa4.
Un consumo lento, progressivo e continuo della copertura forestale, che ha preso origine già all’epoca dei castellieri preistorici, poi attraverso la costruzione della struttura territoriale attuata su
iniziativa del potere abbaziale sublacense nel X-XI e in seguito nel XIII secolo, si è protratto sostanzialmente fino all’inizio del XX secolo5. Il secolo XIX è stato uno dei periodi di massima espansione
della colonizzazione del territorio. Alla fine di questo e all’inizio del successivo, la documentazione
fotografica d’epoca presenta un paesaggio sublacense completamente deforestato6. Toponimi difficilmente databili quali Tagliata, Cesa, Cesa Cotta documentano comunque una consolidata pratica
di utilizzazione forestale, soprattutto attraverso il governo a ceduo.
Vengono qui di seguito presentati esempi di contestualizzazione dei dati delle descrizioni catastali,
alla luce delle conoscenze della fitogeografia, dei processi successionali della vegetazione delle caratteristiche della topografia e uso del suolo di epoca preindustriale.
L’analisi condotta nella documentazione sublacense induce a riflettere, in primo luogo, sull’impiego
di termini di tipo collettivo relativi a formazioni forestali non specificate, quali ad esempio silva,
foresta, macchia, bosco. Essi sembrano mirati da un lato a suggerire la funzione produttiva e la
struttura dei soprassuoli e da un altro a mettere in evidenza in modo esplicito alcune specie vegetali
costitutive. La localizzazione e l’analisi del contesto vegetale attuale delle selve menzionate nella
documentazione fanno riferimento a siti fra i 300 e gli 800 metri, ubicati su topografie ed esposizioni le più varie, siti che, dal punto di vista edafico e climatico rientrerebbero nel dominio del bosco
misto di latifoglie decidue. Tale indagine, insieme all’analisi delle trasformazioni d’uso del suolo
evidenziate attraverso il confronto diacronico fra le diverse fonti a disposizione per una stessa località, permette di individuare, secondo i casi, le specie dominanti nel corso del tempo nei vari lembi
di bosco nominati dal catasto.
Queste testimonianze sottintendono tanto la volontà di definire una specie in particolare, quanto
le caratteristiche o le potenzialità produttive in generale dell’appezzamento in questione (selva,
foresta, macchia, bosco). In altri casi, l’attribuzione del nome ha fatto ricorso ad altro tipo di nomenclatura, come castagneto o querceto, termini di tipo qualitativo più precisi in senso composizio
nale, “floristico” quasi, ambedue ampiamente rappresentati anche altrove nel periodo studiato. E’
inoltre da tenere presente il diverso criterio di impiego dei termini nelle diverse fonti. Se il termine
selva figura ripetutamente nei registri di possessi e negli statuti rurali più antichi, la fonte catastale
ottocentesca sceglie di prediligere il nome bosco, al quale vengono riferite le specifiche qualità7. Non
è per altro da escludere un certo margine di casualità all’interno della documentazione di tipo quoti3 Cannata, 2001, pp.260 ss. e 270 ss. sui sistemi produttivi agricoli e le attività forestali.
4 Cannata, 2001, pp.113-117.
5 Sull’insediamento preistorico appenninico, Guidi et. al., 1982; per il medioevo, Delogu, 1979, dove viene dato risalto all’aspetto organizzato
della campagna in terreni, agricoli, case sparse e chiese rurali, ritratto nell’affresco raffigurante il primo miracolo di San Benedetto nella
campagna affilana duecentesca. Sulle trasformazioni del paesaggio vegetale, Spada, Passigli, in corso di stampa.
6 Amore, in corso di stampa.
7 Le principali categorie di uso del suolo boschivo nel Catasto Gregoriano risultano: boschina dolce e forte, bosco, bosco ceduo, bosco da
frutto, bosco di alto fusto, bosco di Faggi, di Querce, etc., bosco dolce, forte, misto, castagneto da taglio, castagneto domestico (Regolamento sulla misura dei terreni e formazione delle mappe del Catasto Generale dello Stato Ecclesiastico ordinato dall’art.191 del Motu
Proprio della Sa. Me. Papa Pio VII, Roma 1816, pp. 90 ss.).
331
Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
diano. Una vera e propria forma di suddivisione per categorie è pertinente solo alla documentazione
catastale, che proprio per questo può irrigidire le testimonianze creando confusioni8. Ne risulta comunque un quadro quanto mai vario che vede faggio, roverella, farnia (nelle zone più basse), quali
specie costitutive della zonazione altitudinale di oggi, interagire e interscambiarsi a seguito delle
trasformazioni documentate, indotte dal rimaneggiamento umano, pur sempre in base alle leggi,
note alla geobotanica, di un dinamismo stazionale naturale.
Per definire l’accezione locale del termine silva, risulta illuminante una memoria settecentesca relativa al territorio di Ienne9. In uno stesso testo si esprime a chiare note e quasi strumentalmente la
diversa percezione di selva, bosco e macchia laddove, con il primo termine, è indicata la formazione
vegetale fruttifera (produttrice di ghiande, castagne, noci, nocciole), ben ripulita (nel sottobosco) e
governata, mentre le definizioni di bosco, spineto e macchia vengono attribuite allo stato degradato
della formazione stessa dal punto di vista produttivo, alla presenza cioè di quelle specie spontanee
non fruttifere che, cresciute fra le essenze originarie ed economicamente più utili, in seguito all’abbandono del governo forestale, lo hanno reso meno attrattivo e suscettibile di riconversione in
senso agricolo. Le successive testimonianze qui di seguito riportate lasciano intuire l’attuazione di
una continua serie di piccoli interventi su singole parcelle e, contemporaneamente, una tendenza
tutto sommato conservativa del disordinato assetto registrato in precedenza.
Il problema da affrontare riguarda la gestione della selva di Pietranera. L’evidente stato di abbandono rende ormai quasi indispensabile avvalersi del fuoco per poter poi cesare la Macchia della
Comunità al fine di ottenere terreno seminativo, ma in questo modo potrebbero prendere fuoco le
piante da lasciare in piedi. Inoltre il terreno è in pendenza e le acque lo spoglierebbero in mancanza
di alberi. La selva in questione era composta di cerri e quercia (Q. pubescens), ma per la fortezza degli
alberi e degli spini e altri legni salvaticini è divenuta un bosco e uno spineto con spini, carpini, aceri, ornelli e per
tal motivo non produce ianda, tanto che da molti anni non si affitta più. L’amministrazione della Comunità
è quindi giunta alla determinazione di cesare e seminare, ma conservando gli alberi di cerro alla
giusta distanza “e ciò per ridurre la detta macchia veramente ad uso di selva fruttifera”, nel termine
di dieci anni. Il secondo memoriale documenta l’utilità di cesare un terreno in località Pietranera
entro sei anni e cesando di ridurre detto terreno a uso di vera macchia o vera selva. Cesare in questo caso
enfatizza l’intervento di ripulitura dalle specie infruttuose, mentre altrove rinvia al dissodamento
per la messa a coltura.
Contribuisce a chiarire questa pratica un’altra memoria del 1803 che ricorda una concessione in
affitto nel 1798 per sei anni del cesamento della selva di Pietranera: trenta cesaroli vi lavorano assiduamente ma il risultato è un raccolto modesto, costituito solo da sei coppe di grano. Per questo motivo i lavoranti si rifiutano di proseguire il lavoro e l’affittuario è costretto a rinunciare alla rendita
dell’affitto. Viene così provata la sterilità del terreno. Lo Statuto di Ienne del 1874 infine elenca le
specie esistenti nella selva di Pietranera: cerri, cerque, molazza (verosimilmente Acer pseudoplanus in
armonia con il contesto vegetazionale)10 e i frutti protetti: ghianda, mela, pera, coronali (Cornus mas e C.
sanguinea)11.
8 Cevasco, 2002, pp. 195-214.
9 Gli interventi sulla selva di Pietranera risalgono rispettivamente al 1792 e al 1796, in Archivio di Stato di Roma, Buon Governo, Ienne, s. II, b. 1999.
10 Per un confronto, si veda il termine “mollàcera” in Abruzzo, in Penzig, 1924.
11 Archivio di Stato di Roma, n. 450/5, Statuto di Ienne del 1874.
332
Variazioni della copertura vegetale, documentazione storica e toponomastica nel Lazio appenninico
I termini collettivi generici relativi al bosco: silva
Denominazioni del sito nelle diverse fonti
Uso del suolo e paesaggio vegetale
1477, Inventario antico
San Leonardo, localitŕ e chiesa rurale (Ienne)
Terra cum arboribus, presso la chiesa di San Leonardo e il
fiume, localitŕ ubicata presso il Colle delle Vigne
1570, Registrum maximum
Santo Lonardo (ecclesia diruta)
Pratum cum arboribus nucuum, cum obaco sylvariccio cum
culto et inculto
1820, Catasto Gregoriano
San Leonardo – Colle Vigna – Monte Lea
Bosco, Pascolo cespugliato, Mezzagna boscata, Pascolo
boscato
1950, tavoletta IGM
Chiesa di San Leonardo, pendici settentrionali del Colle Lea
quota 600
Vegetazione arborea rada (bosco a roverella e ornello)
1436 Inventario antico
Tufo de Sardu, localitŕ (Toccianello, Subiaco)
Silva in qua fuit castagnetum
1820, Catasto Gregoriano
Tuffo del Sardo (Toccianello, Subiaco)
Sasso boscato forte (proprietŕ Santa Scolastica), Seminativo
vitato, Bosco di castagni
1950, tavoletta IGM
Antera (Toccianello, Subiaco)
quota 550
Bosco ceduo (bosco di roverella, cerro e raro castagno)
1570, Registrum maximum
Ponticelli, localitŕ (Subiaco)
Sylvotta cum canneto
1820, Catasto Gregoriano
Ponticello (San Lorenzo, Subiaco)
Seminativo, Vigneto alberato, Pascolo olivato, Bosco da
frutto, Pascolo olivato
1950, tavoletta IGM
Localitŕ senza toponimo
quota 500
Bosco ceduo e vigneto
1570, Registrum maximum
Campo de Arco, Rivo d’Arco
Canapina cum silva a capite, due
Canapina cum parva macchia a capite
1820, Catasto Gregoriano
Campo d’Arco (San Lorenzo, Subiaco)
Seminativo, Seminativo vitato, Vigneto alberato, Pascolo
olivato, Bosco da frutto, Pascolo olivato
1950, tavoletta IGM
Localitŕ senza toponimo presso il fiume Aniene
quota 370
Oliveto
Per quanto riguarda le specie dell’orizzonte collinare, la quercia e il cerro (Q.cerris), gli aspetti sui
quali si è interrogata la documentazione e in particolare il patrimonio toponomastico, riguardano in
primo luogo la presenza reale delle specie citate e la corrispondenza della loro localizzazione con gli
ambienti di elezione indicati (quota, esposizione). Altro caposaldo interpretativo riguarda la diversa diffusione e la diversa percezione che nel passato sembra essere aver distinto le formazioni pure
da quelle miste. Le menzioni di querceto e di selva sembrano infatti scemare dopo il XVI secolo
(a fronte di una crescente diffusione nell’Ottocento dei toponimi da Carpinus e Ornus), tanto che,
ormai diventato raro il cerqueto puro, il giudizio di selva migliore nel Settecento figura riservato alle
selve fruttifere di cerri e roverelle, mentre il bosco, o spineto (formato da spini, carpini, aceri, ornelli),
o macchia che non produce ghianda, è relegato a categoria non produttiva12. E’ interessante notare
come questa percezione si ponga in netto contrasto con quanto sembra oggi affermarsi in sede di
gestione forestale, riguardo alle potenzialità produttive del carpino nero per la sua massa legnosa.
A dispetto di una discreta quantità di testimonianze catastali di querceti, stupisce che questa realtà vegetale e produttiva abbia lasciato così modesta traccia di sé nella toponomastica delle località
studiate (solo il caso di Cercito, testimoniato a partire dal Cinquecento)13. Dalla tabella riportata
emerge inoltre che l’inventario del 1570 non conservi alcun querceto né alcun termine collettivo
12 Memorie del 1792 e del 1796 in Archivio di Stato di Roma, Buon Governo, Ienne, s. II, b. 1999.
13 principali toponimi base derivanti dalla quercia a foglie caduche sono stati rilevati per il medioevo laziale da Toubert, 1973, vol. I, p. 173,
in particolare secondo lo studioso essi sono relativi a formazioni primarie in via di regressione o a elementi residui di un paesaggio vegetale
scomparso da tempo, ma dotati di forte capacità di evocazione. Essi derivano principalmente da cerro: Cerretum (Quercus cerris), farnia:
Farnetum (Quercus pedunculata), roverella: Quercetum, Cerquetum (Quercus pubescens), la quercia per eccellenza, per questo motivo
lasciata senza altra specificazione nel lessico notarile, infine rovere: Roboretum (Quercus robur) solo dove le sue esigenze ecologiche le
permettono di essere presente in formazioni omogenee, mentre, sempre secondo l’autore, la sughera (Quercus suber) ha lasciato pochissima
traccia di sé nella microtoponomastica e la coccifera vi è del tutto assente perché nel Lazio figura solo come cespuglio.
333
Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
relativo a formazione arborea: ad eccezione di una sola silva quercuum (in territorio di Serrone, anche
essa compresa in una possessio caratterizzata da alberi di melo, ciliegio, noce e da canneto), figurano
infatti solo possessiones con alberi di quercia (dei quali spesso si fornisce il numero, che va dall’individuo singolo ai quattro individui), spesso insieme ad altri alberi da frutto (pero, ciliegio, melo,
noce). In altri tre casi figurano selve o selvotte, nel territorio di Subiaco annesse ad appezzamenti di
olivo a canapaia. Per il resto la menzione di querce è assai diffusa, soprattutto per quanto riguarda
il territorio di Subiaco, ma essa è limitata a singoli individui attestati nei terreni seminativi e nelle
vigne. E’ verosimile quindi che la sua frequenza nel paesaggio vegetale, che tende a permanere
anche all’ interno delle maglie di un sistema completamente agricolo, fosse stata tale da render Q.
pubescens scarsamente identificativa di siti e luoghi.
– Roverella (Q. pubescens)
334
Denominazioni del sito nelle diverse fonti
Uso del suolo e paesaggio vegetale
1436, 1477, Inventario antico
Marciani, localitŕ (Affile)
Querquetum, due
Terra cum quercubus
1570, Registrum maximum
Cignali, localitŕ finitima (Affile)
Possessio cum arbore quercus
1820, Catasto Gregoriano
Cignali, localitŕ finitima (Affile)
Seminativo vitato e olivato, Bosco ceduo, Pascolo sterposo
1950, tavoletta IGM
Marciani
quota 550-600
Vigneto, oliveto, a valle (versante nord) della Montagna di
Roiate
1436, 1477, Inventario antico
Le Morre localitŕ (Affile)
Querquetum
1820, Catasto Gregoriano
Le More, Strada della Mora, da Scrima verso est (Affile)
Pascolo fra macigni, Seminativo vitato
1950, tavoletta IGM
La Morra
quota 550-600
1436, 1477, Inventario antico
Poliano, localitŕ (Affile)
Querquetum
Querquetum et arbores quercus
1820, Catasto Gregoriano
Puiano (Affile)
Pascolo sterposo
1950, tavoletta IGM
Costa Poiano (al di lŕ del confine, nel comune di Roiate)
quota 986
Bosco ceduo
1436, 1477, Inventario antico
La Scrima, localitŕ (Affile)
Querquetum
Querquetum et terrula cum quercubus
1765, Catasto Tranquilli
La Scrima (Affile)
Terreno vignato e lavorativo
1820, Catasto Gregoriano
Scrima (Affile)
Seminativo olivato, Seminativo vitato e olivato
1950, tavoletta IGM
Ciolerano
quota 600
pendio con alberi radi, presso altura a bosco ceduo
1477, Inventario antico
Forma Pocerano, localitŕ (Subiaco)
Querquetum, due
1820, Catasto Gregoriano
Forma Focerata (Lucinette, Subiaco)
Seminativo vitato con olivi
1950, tavoletta IGM
Forma Focerale, idrotoponimo
quota 500-600
Oliveto, vigneto, sul pendio quercia e olmo
1436, Inventario antico
Valle delli Camuri, localitŕ (Subiaco)
Arbores quercuum
Variazioni della copertura vegetale, documentazione storica e toponomastica nel Lazio appenninico
1820, Catasto Gregoriano
Le Camere (Subiaco)
Bosco forte, Pascolo con piante di querce, Seminativo fra
macigni, con olivi, Pascolo fra macigni, Seminativo vitato
1950, tavoletta IGM
Cammore, Fosso delle Cammore
quota 560
Pozzi, oliveto, vigneto
1436, Inventario antico
Valle Ia. Todino, localitŕ (Toccianello, Subiaco)
Cesa cum cerciolis et castagnolis
1570, Registrum maximum
Cercito, localitŕ (Ienne)
Possessio cum culto et inculto
1820, Catasto Gregoriano
Cerceto (Monte Preclaro)
Pascolo cespugliato
1950, tavoletta IGM
Cercito, pendio fra il Colle dei Santi e Piedienne
quota fra 1000 1200
Vegetazione rada di quercia e olmo
Questa assenza non sembra dunque attribuibile agli esiti di una radicale eliminazione delle essenze
tipiche del piano collinare, anche se la tendenza generale del periodo cinque e seicentesco è orientata verso importanti forme di messa a coltura. Se da una parte ciò va imputato al diverso formulario
utilizzato dal redattore cinquecentesco, il quale ricorre regolarmente al termine possessio che, seppure
spesso dotato di qualificativi, tende tuttavia alla genericità, il confronto con il settecentesco Catasto
Tranquilli sembra confermare un progressivo calo di testimonianze dell’antico querceto puro. Questo
infatti non è più attestato fra i possessi sublacensi di Affile, Arcinazzo, Ienne e Subiaco. Ne rimangono tracce solo nei comuni di Civitella (Bellegra), Rocca Santo Stefano, Canterano, Gerano e Cerreto e
anche in questi casi si tratta per lo più di terreni lavorativi con alberi di quercia, raramente di boschi
misti all’interno dei quali è presente la roverella, ancor più raramente di veri e propri cerqueti, per altro
caratterizzati da una superficie assai esigua14. Del tutto assenti sono i microtoponimi derivati dalla denominazione dialettale dell’essenza. Le associazioni con le altre specie forestali contribuiscono
a confermare uno scenario produttivo del bosco misto caducifoglie nell’orizzonte collinare appenninico, rappresentato dalla selva fruttifera di alto fusto (secondo la definizione che è stata delineata poco
sopra). Le componenti descritte nel catasto settecentesco escludono infatti la presenza di specie “non
fruttifere”: le formazioni arboree di proprietà del monastero sublacense sono poche, di modesta superficie e integrate con le colture estensive e intensive o comunque ad esse fortemente intercalate. Ma
esse, pure appartenenti allo stesso orizzonte, non comprendono alberi come carpini, aceri e ornelli,
che sarebbero indice di una alterazione della produttività.
Questo assetto è chiaramente messo in evidenza dalla testimonianza statutaria, una fonte privilegiata per ciò che concerne la funzione delle specie e quindi la percezione che di esse si aveva. Dal
XVI al XIX secolo, i boschi di alto fusto delle comunità del comprensorio sublacense sono tutelati
contro il taglio e contro il pascolo, per permettere la ricrescita dei germogli nel periodo che va dal 1°
ottobre alla fine di dicembre: multe sono infatti previste per il taglio di querqueolae culte et reservate
pro silva faciendo, per chi sale sugli alberi o raccoglie a terra le castagne e le ghiande cadute dalle
querce, dai lecci e dai cerri, per chi taglia cerri, cerque, elci15. La ghianda di roverella non si può battere
e portare via, in particolare nella Macchia del Castellaccio di Paliano, poiché questa è riservata sia
per il pascolo dell’erba sia di quello della ghianda.
14 Subiaco, Archivio di Santa Scolastica, Catasto Tranquilli. Le testimonianze sulla presenza di Quercus pubescens sono le seguenti: “terreno
ad uso di cerqueto”, località Sant’Eleuterio (Civitella, c. 269), “macchia antica di cerri, cerque, castagni, alberi fruttiferi, vigne e lavorativo”, Tenuta di Monte Casale, Capello e Valle Cupia Vecchia (Civitella, c. 273), “lavorativo con alberi di cerque”, località Remajure ora
Roje del Canale (Rocca Santo Stefano, c.381), “cerqueto”, località Colle Verta o Campo (Canterano, c. 555), “macchia di castagne,
cerque, fargne e faggi”, località Chia (Gerano, c. 671), “macchia di cerri, cerque, fargne”, località Costamiro (Gerano, c. 683), “terreno
con cerque”, località Fontanelle (Cerreto, c. 705), “lavorativo con cerque”, località Colle (Cerreto, c. 721), “albereto, lavorativo e cerque”,
località Caprano (Rocca Canterano, c. 799), “albereto, oliveto, cerque e prato”, località Valle Ceraso (Rocca canterano, c. 877).
15 Archivio di Stato di Roma, Biblioteca, n. 805/6, Statuto di Paliano del 1531; n. 804/2, Statuto di Cervara del 1852; n. 450/5, Statuto di Ienne del 1874
335
Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
Riguardo alla specie Q. cerris, ci si domanda come mai nell’area di studio siano così frequenti i toponimi legati al cerro. Una spiegazione plausibile può essere che tali toponimi si riferiscano a un’ondata di colonizzazione recente (medievale) di ambienti forestali fino ad allora poco disturbati dalla
colonizzazione umana. Una formazione “pura” di cerri, impoverita cioè rispetto alla composizione
“mista” che competerebbe in natura al cerro, può essere infatti rinvenuta su accantonamenti rupestri, adatti all’insediamento umano di altura, in uno dei tanti episodi più recenti di incastellamento
degli abitati appenninici.
Al contrario del caso precedente, questa specie quercina nelle fonti più antiche considerate è tramandata esclusivamente attraverso i toponimi. E’ già stato rilevato che i toponimi da cerro risultino
fra i più ricorrenti del piano submontano, collinare e planiziare della Ciociaria (fra i 450 e i 1400 metri). Nella medesima regione, finitima all’area di studio, solo il 18% dei luoghi designati con questo
toponimo è ancora ricoperto di vegetazione forestale16. La parziale scomparsa dei boschi di cerro
non sembra da attribuirsi tanto all’eccessivo sfruttamento (come nel caso della farnia), quanto al
taglio selettivo a vantaggio di altre specie più attrattive a esso originariamente associate in alcune
aree, come il castagno. I microtoponimi che si riferiscono al cerro si trovano anche in zone dove
sono attestati dissodamenti risalenti ai secoli XI-XII17, rivelandone una tendenza alla conservazione
nei pressi degli insediamenti.
E’ ipotizzabile che anche in questo caso i toponimi conservati indichino una presenza antica, e forse
già non più attuale, dell’essenza in questione, in quanto le località caratterizzate dal toponimo nel
periodo quattro e cinquecentesco non riportano alcuna attestazione di cerro, né di alberi di quercia. E’ da ritenere, tuttavia, che la specie possa aver conosciuto una flessione a seguito del degrado
antropico di precedenti foreste miste, a vantaggio di roverella, . poiché la fonte cinquecentesca è di
norma molto fedele nel rilevare la presenza di singoli alberi.
Le formazioni caratterizzate dall’essenza ricompaiono prima nel settecentesco Catasto Tranquilli,
in associazione con roverella, castagno e faggio18, mentre piante forti di alto fusto riappaiono nell’Ottocento nelle medesime località individuate dagli antichi toponimi derivati da cerro. Ciò trova
conferma negli interventi di tutela contenuti negli statuti, a vantaggio di cerri e cerque (roverelle):
le due essenze risultano sempre insieme a comporre le selve fruttifere19, mentre estremamente rare
sono le menzioni del solo cerro. Queste ultime riguardano il territorio di Piglio: il taglio dei cerri di
una selva in località Arcinazzo è oggetto di una lite fra le comunità di Ponza e Piglio nel 176520 e
per il taglio di questa essenza nella selva comunitativa è previsto il pagamento di una multa doppia
rispetto a quanto stabilito per tutti gli altri alberi infruttiferi, secondo lo Statuto del 1820.
Le testimonianze qui riprodotte inducono a riflettere inoltre su eventuali forme di “uso multiplo”.
Nel caso dei terreni nella contrada Cerreto, esse vanno interpretate come una fase transitoria del
bosco che viene man mano conquistato dalle colture, nel quale valesse la pena la conservazione di
Quercus“fruttifere”, creando forme di uso promiscuo.
16 Ricci, 1994.
17 Toubert, 1973. Tuttavia l’uso che della pianta si faceva per la legna da ardere e per il carbone giustifica una testimonianza conservata per
il territorio di Filettino, nel 1331, secondo la quale il locatario di una parcella con alberi di cerro era tenuto a mantenere et de novo colere
alias arbores existentes in loco predicto, in Passigli, in corso di stampa.
18 Subiaco, Archivio di Santa Scolastica, Catasto Tranquilli. Le testimonianze sulla presenza di Quercus cerris sono le seguenti: “macchia di
cerque e cerri”, località Isamini (Civitella, c. 257), “macchia di cerri e castagne”, località Morre o Pantana (Rocca Santo Stefano, c. 387),
“macchia di castagne, cerri e faggi”, località L’Antera o sia Castellone (Gerano, c. 655), “macchia di cerri, cerque e fargne”, località
Costamiro (Gerano, c. 683), “selva di castagne e cerri”, località Colle Pecchio o Castellone e località Costa Ansueta o Corparato (Rocca
Canterano, c. 849 e c. 851).
19 Archivio di Stato di Roma, Biblioteca, n. 804/2, Statuto di Cervara del 1852; n. 450/5, Statuto di Ienne del 1874, memoria già citata riguardante Ienne del 1792.
20 Archivio di Stato di Roma, Buon Governo, s. II, Ponza, b. 3701.
336
Variazioni della copertura vegetale, documentazione storica e toponomastica nel Lazio appenninico
Secondo quanto emerge sin qui a proposito della roverella e del cerro, il querceto puro, ossia la selva
fruttifera di roverella o di roverella e cerro, considerata la formazione forestale più pregiata ancora
nel XIX secolo, costituisce un genere di appezzamento che si va progressivamente rarefacendo nell’assetto produttivo del territorio sublacense a partire dalla seconda metà del XV secolo. A seguito
di operazioni volontarie, come il taglio selettivo a favore del castagno o come l’integrazione degli
alberi con altre forme produttive all’interno del bosco, come il pascolo e la crealicoltura povera e la
stessa viticoltura, il parcellario forestale risulta sempre più frammentario e i vuoti creati dal diradamento delle specie di alto fusto vengono rioccupati da alberi e arbusti di carpino e ornello.
Denominazioni del sito nelle diverse fonti
Uso del suolo e paesaggio vegetale
1284, atto notarile
Ceretum, localitŕ (Arcinazzo)
Terra
1436, 1476, Inventario antico
Li Cerri della Civita, Lo Cerrito, Lu Cerrito, Le Cerreta, localitŕ
(Arcinazzo)
Terra
Castagnetum
Arbor castanee
Terre, due
1765 Catasto Tranquilli
Quarto delle Cerreta, localitŕ (Arcinazzo)
Terreno in parte lavorativo
1820, Catasto Gregoriano
Cerreta localitŕ finitima (Affile)
Seminativo, Pascolo cespugliato, Mezzagna, Sasso
cespugliato con piante forti di alto fusto
1950, tavoletta IGM
Le Cerreta
quota 900
Alberi radi
1378, atto notarile
Pedi lu Ceretu, localitŕ (Ienne)
Canapina, confinante con il fiume
1318, atto notarile
Colle della Cerra, localitŕ (Subiaco)
Terra
1436, Inventario antico
Cerrito, localitŕ (Toccianello, Subiaco)
Canapina, terra cum cesa, terra, prato, stirparium
Questa tendenza sembra inversamente proporzionale allo sviluppo del castagneto puro, che rappresenta un tipo di bosco dotato di forte continuità, fin dal primo medioevo e lungo tutto il periodo
studiato. La sua scomparsa, per altro quasi totale, risale ad epoca relativamente recente; una prima
fase di abbandono dei castagneti da frutto è attestata nella prima metà del XIX secolo dal Catasto
Gregoriano che registra la loro riconversione in castagneti da taglio.
Bibliografia
Amore, O., in corso di stampa. in Territorio, insediamenti umani, terreni. Per uno studio diacronico, atti del seminario, Trento 19-20 ottobre 1999.
Cannata, G., 2001. Piano del Parco Naturale regionale dei Monti Simbruini, Roma.
Cevasco, R., 2002. La copertura vegetale dell’alta Val di Trebbia nelle ricognizioni topografiche del
Corpo di Stato Maggiore Sardo (1816-1852). Approccio storico all’ecologia dei siti, in “Archeologia
postmedievale” (2002) , pp. 195-214.
Delogu, P., 1979. Territorio e cultura fra Tivoli e Subiaco nell’alto Medioevo, in “Atti e Memorie
della Società tiburtina di Storia e d’Arte”, 52 (1979), pp. 25-54.
Guidi, A. et al., 1982. Gli insediamenti montani di sommità nell’Italia centrale: il caso dei Monti
Lucretili, Roma.
337
Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
Passigli, S., in corso di stampa. La documentazione storica per la conoscenza dell’organizzazione
territoriale e del paesaggio in un comune del territorio sublacense (Agosta, secoli IX-XIX), in Territorio, insediamenti umani, terreni. Per uno studio diacronico, atti del seminario, Trento 19-20
ottobre 1999.
Penzig, O., 1924. Flora popolare italiana. Raccolta dei nomi dialettali delle principali piante indigene e coltivate in Italia, 2 voll., Genova.
Ricci, M., 1994. La toponomastica come fonte per la ricostruzione delle antiche aree forestali: il
caso della Ciociaria, in “Bollettino della Società geografica italiana, 11 (1994), pp.513-532.
Spada, F., Passigli, S., in corso di stampa. L’interpretazione delle trasformazioni della copertura vegetale in una valle appenninica a gestione monastica, in Territorio, insediamenti umani, terreni. Per
uno studio diacronico, atti del seminario, Trento 19-20 ottobre 1999.
Spada, F., Passigli, S., in corso di stampa. Materiali per uno studio etimologico della toponomastica
nel comprensorio montano degli Aurunci, in “Bollettino della Società geografica italiana”.
Toubert, P., 1973. Les structures du Latium médiéval. Le Latium méridional et la Sabine du IXe à la
fin du XIIe siècle, 2 voll., Rome (Bibliothèque des Ecoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome, 221).
338
From integration to abandonment. Forest management in the Mediterranean
agro-ecosystems before and after the “green revolution”
(The Vallès County, Catalonia, Spain, 1860-1999)
Enric Tello1, Ramon Garrabou2, José Ramon Olarieta3 & Xavier Cussó2
1
Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
2
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
3
Universitat de Lleida, Lleida, Spain
e-mail : [email protected]
Abstract
We are seeking to analyze the role played by forest and territorial management in the economic
and ecological functioning of the agrarian ecosystem in a West-Mediterranean advanced organic
economy towards 1860, and compare it with the one prevailing at the end of the 20th century. In
order to highlight the link between energy and land use, we have reconstructed the agrarian energy
balances in five Catalan municipalities towards 1860 and at present, to relate them with the landscape evolution of this territory reconstructed by GIS from cadastral maps and aerial photographs.
Working together with landscape ecologists we have applied to these land-use maps some indices
of eco-landscape structure and connectivity to understand their ecological functioning. We have
found that in 1860 the energy return on energy input was 1.67, despite its unavoidable dependence
on the inefficient livestock bioconversion to obtain manure and traction. In 1999, on the contrary,
the return was only 0.21, meaning a consumption of five energy units for each one offered to the
consumer society. A key feature that allowed to maintain the high energy performance in the 1860
agrarian system was its territorial efficiency, mainly achieved trough a sound integrated management
of agricultural, pasture and forest land. The energy inefficiency of the agrarian system brought
about by the so-called green revolution mainly owes its existence to the unsound disconnection
between livestock breeding, crop production and forest management.
1. Research approach
Using the Energy and Material Flow Analysis (EFA, MFA) we are studying the agrarian landscape as
an ecological footprint of the social metabolism that any society maintains with the natural systems
that sustain them. Our approach combines the study of this energy balances of different agrarian
systems with the land mosaics they produce, through a GIS analysis of land cover patterns. In order
to understand this Land Cover-Land Use Change (LUCC), we consider that social metabolism is
the main driving force behind the long term changes in land uses. Working together with forest and
landscape ecologists, we have applied some Landscape Ecology Indices of ecological structure and
connectivity to measure the environmental impact of those territorial changes.
Energy flow analysis may help to highlight some key features that lay in the historical anatomy of
cultural landscapes. Most of this cultural landscapes were shaped by agrarian economies that attained high population densities while remaining organic. According to Ester Boserup, 64 inhabit./
Km2 or 1.5 hectares per person seems to have been an upper frontier (Boserup, 1981). When an
organic agrarian system achieved such a high density, rural societies had to face and solve two main
problems related with energy efficiency: 1) The big energy losses through the conversion into manure, draught power, and cattle products of biomass eaten by livestock as pasture or fodder; and 2)
339
Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
The decreasing availability of firewood and other forestry products when cultivated land increased
its share within the useful agrarian area. In past organic rural economies the only way to maintain
a high energy performance in a high intensive land use system was to keep a sound integrated territorial management of the three main sides of the agro-ecosystem: cultivated, pasture and forest
lands. The creativity we can now discover in many territorial features of these cultural landscapes
can be seen as innovative responses to this challenge.
2. Study area
Our case study comprises five Catalan municipalities of the Vallès county with a common extent
of 13,488 hectares: Castellar del Vallès, Caldes de Montbui, Palau-Solità i Plegamans, Polinyà and
Sentmenat. They are located in a small plain situated in a tectonic basin between Catalonia’s littoral and pre-littoral mountain ranges, whose diversity of geological substrata have led to the development of a considerable variety of soils. Both the surface streams and groundwater springs are
relatively more abundant in the fault zone between the tectonic basin and the mountains, where the
oldest nucleated settlements were located. Although the poorest share of population used to live in
those small towns or villages, the most apparent feature of human settlement in that mid-northeast
of Catalonia was a network of scattered poly-cultural farms, called masies in Catalan, structured into
compact units around an isolated rural dwelling. Starting from the end of the late medieval agrarian struggles, the landowners who held the masies, gradually gained control of the rights of access
to land, over a complex and conflictive transition from feudalism to agrarian capitalism (Garrabou,
Planas and Saguer, 2000; Garrabou and Tello, 2004).
The closeness to Barcelona –between 5 to 12 hours on horseback according to a timetable map of
1808-1809– meant that the Vallès was connected very early on with the commercial dynamics of
Catalonia’s demographic and urban centre of gravity. Population growth, increasing peasant inequality, and market incentives increase the extension of cultivated lands, mainly through the plantation of vineyards in former woodland areas. Vines were planted in poor soils, and no manure was
applied on them except at the time of initial planting. This meant that a partial wine-growing specialisation allowed the poly-cultural owners of the masies to concentrate the scarce manure on the
better soils devoted to vegetable gardens, cereals, legumes or hemp. Vineyard pruning and green
shoots even went towards fertilising other crops, either directly as compost or indirectly as fodder
Table 1. Population density in the Catalan study area (inhabitants/km2 1718-1999)
Vallčs Study Area
mean in Catalonia
1718
1787
1860
1900
1930
1960
1999
20.8
29.4
65.8
71.0
91.7
110.7
278.0
13.7
29.7
54.5
64.1
92.6
132.1
194.7
Available hectares per inhabitant in the Catalan study area (1718-1999)
number of inhabitants
total available
land in hectares
per inhabitant
1718
2,804
4.83
3.74
3.12
1787
3,972
3.41
2.64
2.20
1860
8,880
1.53
1.18
0.99
available land apt to
cereal sowing in hects.
per inhabitant
1900
9,575
1.41
1.10
0.91
1930
12,375
1.09
0.85
0.71
1990
14,933
0.91
0.70
0.59
1999
37,504
0.36
0.28
0.23
Source: Garrabou and Tello, 2004.
340
arable available land
in hectares per inhabitant
From integration to abandonment. Forest management in the Mediterranean
agro-ecosystems before and after the “green revolution”
and manure. All of these were responses to the challenge of feeding a population that had tripled
between 1787 and 1860, and attained 66 inhabitants/Km2. This meant that only 1,5 hectares per
person were available to feed the local population with an organically-based intensive agriculture in
a Mediterranean bioregion subject to water stress, where keeping livestock and obtaining fertilisers
became severely limiting factors (Wrigley, 2004).
Several waves of increases in the relative prices of wine encouraged vineyard planting, from the 17th
to the beginning of the 18th century, added to the oidium plague in 1840-50. The result was the
cultural landscape mosaic shown in Map 2, that in 1853-56 still combined different Mediterranean
crops.
Map 2. Land use cover in the Catalan study area (Vallès county) in 1853-56 and 1954-57
Source: made with GIS by Oscar Miralles, from the cadastral maps in the historical archive of the Institut Cartogràfic de Catalunya (ICC), and the Spanish Provincial Cadastral Office, for our research project
SEC03-08449-C04. We thank the ICC for giving us permission to publish this 1853-56 maps.
A very different wave of vine planting started in 1867 when the phylloxera plague hit French vineyards, causing relative prices for Catalan wine to soar. This grapevine fever suddenly displaced polycultivation, provoking the first episode of environmental and economic globalisation that linked
the fate of that area to the international value of a single export product. This ended suddenly
with the arrival of the disease to the Vallès in 1883. By 1890 it had killed all vines, and the region’s
agriculture swung towards the production of fresh milk, vegetables, potatoes and legumes for daily
delivery to the nearby cities. The new model was consolidated circa 1930, when the available land
had been reduced to a single agrarian hectare per inhabitant. In spite of the abandonment of many
terraces previously planted with vines, and the growing of woodland in sloping soils, at least in the
Vallès tectonic plane the agrarian landscape remained in 1954-57 a poly-cultural one, with a mosaic
of diverse patches (Map 2). But after the 1960s the fast spreading of the so called “green revolution” put a sudden end to the old rural culture and society.
341
Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
3. Energy efficiency trough territorial efficiency
Despite the high intensive Mediterranean organic agriculture then practiced, the energy balance
of the prevailing agrarian system in the study area towards 1860 reveals that the energy return on
energy input (EROI) was 1.67. The energy content of the final net agrarian output amounted to
64% of the primary solar energy fixed by photosynthesis, while conversion losses were only 36%.
The key feature to attain such a high energy performance was a close integration between the three
main agrarian spaces: cultivated, pasture and wood lands. The existing unavoidable dependence
on livestock bioconversion, in order to obtain manure and traction, was highly inefficient: 26% of
the available vegetable biomass was transformed by livestock into traction power, manure and cattle products, while the final livestock output only accounted for 1% of that primary energy derived
towards animal bio-converters. This supposed a big problem for any traditional organic agrarian
system. But the integration between cropping, livestock feeding and forestry offered an efficient
response to that challenge. Together with an intense reuse of almost any biomass by-product, that
meant a negligible amount of external inputs other than human labour, it explains why the energy
content of the final agrarian product still represented 64% of the primary solar energy (Table 3.).
The intensive cropping caused lack of wood, a big challenge that was faced with an innovative response: the cropping of trees and shrubs. Due to the high proportion of cropped land, the availability of
wood and firewood was only 1.8 Kg. per inhabitant a day, or 9.8 Gj./inhab./year (less than the mean
consumption in the Mediterranean Europe towards 1750-1850 according to Malamina, 2001). Vine
and olive tree pruning or shoots became a partial substitute for firewood or charcoal when they
became increasingly scarce as a consequence of turning woods and brushwood into vineyards or
other woody crops. In that sense, as the Spanish landscape ecologist Fernando González Bernáldez
stressed, shrubbery or woody crops became in the Mediterranean a sort of “forestry transition”
between natural and cultivated rings or patches. It also meant a sound solution to the dilemma
between exploitation and conservation, locating in the space an intermediate degree of agro-ecosystem maturity (González Bernáldez, 1995). Thanks to that “forestry transition” cropped lands
filled the fuel gap with the pruning of vineyards and olive or almond trees, that raised the available
firewood to 14.6 Gj./inhab./year (2.7 Kg. per head a day).
4. Landscape results of an unhinged social metabolism
The energy inefficiency of the present agrarian system, brought about by the so-called green revolution could mainly be caused by the unsound disconnection between livestock breeding, crop production and forest management. In 1999 the agrarian return on total inputs was only 0.21, meaning
a consumption of five energy units for each one obtained. Cropped land holds only 32% of the
useful agrarian area, and captures 47% of solar energy, due to the doubling of the energy output in
each cropped hectare. Forests fill a 61% of land, but most of them remain abandoned and wasted.
Livestock weight is 22 times the existing one in 1860. It is fed with imported fodder and remains
disconnected from the surrounding territory except for the polluting dung. The old agrarian mosaic
has disappeared and a lot of the best agricultural soils have been built-up. The main energy flows of
this unhinged social metabolism go across the territory as if it were only an inert base. Once again
energy inefficiency is closely related to an inefficient and unsound land use that entails unsustainable ecological consequences (Map 4 and Table 5.).
342
From integration to abandonment. Forest management in the Mediterranean
agro-ecosystems before and after the “green revolution”
Table 3. Annual flows in five Catalan municipalities towards 1860 (Spain)
total surface area: 12,457 ha
inhabitants: 8,880
useful agrarian area: 11,987 ha
woodland area: 3,624 ha (30.2% UAA)
cultivated area: 5,727 ha (47.8% UAA)
pasture area: 2,636 ha (22.0% UAA)
direct solar energy: (54.4 Tj./ ha x 11,986.7 ha = 652,076,480 Gj.)
agro-forestry conversion in the useful agrarian area:
267,952 Gj. (22.4 Gj./ha, a 0.04% of the solar radiation received in the UAA)
12.8%
pasture
(in waste and wood land)
34,408 Gj
(9.5 Gj./ha)
54.6%
agricultural space cultivated 146,306 Gj. (25.6 Gj./ha)
9.6%
25,756 Gj.
(4.1Gj./ha)
7.3%
19,669 Gj.
(3.4 Gj./ha)
waste
to vegt.
ferti-lizers
16.0%:
42,950 Gj.
(7,5 Gj./ha)
straw,
feed,
fodder
25.6%
livestock feed for 983 head of LU500 standing or
transhumant: 68,705 Gj. (5.7 Gj./ha)
1.1% final livestock productfor human consumption:
2,854 Gj. (0.2 Gj./ha)
*** 3.2%
** 3.2%
* 1.1%
15.8%
42,305Gj.
(7.4 Gj./ha)
pruning
to final
forestry
product
48.3%
129,543 Gj.
(13.9 Gj./ha)
final forestry product
for human consumption
**** 1.6%
5.8% reuses: 15,666 Gj.
(1.3 Gj./ha)
* seeds: 2,824 Gj. (0.5 Gj./ha)
** manure and traction: 8,668 Gj. (1.5 Gj./ha)
*** and **** vegetable fertilizers: a biomass extraction of
28,321 Gj. yielded 4,174 Gj. as a nutrient input into the soil
(0.3 Gj./ha).
30.4% livestock and other conversion
losses: 81,330 Gj. (6.8 Gj./ha)
+ re-uses = 96,996 Gj.
(8.1 Gj./ha)
36.2%
14.4%
38,559 Gj.
(6.7 Gj./ha)
final
agricultural
product
32.6%
woodland
and scrub
87,238 Gj.
(24.1 Gj./ha)
firewood
and timber
to final
forestry
product
63.8%
final net agrarian production (FO)
(agricultural, forestry and livestock)
170,956 Gj. (14.3 Gj./ha)
Total input consumed (TIC): 102,417 Gj. (8.5 Gj./ha)
Energy return on total inputs (FO/TIC): 1,67
Energy return on external inputs (FO/EI): 66,6
1.1%
human
labour (EI):
2,568 Gj.
(0.2 Gj./ha)
Source: made with GIS by Oscar Miralles, from the Spanish Provincial Cadastral Office, for our research project
SEC03-08449-C04.
The end of this old Mediterranean agrarian mosaic has impoverished the ecological structure of
landscape, and its biodiversity. A team of ecologists have applied to our land use historical maps
two landscape ecology indices based on theoretical grounds and field work expertise (Marull, Pino,
Tello, Mallarach, 2006). The Landscape Structure Index evaluates through GIS analysis the territorial capacity to shelter different organisms and ecological processes, according to the intensity of
human land uses. The Ecological Connectivity Index is based on a computerized model of travel
cost distances between different classes of ecologically functional areas, and the impedance effects
of different soil uses or anthropogenic barriers. The indices adopt values between 1 and 10, and the
maps do show a clear impoverishment of the ecologically functional areas and its ecological connectivity (Map 6.).
343
Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
Past organic economies maintained an integrated management of territory not on account of its
ecological virtues, but because the prevailing energy poverty made it necessary. Later the consumption of fossil fuels rendered the integrated use of land no longer necessary. But had the end of
a necessity borne the end of its ecological virtues? The answer is important, because now we need
the overcome the dysfunctional and ecologically unsound land use that is causing serious environmental pathologies.
Map 4. Land use cover in the Catalan study area in 1954-57 and 1999-2004
Source: Marull, Pino, Tello, Mallarach, 2006.
Map 6. Landscape Structure and Connectivity Indices of the Catalan study area (Vallès county)
in 1954-57 and 1999-2004
1954
Source: Marull, Pino, Tello, Mallarach, 2006.
344
1954
From integration to abandonment. Forest management in the Mediterranean
agro-ecosystems before and after the “green revolution”
Table 5. Annual flows in the same Catalan municipalities in 1999 (Spain)
total surface area: 12,457 ha
inhabitants: 37,504 hab
useful agrarian area: 11,669 ha
woodland area: 7,097 ha (60.8% UAA)
cultivated area: 3,745 ha (32.1% UAA)
pasture area: 827 ha (6.1% UAA)
direct solar energy:
(54.4 Tj./ha x 11,669 ha = 634,793,600 Gj.)
agro-forestry conversion in the useful agrarian area:
398,335 Gj. (34.1 Gj./ha, a 0.06% of the solar radiation received in the UAA)
47%
agricultural space cultivated
187,291 Gj.
(50 Gj./ ha)
12.9%
straw, feed,
fodder
51,370 Gj.
(13.7 Gj./ ha)
262%
imported
fodder
1,044,331 Gj.
(89.3 Gj./ha)
34.1%
final
agricultural
product for
human
consumption
135,921 Gj.
(36.3 Gj./ha)
275%
livestock feed for 23,833
integrated head of LU500:
1,095,701 Gj.
(103 Gj./ha)
7.3%
re-use of dung as manure
29,262 Gj.
(2.5 Gj. /ha.)
53%
woodland and scrub
211,045 Gj.
(26.6 Gj./ha)
17.3%
final forestry
product for
human
consumption
69,105 Gj.
(8.7 Gj./ha)
35.6%
wood and
pasture land
abandoned
and without
any human
use
141,940 Gj.
(17.9 Gj./ha)
36.3%
final livestock product for
human consumption:
144,524 Gj.
(12.4 Gj./ha)
231%
livestock
conversion
losses and
dung
pollution:
921,915 Gj.
(79 Gj./ha)
88%
final net agrarian production (FO) (agricultural, forestry and livestock)
349,550 Gj.
(29.9 Gj./ha)
133%
0.1 % human labour: 430 Gj. (0.04 Gj./ha)
1.9% seeds: 7,492 Gj. (0.6 Gj./ha)
7% fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides: 27,794 Gj. (2.4 Gj./ha)
124% fossil fuel and electricity: 493,716 Gj. (42.2 Gj./ha)
0.2 % inputs to forestry production: 681 Gj. (0.1 Gj./ha)
+ 262% imported fodder = 395 % Total external inputs (EI):
1,574,444 Gj.+ re-uses = 408 % Total input consumed (TIC):
1,625,814 Gj. O/TIC: 0.21. FO/EI: 0.22
5. References
Boserup, E., 1981. Population and technological change. A study on long-term trends. Chicago
U.P., Chicago.
Cussó, X., Garrabou, R., Tello, E., 2006. Social metabolism in an agrarian region of Catalonia
(Spain) in 1860-70: flows, energy balance and land use. Ecological Economics. 58, 49-65.
345
Theme 5. FOREST HISTORY AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES
Cussó, X., Garrabou, R., Olarieta, J. R., Tello, E., in print. Balances energéticos y usos del suelo
en la agricultura catalana: una comparación entre mediados del siglo XIX y finales del siglo XX.
Historia Agraria.
Garrabou, R.; Planas, J., Saguer, E., 2000. Sharecropping and the Management of Large Rural Estates in Catalonia, 1850-1950. The Journal of Peasant Studies. 28, 3, 89-108.
Garrabou, R., Tello, E., 2004. Constructors de paisatges. Amos de masies, masovers i rabassaires al
territori del Vallès (1716-1860). In Josep Fontana. Història i projecte social. Reconeixement d’una
trajectòria. Crítica, Barcelona, vol. I, 83-104.
González Bernáldez, 1995. Western Mediterranean land-use systems as antecedents for semiarid
America. In Turner, B. L. (edit.), Global Land Use Change. CSIC, Madrid, 131-149.
Malamina, P., 2001. The energy basis for early modern growth, 1650-1820. In Prak, M. (edit.), Early
Modern Capitalism. Economic and social change in Europe, 1400-1800. Routledge, London, 5168.
Marull, J., Pino, J., Tello, E., Mallarach, J. M., 2006. Análisis estructural y funcional de la transformación del paisaje agrario en el Vallès durante los últimos 150 años (1853-2004): relaciones con el
uso sostenible del territorio. Áreas, 26, 105-126.
Tello, E., Garrabou, R., Cussó, X., 2006. Energy balance and land use: the making of an agrarian
landscape from the vantage point of social metabolism (the Catalan Vallès county in 1860/70). In
Agnoletti, M. (ed.), The Conservation of Cultural Landscapes. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, 4256.
Wrigley, E. A., 2004. Poverty, progress and population. Cambridge U.P., Cambridge.
346
Theme 6.
TRADITIONS, CULTURE
AND LANDSCAPE
IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST
MANAGEMENT
Sustainable forest management in Europe’s East and West:
trajectories of development and the role of traditional knowledge
Per Angelstam1& Marine Elbakidze2,
1
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Forest Sciences,
School for Forest Engineers, P.O. Box 43, SE-739 21 Skinnskatteberg, Sweden
e-mail: [email protected]
2
Ivan Franko National University, Department of Physical Geography,
Doroshenko str. 41, 79020 Lviv, Ukraine
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The contribution Traditional Knowledge (TK) to Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) varies in
time and space. Based on interviews with actors at multiple levels of governance, and official statistics, we describe trajectories of SFM development, and discuss the role of the TK possessed by different actors for SFM in three European landscapes. Troitsko-Pechorsk in Russia has been subject
to a dramatic boom and bust development, which started just after World War 2. When Soviet Union ceased to exist, long-distance transport became a formidable obstacle for wood export, reducing
the annual harvest volumes by 2 orders of magnitude. Today, local populations either emigrate, or
depend on self-subsistence land uses. In Ukrainian Skole a village system, with a clear zonation
from gardens, fields and meadows to pastures and grazed forests, was maintained for centuries. The
economical crisis after the collapse of the Soviet Union has revived traditional knowledge as an important tool for rural development, the maintenance of biodiversity and cultural landscape values.
In Swedish Vilhelmina, initially based on a village system, numerous frontiers of natural resource
exploitation have occurred during the past 150 years. Continuous cover forestry and Sámi reindeer
herding are two traditional land uses. Even if the economic gains of forestry are locally limited, still,
a national welfare system supports local populations. We conclude that TK can support SFM locally and regionally, but to satisfy actors at national and international levels also other measures are
needed, ranging from sustained yield forestry to set-aside of protected areas that maintain natural
and cultural forest structures.
1. Introduction
Sustainable forest management (SFM) is a concept in continuous development, the interpretation
of which varies over time, as well as among countries, regions and even local landscapes in Europe.
As a consequence, the knowledge required to realise SFM is heterogeneous, and dependent on sets
of values with different spatial and temporal scale dimensions. The development of the Pan-European forest policy process reflects this. Moving into the post-industrial society, ecological dimensions
became included in the definition of SFM in the 1990s (Angelstam et al. 2004a). More recently also
the role of the social and cultural aspects of SFM in the overall goal of sustainable development,
including the role of traditional forest-related knowledge have been highlighted (MCPFE 2003).
Implementing SFM policies requires a combination of practical experience, engineering and science.
The relative roles of these dimensions vary with the types forest and woodland goods and services,
and among regions. Forests and woodlands have been shaped by people’s traditional knowledge
long before the development of scientific forestry. A significant proportion of the world’s forests
and woodlands is still managed by local and indigenous communities (Stevens 1997). The term traditional knowledge (TK) refers to the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local
349
Theme 6. TRADITIONS, CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
communities, gained over long time and adapted to the local culture and environment. TK helps to
sustain production of multiple goods and services providing livelihoods security and quality of life,
as well as contributes to characteristic natural and cultural heritage.
Cultural heritage and traditional knowledge have been recognised and promoted at a global level in
a number of international agreements, processes and programmes. At the European level the political commitments on increasing awareness of the role of traditional knowledge and practices in SFM
in the protection of landscapes and the protection of biological diversity have been highlighted
(MCPFE 2003, Rametsteiner and Mayer 2003). Similarly, the EU Forest Action Plan (EU 2006)
acknowledged cultural landscapes, traditional practices and other cultural values of forests, as some
of the ways of achieving local and regional sustainable development. Such landscape values are also
included in the new Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), and the European Landscape Convention. However, traditional cultural landscapes are threatened by socio-economic and technological
changes in agriculture, forestry and by some nature conservation strategies (Angelstam in press).
As noted by MCPFE (2003) applied research on the social and cultural aspects of SFM to support
the development of solutions to these challenges requires multidisciplinary approaches were human and natural science approaches are used. This is a major challenge both to donors supporting
research and development, and researchers.
We argue that Europe’s diverse forest and woodland landscapes is a valuable “landscape laboratory”, which can be used to better understand the perceptions of SFM among actors at different
levels of governance and role of traditional knowledge for sustainable landscapes. The historical development of forest use within a region usually goes through more or less distinct phases. According to Björklund (1984) and Angelstam et al. (2004a) these include (1) local use, (2) exploitation of
naturally dynamic forest ecosystems, (3) development of sustained yield forestry, and (4) efforts to
satisfy ecological and socio-cultural dimensions. However, at a given clock time, because different
regions are located in different phases in this development, one can “travel in time” and both learn
from past and future phases of development. As TK is rapidly disappearing in many parts of the
world, along with local cultures and landscapes where this knowledge lives, it is an urgent task to
document the role of traditional knowledge for sustainable forest management.
In this paper, we employ a multiple landscape case study approach to describe trajectories of SFM
development, and discuss the role of the TK possessed by different actors for SFM in three landscapes in Europe’s economic periphery. Finally, we discuss the challenge of doing sustainability science in support of the implementation of locally adapted sustainable forest management practices.
2. Methods
This study relies on mixed qualitative and quantitative methods. We made expert interviews at
multiple levels of governance from local and regional to national and international, and collected
quantitative data to describe the status and trends of economic, ecological and socio-cultural dimensions of sustainability (for details, see Elbakidze and Angelstam, this volume).
Within our ongoing multiple case study approach, focusing on Europe’s East and West, we summarise the situation in three European local administrative units representing peripheral regions of
economic development (Whyte 1998) in the Russian Federation’s Ural Mountains, Ukraine’s Carpathian Mountains and Sweden’s Scandinavian Mountains. All landscapes were forest-dominated
and located in the uppermost parts of large watersheds (Troitsko-Pechorsk in the Pechora river,
Skole in the Dnister river, and Vilhelmina in the Ångermanälven river). Mountain forests are azonal
and therefore similar social-ecological systems even in located far apart.
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The history of local forest use in the Russian Troitsko-Pechorsk region case study, located in the
south-easternmost corner of the Komi Republic, is relatively recent. Logging for export of wood
was for a long time confined to high grading of large valuable trees close to rivers (Galashev 1961).
Industrial forestry commenced only after WW2. The area hosts Europe’s largest strictly protected
area, the Pechora-Ilych state reserve.
The Skole district in Ukraine’s Carpathian Mountains has a very long and complex colonisation history (Elbakidze and Angelstam, this volume). From the late Medieval the upland areas was populated by Boiko people, who depended completely on the maintenance of an ecologically balanced
environment with minimal use of outside resources and energy almost until the 20th century. The
agricultural and forestry practices of that time were to a certain extent a prototype of local sustainable use of natural resources.
The Vilhelmina area in NW Sweden was settled from the mountains towards the lowlands by reindeer herding Sámi people several hundred years ago, and starting in the late 18th century by farmers from the coast and lowlands towards the mountains. This historical development means that
today there are several types of indigenous and local communities, all claiming that their traditional
knowledge supports SFM.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Trajectories of development of Sustainable Forest Management
The perception of SFM is related to contemporary societal values and is therefore not static.
Before the advent of industrial forestry, use of natural resources was largely a local and regional
activity in all the three case studies. To illustrate the trajectories of development regarding the
relative focus on the three pillars of sustainability, with its ecological, economic and socio-cultural dimensions, we use a graphic presentation (Figure 1.).
Still being part of Europe’s last ecologically intact forest landscapes (Yaroshenko et al. 2001) the
trajectory of development in the Troitsko-Pechorsk area started in the ecological corner (Figure
1a.). In Komi the harvested wood volumes increased from 5 millions m3 annually before the
World War 2 to more than 25 in 1990. This was followed by a reduction to 6 millions m3 today,
a 75% decline, which is deemed sustainable with today’s transport infrastructure. In the Troitsko-Pechorsk region the decline was more than 90%, and in one of the three forest management
units in this region forest harvesting for export has virtually ceased, with annual harvest levels
dropping from 1.5 million m3 annually to only 6000. As a consequence the emigration rates are
high, and people who stay in remote areas depend on self-subsistence gardening and pensions.
In the Ukrainian Skole district the starting point for the trajectory of development is the village,
an informal institution supporting local sustainable landscapes (Elbakidze and Angelstam, this
volume). During the Soviet time land use became more focused on large-scale economic production. Then, as a result of rapid deep political and economic changes in Ukraine, traditional
villages have been re-appearing as a way for local people to survive. Nowadays they are key components to protect cultural diversity and social stability of the region, an example of sustainable
co-existence between man and nature and playing an ecological, economic and social role for
regional sustainable development. At the same time there are some negative trends in regional
economic development and conflicts between the needs of local people and limitations on use of
forest resources which belong to the state. Other threats are cultural and economic globalisation,
and disrespectful attitude from society and governmental organisations.
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In Swedish Vilhelmina numerous frontiers of natural resource use have occurred during the past
150 years. Sámi reindeer herding was the first, and together with Swedish small-scale farming
based on small-scale agriculture and forestry, these are two traditional land uses. Continuous
cover forestry methods in mountain forests and reindeer husbandry are two traditional types of
land use. Even if the economic gains of forestry are limited in the area, still, a national welfare
system supports the local population. To deal with competing landscape using, and to encourage
businesses based on value-added wood products and non-tangible landscape values Vilhelmina
became a Model Forest (see Svensson et al. 2004, Jougda et al. 2006, Angelstam et al in press).
Economic
Ecological
Economic
Socio-cultural
Ecological
Socio-cultural
Economic
Ecological
Socio-cultural
Figure 1. Illustration of the trajectories of development of sustainable forest management during the past
150 years in Russian Troitsko-Pechorsk (left), Ukrainian Skole (centre) and Swedish Vilhelmina (right)
in a three-dimensional space representing the three pillars of sustainability
3.2. Emerging clefts among actors at multiple levels?
The results from interviews at different levels in the three landscape case studies clearly indicate
that Sustainable Forest Management appears like beauty – it lies in the eyes of the beholder. The
three case studies have distinct profiles of forest use at different levels of governance (Table 1.).
Table 1. Preliminary characterisation of actors’ needs in terms of wood and non-wood products and ecosystems services at different levels of forest governance
Troitsko-Pechorsk
Skole
Vilhelmina
Local
Self-subsistence
Self-subsistence
Landscape values, nonwood goods, wood
Regional
Self-subsistence
Tourism and wood
production
Landscape values, nonwood goods, wood
National
Attempts to develop tourism,
mining and oil and gas
Tourism, wood and
biodiversity conservation
Wood production,
biodiversity conservation
International
Conservation of intact forest
landscapes
Biodiversity conservation
Maintenance of Sámi First
Nations,
The transition from planned towards market economy that takes place in remote Komi’s Troitsko-Pechorsk region has made transportation costs prohibitively high, and the interest in investing in value added production very low. The social consequences of the societal changes are
immense. Securing Europe’s last large intact forest areas is another challenge. Taken together,
a holistic approach is needed to develop sustainable forest management where continued industrial development, ensured local livelihoods, and post-modern forestry based on marketing
landscape values for tourism and recreation are needed.
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In Skole there is insight among several key actors that different forest users have to combine
their approaches in the whole landscape. This requires, however, that the Ukrainian forest-related policies need to be adapted to different regions according to their nature and history.
In addition the policy process needs to include dialogue between policy, science and practise.
A conclusion is that there is a need to define different among zones that specialise on economic
wood production, maintenance and restoration of ecological functions, and to maintain social
functions. Regarding tourism, dependent on the landscape values maintained by villages, there
is the risk that those making money on tourism are not sufficiently aware of the need to maintain
the traditional culture in terms of landscape and buildings.
Finally, in Vilhelmina there are signs of a shift towards more local businesses based on landscape
values. But, does the declining paradigm (industrial forestry) compete with a new paradigm
(multiple use, reindeer herding, tourism). This also raises the issue of scale in an economic
sense. At what spatial and temporal scale is traditional forestry for wood production beneficial
(national – yes indeed; regional – yes; local – well it depends). An important challenge is that of
comparing the outcomes of actors’ desires at different levels of governance. It is difficult to compare traditional full time employment jobs provided by large enterprises, with good statistics,
with self-employed entrepreneurs and part time jobs, for which there is poor statistics (Camilla
Tedebro pers. comm.).
To develop sustainable forest management locally and regionally iterated use of both top-down
and bottom-up approaches for governance are needed (Campbell and Sayer 2003, Sayer and
Campbell 2004). As discussed in detail by Angelstam (1997) and Vos and Meekes (1999), an
inclusive holistic approach is needed. To understand landscapes in this way requires interaction
among different actors in society. This applies to policy-makers, institutions and the actual actors within one sector affecting landscapes on the one hand, and among the different sectors
acting at all levels with the chosen landscape on the other. Within a given sector or policy area
there are several levels (Primdahl and Brandt 1997).
First, at the international policy level, the Convention on Biological Diversity’s ‘Ecosystem approach’ can be used as one starting point. The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated
management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in
an equitable way. Application of the ecosystem approach will help to reach a balance of the ecological, economic and socio-cultural objectives of the Convention. The approach should be based on
the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organisation,
which encompass the essential processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their
environment. It recognises that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component
of ecosystems. For forests, sustainable forest management as defined by Rametsteiner and Mayer
(2004) can be interpreted as an example of an ecosystem approach (Angelstam et al. 2004a).
Second, at the national level, policy instruments are then gradually developed, and may include
legislation, information, subsidies, monitoring, vocational training etc. However, the maintenance of natural and cultural biodiversity is usually not maintained by institutions, but rather by
local people acting in different formal and informal governance systems. Consequently, several
policy areas with their respective planning traditions coincide: forestry, agriculture, transport infrastructure and the energy sector, as well as regional and urban planning (Angelstam in press).
There are many unresolved challenges related to the integration of ecological, economic and
socio-cultural dimensions of sustainable forest and woodland landscapes.
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We argue that the viability of landscapes can best be maintained with local and regional territorial approaches that target multiple complementary sectors in the economy. There is also a need
to establish arenas where people representing practice and policy can interact both bottom-up
and top-down. Model Forest, Biosphere Reserve, national and regional parks, ecoregion planning and watershed management are examples of international concepts for integrated natural
resource management using the landscape as an arena for partnerships among owners, managers and other stakeholders. However, their effectiveness in delivering sustainability needs to be
evaluated (Axelsson and Angelstam in press).
3.3. Landscape as concept and tool for sustainability science
Individual landscapes can be viewed as units that offer a sense of place to stakeholders, thus representing a wide range of issues of concern and solutions. Working with a complex concept such
as sustainability requires special emphasis on finding a common platform for communication
among different elements (representing ecological, economic, socio-cultural values, including
related disciplines and actors), as well as from policy to practice, and back again. The landscape
concept is useful to achieve this integration. Landscape is an important concept within humanities (history), social sciences (human geography) as well as in natural sciences (ecology and geography). The landscape concept can thus be used as an interface for improving communication
between social and natural sciences, between policy and users to increase the understanding of
the dependencies between social and ecological systems.
In the European Landscape Convention “landscape” is defined as a zone or area as perceived by
local people or visitors, where the visual features and characters of the landscape are the result
of the action of natural and/or cultural factors. This definition reflects the idea that landscapes
evolve through time. The landscape concept also reflects the need to expand the spatial scale of
management, i.e. to move from smaller spatial units or objects to the scale of landscapes and
regions, i.e. include micro, meso and macro levels. Additionally, all social organisational scales
must be considered, from individual, household or family, to community, county, nation and
global. To study and improve resource management we must view natural and socio-cultural
resources in a temporally and spatially expanded context, and one less restricted by administrative and political boundaries. Thus, a landscape forms a whole entity, where natural and cultural
components are intermingled, and cannot be viewed as separate entities or processes, i.e. it represents a social-ecological system that includes both tangible and intangible variables representing values from all dimensions of SD.
In an increasingly globalised world, it is essential to understand how factors at local, regional, national and international levels affect the future development of sustainable forest management
that satisfies ecological, economic and socio-cultural dimensions at different levels in society. An
in-depth multiple landscape case study approach satisfies this need.
3.4. European landscapes as a laboratory
Implementation of sustainable development, both as a mean and an end, in a given landscape is
highly dependent on the type of ecoregion and economic history, and the systems for government
and governance, both of which to a great extent determine the socioeconomic status and trends.
With its diversity the European continent can be viewed as a unique “landscape laboratory” for
the development of Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM). Firstly, there are steep
gradients from centers for economic development to peripheral regions. This is clearly related to
the pattern of gradual expansion of the EU, with countries like Georgia and, partly, Ukraine at
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the fringe, showing a great interest in integration with the EU. Secondly, there is a wide range of
regionally evolved practices for natural forest and cultural woodland planning and management
in different ecoregions, which are adapted to the local natural conditions and patterns of land
ownership and tenure. Experiences from a suite of European landscape level management units
as case studies representing different starting points and trajectories towards sustainable rural
landscapes in these dimensions is an important resource for mutual learning among stakeholders
from business, authorities, general public and academia.
Ideally a network of transdisciplinary case studies on INRM approaches towards sustainable
landscapes should be established in a suite of landscapes with diverse natural conditions and different settings of socio-economic development (Angelstam et al. 2004b). This network should
focus on synthesis and development based on exchanging experiences among existing landscape
management units with long experience of INRM using both bottom-up and top-down approaches. The expected outcome of the study is a development of common toolboxes for comprehensive and flexible INRM in different natural and socio-economic environments throughout
Europe.
Internationalisation is a good tool to improve the mutual understanding among scientific disciplines, societal sectors and institutions, as well as different cultures and countries. The gradients between civilizations (sensu Huntingdon 1997) and economic history development in different dimensions of sustainability formed by the Fennoscandian countries, the new EU member
states and non-EU post-Soviet states is a grand resource for improved understanding of how to
understand sustainability and how it can be implemented (Krott et al. 2000, Angelstam et al.
2005, see Table 2.).
Table 2. To explore the regional variation in the perception of the Sustainable Forest Management concept, a suite of case studies can be used as a landscape laboratory (cf. Angelstam and Törnblom
2004, Angelstam and Elbakidze, this volume). Governance system and economic history are two
dimensions of paramount importance. Here we stratify a suite of existing development projects
such Model Forest (1), Biosphere Reserve (2), National Park (3), Experimental forest (4), Zapovednik
(5) and local ENGO (6) in geographical Europe’s East and West using the civilisation concept of
Huntingdon (1997) (columns) and the history of economic development (e.g. Gunst 1989) (rows).
Western civilization
Intermediate
Orthodox civilization
Short history of economic
development
Vilhelmina (1),
NW Sweden
Skole (3),
Ukraine
Troitsko-Pechorsk (5),
southeast Komi
Intermediate history of
economic development
Bergslagen (1), central
Sweden
Polesia (3), Ukraine/Belarus
Pskov Model Forest (1),
W Russia
Centre of economic
development
Kristianstad Vattenrike (2),
south Sweden
Poltava (4),
Ukraine
Lori Eco Club (6),
north Armenia
4. Acknowledgements
We thank interviewees at multiple levels of governance representing our three study landscapes
for sharing their views. The Marcus and Amalia Wallenberg foundation and the Swedish Institute
provided economic support for this study in particular, and the multiple case study approach in
general. We also thank Mauro Agnoletti at the University of Florence for supporting the first author’s participation in the conference.
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A new culture for the development of new forests in the modern context
Enrico Calvo & Francesca Ossola
Ente Regionale per i servizi all’Agricoltura e Foreste (ERSAF della Regione Lombardia)
via Copernico 38, 20125 Milano, Italy
e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
1. The forests in the Pianura Padana
In Roman times the Pianura Padana was entirely covered by forests. From 1000 AD the diffusion
of the Benedictine monachism in the plain developped the reclamation of the territory and its conversion to agriculture. Forests progressively disappeared and the woody areas (hedges, rows, treeplantations) assumed a productive and landscape function strictly linked to the agricultural activity
in the course of ages:
Reclamation = Bonifica = Bonum facere = To make good
Today the covering of the forests in Lombardy is restricted to few residual areas (7%): according
to many authors this percentage is below the minimum value fixed for a territory with an ecological
sustainability.The Pianura Padana, today, at the beginning of the third millennium, even if it is still
a prevalently agricultural territory, is subjected to very strong pressures due to the urban, industrial
and infrastructural development which compete for the use of soil. This development, created in
a confused way and following economic and organization criteria has produced, especially in the
areas near the urban expansion, a “casual”, less attractive, and not much ecologically balanced landscape, often without identity and specific function. At the same time in the areas of Pianura Padana
with a great rural tradition, the landscape has often preserved its most traditional features, but it
had to adapt itself to the needs of one of the most modern industrial and productive agriculture of
Europe. So that in many cases it had to sacrifice the arboreal elements to productive efficiency, with
a great damage for landscape and the environment.
2. A new reclamation
From the beginning of 80’s the provocation of some fields of the scientific community and environmental movements and the sharing of some public administrations has progressively identified new
and urgent needs of society to which was necessary to give an answer:
Life quality
Protection of the natural and environmental resources
Rural landscape preservation
Recreation, culture, education
So we changed from the realization of spontaneous and episodical initiatives, to the promotion of
strategic choices whose aim is to improve life and environment quality and the landscape and natural
resources protection through the realization of new forests and “green systems” in the plain. So we
passed from “The Forest in the city” created on the initiative of Italia Nostra (movement for the environment protection) in the 80’s in Milan, to the Lombardy Region Programme for the realization
of 10 big forests in the plain in 2000, which has allowed the making of the first 8 forests on a surface
of about 250 HA at a price of about 16.000.000 €, and to the Lombardy Region New Programme for
the realization of 10.000 HA of green systems in the plain for an amount of 200.000.000 €.
In this new context the forests in the plain gain today a different value: they have passed from
productive and economic resource to satisfy the concrete and basic needs of the rural and urban
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A new culture for the development of new forests in the modern context
communities, to multifunctional resource which answers to more complex and often immaterial
needs, typical of a modern society. So the forest, the victim of the original reclamation, is today the
instrument for reclaming the territory. But is it meaningful today to talk about “New reclamation”,
that is to say “to make good” the territory?
3. A new culture
Is it possible to build the development of new forests upon a culture which: eliminated the forest
from daily experience, no longer has roots in a rural forestal context, and has the traditional management knowledge? Which kind of culture can support this “new reclamation”?
A new reclamation needs a new culture to support the creation and to sustain the management of
these new models. The new culture must be based upon four dimensions: ethical dimension, planning dimension, management dimension, and social dimension.
3.1. The ethical dimension
The relationship of man with “nature” is vital, but it depends from its balance.
Forests are a property of whole humanity, they play an essential role in the modern societies
sustainable development and create a new landscape of living as expression of a society which
wants to live better.
3.2. The planning dimension
To plan “where” to make the new forests so that they can be ecologically coherent and in harmony with the territory in which they are inserted.
To plan the new forests with a wide and deep view being conscious that they are investments
for the future.
To plan the new forests following ecologic criteria so that they can be the authentic expression
of the ecosystem and they could help to keep and improve biodiversity and native species
To plan the new forests following multifunctional criteria in order to answer to different mains (recreational, ecological, cultural, educational…) but without changing their essence of natural elements.
To plan not only woods and forests but also green systems that could re-create a quality environment, an attractive territory and a new and harmonious landscape.
To plan together: with local communities, with different sciences experts, with the owners and
the future managers.
3.3. The management dimension
To create new schemes of sustainable management both public and private which can guarantee
to the new forests a lasting development.
To create new knowledges which can integrate the traditional ones, linked to the forestal technique, with the several competences necessary to better carry out the new and different functions of the forests.
To involve in a definite way agriculture and farmers who will be the main actors of this
scenery.
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Theme 6. TRADITIONS, CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
3.4. The social dimension
To create within the whole society and not only in its single components the awareness that
a sustainable development can’t be separated from a healthy and balanced relationship with
naturethat this investment has a cost that everyone has to be ready to pay and that the future
has to be built on the basis of the past, but to be positive the change has to be planned and
managed.
4. Conclusion
This new culture has necessarily to be developed with the contribution of many professional men,
with different competences and points of view and has to try to express itself even at an operative
level. We think that these important functions can be carried out in an effective way by those, forest
experts and agronomists firstly– first of all, who have the knowledge, the competences and the keys
of reading which allow an olistic and multifunctional approach to the problems of the rural territory,
warranting at the same time a rigorous technical and scientific interpretation. All this because our
main interests are the wood, the forest, the agricultural and forestal ecosystems which are “living
systems”, but also the rural territory itself which is a space of society and humanity. Respect, passion, knowledge of the biological mechanisms and of the human culture even in this case are the
instruments to promote a new culture, necessary to make the investments ethically sustainable and
lasting in the long run.
Modern society has destroyed forests; future society will plant them again (E. Sereni, 1865)
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The use of traditional knowledge in sustainable forest management in the Kaska
traditional territory in British Columbia & the Yukon
David Crampton
Kaska Dena Council, 8740 Findlay Road, Cranbrook, British Columbia, Canada V1C 7C8
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The Kaska Dena are a First Nations people situated in western Canada. The Kaska traditional territory is about 24 million hectares (93,000 square miles). It spans three provinces and territories
(British Columbia, the Yukon and the Northwest Territories) and constitutes fully 25% of the Yukon Territory, and 10% of the entire land area of British Columbia. The majestic northern boreal
forest regions of interior British Columbia and the Yukon have some of the continent’s most expansive and impressive wilderness areas, with a great diversity of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
Pristine boreal forest watersheds are framed by extensive mountain ranges and wild rivers. Large
free ranging populations of woodland caribou, moose, Dall’s sheep, Elk, Stone sheep, a full suite
of large carnivores, and hundreds of thousands of migrating neo-tropical songbirds and waterfowl
make their home in these diverse boreal landscapes. Only a few roads cross this region, one of the
wildest landscapes on the North American continent. The Kaska traditional territory represents
one of the largest remaining forests of the northern interior of British Columbia and southeastern
Yukon that has not been exploited for commercial use. The opportunity for managing the forest
resources in the traditional territory in an ecologically sustainable and socially equitable manner
remains intact. The Kaska are in a powerful position as custodians of a huge and still mostly intact
landscape but they also face enormous challenges. The Kaska communities have unemployment
rates often in excess of 80%. All of the social ills associated with that level of unemployment are
present. Especially significant are very high suicide rates, and diabetes and heart disease rates up to
eight times the national average. While there are external forces to accede to massive development,
there is also internal pressure to fix these chronic social problems. The constant pressure on Kaska
leaders to make these different and conflicting choices, often in the absence of sufficient resources,
cannot be overstated. The management approach of the Kaska reflects the philosophy that has
been developed through centuries of producing food, shelter, medicine, and clothing from forest
resources while sustaining the resources from which these materials are derived.
To accomplish the objective of balancing the traditional uses of the forest while providing an economic framework for sustainable Kaska communities a cooperative approach has been taken by the
Kaska. Initially, the Kaska established relationships with industry and Governments through a series of protocols and agreements driven by Supreme Court of Canada decisions pertaining to Consultation and Accommodation of aboriginal interests. Planning in the Kaska traditional territory is
the application of traditional knowledge as a unique layer of information combined later with scientific information. The scientific information is used to substantiate Kaska land use decisions made
through the lens of traditional knowledge. It is a key requirement for each forest planning process
that traditional knowledge and community values be used to guide land use decisions. Each Kaska
community has identified local Traditional Knowledge Coordinators, a Traditional Knowledge GIS
analyst, an Elder’s Oversight Committee, and Land Stewards. The Land Stewards and Elder’s
Oversight Committee are structured on family hunting and gathering areas. Information collected
through the Land Stewards and Elders is provided to two Kaska Natural Resource Agencies. Each
Kaska Natural Resource Agency is composed of a Board of Directors representing Kaska communities. The Agencies are responsible for integrating the Land Stewards and Elders knowledge into
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Theme 6. TRADITIONS, CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
strategic as well as operational planning decisions. The Agencies are the linkage to industry and
Government on natural resource management issues and planning in their area. As well, the Agencies hold forest tenures for the Kaska Dena. The outcomes are plans and management strategies
for forestry and other resource uses that are used to direct the management of natural resource
industries, and other forest users.
In this model of ecosystem-based forest management, all resources, including ecological and Kaska
traditional values, are given an equal weight in the planning process and appropriate measures are
taken to ensure that natural resources are managed in an ecologically sustainable manner. This
Traditional Ecological Knowledge has not only sustained the populations of First Nations for thousands of years, it has become the gift of First Nations to modern land use decisions. What was
once a paternalistic exercise in allowing First Nations to collect their traditional knowledge prior to
resource development occurring in their landscape is gradually being seen by resource managers as
information that is critical to their decision making.
1. First Nations Jurisprudence
In British Columbia and the Yukon Territory, First Nations are in a unique place historically to
influence the manner in which the knowledge held in trust by the people will be used in formulating land use decisions. Unique, because most of the province and territory is engaged in a modern
treaty making process that came about because the Government of Canada lost momentum in
extracting treaties from First Nations when they crossed the Rocky Mountains. However, the Government of Canada remains constitutionally bound to complete treaties with the First Nations of
British Columbia and the Yukon. As a result, a vast array of ideas about what constitutes a treaty in
the modern world and what constitutes the rights and title to the land in the respective Traditional
Territories is forging a new form of self-governance for First Nations.
Aboriginal title and rights are protected under section 35 (1) of Canada’s Constitution. Aboriginal
law in Canada is dynamic, evolving, and uncertain and the actual extent of aboriginal title and rights
are the subject of on-going discussions and negotiations with the federal, provincial, and territorial
governments and other parties through a wide range of discussions and negotiations
A number of precedent setting Supreme Court cases, including Delgamuukw, have increasingly defined the title and rights of First Nations in Canada. Recently, the Supreme Court of Canada released
two important aboriginal law decisions pertaining to Consultation and Accommodation. The Haida
Nation and Taku River Tlingit decisions provide a framework for consultation on activities related to
potential infringements of aboriginal rights caused by land and resource development activities. As
well, the decisions state that accommodation requires that aboriginal concerns be balanced reasonably with the potential impact of the particular land and resource development decisions and with
competing societal concerns. These decisions have provided the First Nations of British Columbia
and the Yukon with the ability to transform the manner in which natural resources are managed.
For example, the Kaska enjoy considerable political power as evidenced by the recently signed bilateral agreement between the Yukon Government and the Kaska Nation. The bilateral agreement
gives the Kaska a veto over development in their territory in the Yukon for a period of two years.
This has been a key opportunity to affect the policy and legislative framework for resource management in the Yukon. From the Kaska perspective, the Bilateral Agreement will provide for longerterm co-management arrangements that would enable the Kaska to have some decision-making
authority over land and resource allocation in the Yukon portion of Kaska territory and benefit from
developments that do occur.
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The use of traditional knowledge in sustainable forest management
in the Kaska traditional territory in British Columbia and the Yukon
The first agreement to flow from the Bilateral is the Agreement in Principle for Forestry that provides 100% of all Yukon Government royalties derived from forest harvesting to the Kaska, 50% of
all revenues generated from the sale of forest products, 50% of all forestry related work, and 50%
of the directors of the company that will manage the forest resources in the southeast Yukon. This
joint venture follows an earlier agreement that constituted a Kaska Forest Resource Stewardship
Council with responsibilities for utilising Kaska traditional knowledge, amongst other things, in
regional land use plans for the Kaska traditional territory in the south east Yukon.
2. Biophysical Attributes of the Traditional Territory of the Kaska Dena
The Kaska Dena traditional territory is about 24 million hectares (93,000 square miles). It spans
three provinces and territories (British Columbia, the Yukon and the Northwest Territories) and
constitutes fully 25% of the Yukon Territory, and 10% of the entire land area of British Columbia
(Figure 1.).
Figure 1.
Kaska Traditional Territory
In
British Columbia, the traditional territory encompasses the Cassiar Mountains in the west, the
Rocky Mountains in the east, and continues down the Rocky Mountain Trench south, to the Akie
River. The territory is characterized in the south by the large, flat valley of the Rocky Mountain
Trench enclosed by rugged mountains and smaller valleys to the east and west. The landscape of
the northern portion of the territory opens up north of Sifton Pass to the Yukon Territory into vast
plateaus dissected by river systems.
In the Yukon, the traditional territory is a diverse region that includes the rugged Northwest Territories boundary peaks, the Pelly and Cassiar Mountains, and large interior plateaus. The Kaska
traditional territory in the Yukon includes the entire Liard River basin, which in turn encompasses
most of Southeast Yukon. The Kaska territory also stretches north along the Northwest Territories
border and within the Selwyn Mountains to include tributaries of the Yukon River basin, such as
the Ross River and Pelly Rivers.
The northern boreal forest regions of interior British Columbia and the Yukon have some of the
continent’s most varied and intact wilderness areas that have produced a large biological diver363
Theme 6. TRADITIONS, CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
sity unique to the worlds boreal ecosystems. Large free ranging populations of woodland caribou,
moose, Dall’s sheep, Elk, Stone sheep, a variety of large carnivores, and hundreds of thousands of
migrating neo-tropical songbirds and waterfowl make their home in these diverse boreal landscapes.
Only a few roads cross this region, creating one of the wildest landscapes on the North American
continent.
3. A conservation ethic
First Nations began their encounters with newcomers in commercial relations, usually in the fur
trade, in which the interactions between the indigenous and immigrant were generally co-operative,
and frequently beneficial as well. Although monetary interests drove this relationship, the ability of
the First Nation trappers and hunters to manage a sustainable food source for their families, and
often for the immigrants, as well as produce commercial pelts, reflects the conservation ethic that is
deeply rooted in aboriginal culture. The Kaska conservation ethic is derived from their capacity as
hunters, gatherers, and trappers and evolved to sustain their families from the time the first Kaska
peoples established themselves in their present homeland. Kaska hunters and gatherers harvesting
success is therefore inextricably linked to their knowledge of the animals and plants, and in predicting where the animal or plant will be found in different seasons as well as in climates that have
changed through the millennia. As a result, the conservation ethic of the Kaska reflects a philosophy that has been developed through centuries of producing food, shelter, medicine, and clothing
from boreal forest resources while sustaining the resources from which these materials are derived.
This traditional ecological knowledge has not only sustained the populations of First Nations for
thousands of years, it has become the gift of First Nations to modern land use decisions.
Currently land use decisions are made for very large landscapes based on the best knowledge that
science can provide. Science has been very successful at providing inferential data that is intensively collected for short periods at a number of observation points in the landscape (Kimmerer,
2000). For example, Caribou movement patterns have been studied from a scientific perspective by
radio collaring a few animals over a relatively short time span and then developing models to determine the movement of a Caribou herd for management purposes. Recently, traditional ecological
knowledge has been used to corroborate the scientific data as well as provide observational data
that substantiates movement patterns over long time periods including climatic changes that have
occurred during the last millennium. An example from the Kaska Nation experience demonstrated
the power of these long term observations in a series of video documentations that related the stories of elders and the Caribou (Elders comm. 2005). The elders’ stories and personnel observations
provided the correlation between seasonality, climate change, and Caribou movement patterns that
were later described scientifically by biologists in modeling exercises for Caribou management. As
a result, what was once a paternalistic and superficial exercise of allowing First Nations to collect
their traditional knowledge prior to and during resource extraction in their landscape is gradually
being seen by resource managers as information that is critical to Land Use decisions. Traditional
knowledge is now being incorporated into planning processes that will guide resource development.
In this way, the stewardship of the traditional territories is being influenced by the conservation
ethic that first guided First Nations in the use of forest resources in their territories.
4. Kaska Ecosystem-based Forest Management Program
The Kaska traditional territory represents one of the largest remaining forests of the northern interior of British Columbia and southeastern Yukon that has not been exploited for commercial use.
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The use of traditional knowledge in sustainable forest management
in the Kaska traditional territory in British Columbia and the Yukon
The opportunity for managing the forest resources in the traditional territory in an ecologically
sustainable and socially equitable manner remains intact.
British Columbia has had an ecosystem classification in place for forty years. The Biogeoclimatic
Classification System (Krajina, 1965) provides resource users, and in particular forest managers,
with a substantial tool for integrating ecological principles into a wide range of forest management
activities. The primary goal of ecosystem-based management is fully functioning forests. The objective is to sustain a diversity of ecosystem services, for humans, fish and wildlife populations and
their associated habitat, across the forest landscape at multiple temporal and spatial scales. A core
theme of the Kaska philosophy is that maintaining biologically diverse forests supports diversified
communities and their associated economies, and posits that these economies are a part of human
societies that are in turn a component of ecosystems.
To accomplish the task of balancing the traditional uses of the forest while providing an economic
framework for sustaining Kaska communities and ensuring available habitat for existing species, an
inclusive approach has been taken by the Kaska.
In this model of ecosystem-based forest management, all resources, including ecological and Kaska
traditional values, are given an equal weight in the planning process including appropriate measures
to ensure that natural resources are managed in an ecologically sustainable manner. In addition,
this model of forest management equally incorporates the traditional knowledge of the Kaska Dena
to inform the planning process as well as the resulting resource management regulatory process.
By maintaining, restoring, and conserving key features of the ecosystems within the Kaska Nation’s
traditional territory based on the Kaska conservation ethic, they are in turn sustaining the Kaska
Nation that depends on these ecosystems.
The Kaska have begun, through the Kaska Natural Resource Agencies, to collect and map the scientific information as well as the traditional knowledge required for ecosystem-based decisions for
inclusion into their forest management plans. Research into a variety of silvicultural systems has
also provided operational tools to achieve the objectives expressed in their plans that include the
maintenance of biological diversity amongst other things (Mitchell et al, 2002).
5. The Kaska Communities
During the last three generations the Kaska have gradually moved from nomadic family units of ten
to twenty individuals who hunted, fished, and gathered over vast areas, to the sedentary lifestyles
associated with the present day communities. At the turn of the century the Hudson’s Bay Company established a number of small “Posts” that bought firs from Kaska hunters and trappers and
traded foodstuffs, hardware and clothing to the Kaska in return. The Kaska communities developed
by incorporating the Hudson Bay Posts into their midst to provide both a source of income and materials available only in urban centres. The five Kaska communities include most of the families that
traditionally utilized the landscapes surrounding the Hudson Bay Posts. Four smaller, dispersed
settlements represent the remaining Kaska who were less inclined to congregate in communities
(Elders communication, Elias, 1985, 1986).
The communities range in size from 200 to 1,500 persons. As well, there are a number of members
that live in towns and cities who continue to have contact with the communities.
To facilitate the sale of furs to the Hudson Bay Posts, the Province of British Columbia and the
Yukon Territory established family based trap areas that each family would trap and hunt for firs
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Theme 6. TRADITIONS, CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
and meat. These large trap areas are presently represented by family decision makers recently called
Land Stewards. The 24 million hectare Kaska traditional territory is the area of traditional use
represented by the family trapping, hunting, and gathering areas, the five communities and four
settlements.
6. Land Use Planning in the Kaska Traditional Territory
The Kaska traditional territory includes the jurisdictions of provincial and territorial Governments
as well as two forest regions and three forest districts in British Columbia. Land use planning follows the jurisdictional lines described by the territorial and provincial Governments, but has little in common with the biophysical attributes of the landscape, and even less with the territorial
boundaries of the Kaska. As a result, the Kaska have been and remain involved in a variety of land
use planning exercises.
Finding a common mechanism for the Kaska to represent their values throughout their territory
has proved difficult. The pressures that arise from economic adversity, industrial expansion into
their traditional territory and maintenance of their traditional values require a new vision of forest
management that includes the Kaska conservation ethic as well as economic opportunities for their
communities. Ecosystem based planning provides the mechanism that unites the Kaska vision of
forest management.
6.1. Forest Planning
Planning in the Kaska traditional territory is the application of traditional knowledge as a unique
layer of information combined later with scientific information. Traditional knowledge represents
the accumulated knowledge that thousands of years of successful habitation in the boreal landscape has provided the Kaska Dena. Scientific information is used to substantiate Kaska land
use decisions made through the lens of traditional knowledge. For example, science facilitates
the incorporation of traditional knowledge into modern land use decisions regarding Annual
Allowable Cut, road and bridge locations, the timing of harvests, and the types of silvicultural
systems to be used.
An acknowledgement of the importance of traditional knowledge was given to the Kaska through
the recognition of the Province of British Columbia’s planning authority – the Integrated Land
Management Bureau. The Bureau now carries out resource management planning in the Kaska
traditional territory exclusively with the Kaska that includes plans for forestry, wildlife, oil and
gas, mining, tourism, backcountry recreation, and access management. The catalyst for this new
opportunity comes from the Supreme Court of Canada decisions noted in the introduction and
a British Columbia Government document entitled the “New Relationship”. Both initiatives empower First Nations with new Government to Government relationships that ensure meaningful
involvement of First Nations in natural resource management.
As traditional knowledge is the source of Kaska national and community values, traditional
knowledge is the key requirement of all planning processes that involve the Kaska Dena. To that
end, each Kaska community has identified local Traditional Knowledge Coordinators, a Traditional Knowledge Geographic Information Systems analyst, an Elder’s Oversight Committee,
and Land Stewards (Table 1.).
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The use of traditional knowledge in sustainable forest management
in the Kaska traditional territory in British Columbia and the Yukon
Table 1.
Traditional Knowledge Coordinators
(Kaska Nation Perspective)
Elders Oversight Committee
(History, Traditional Values, and Stories)
Land Stewards
(Community and Family Perspectives)
Geographic Information Systems Analyst
(Integration and Protection of Traditional Knowledge)
6.1.1. Traditional Knowledge Coordinators
Two Traditional Knowledge Coordinators were selected by the communities located in the
Yukon and in British Columbia. One represents British Columbia and one represents the
Yukon. The selection process acknowledges the two political jurisdictions while maintaining
the cross boundary linkages that continue to exist between the Kaska communities. The
Kaska negotiate treaties, land use agreements, treaty interim measures, and alliances with
industry assuming no boundaries exist.
The responsibility of the Coordinators is to provide an integration of traditional knowledge
throughout the traditional territory and ensure that the traditional knowledge remains the
property of the Kaska. The Kaska achieve this through having industry, Government, and
any party requiring traditional knowledge sign a Traditional Knowledge Protocol Agreement. The purpose of the Protocol is to provide access and use of Kaska traditional knowledge in a manner which confirms the obligations of the interested organisations with respect to the ownership, collection and use of the traditional knowledge. The Protocol also
provides recognition of the rights to ownership, protection and custody of Kaska traditional
knowledge.
6.1.2. Elder’s Oversight Committee
The Elder’s Oversight Committee is structured on family hunting and gathering areas,
providing elders representation from each of the family areas. The elders are the source of
Kaska history in the Boreal landscape as well as providing values told through stories and
legends. The elders are also the main source for the conveyance of the conservation ethic
that represents the Kaska values in the relationship between the people and their economic
livelihood.. The Kaska have recently begun to collect these stories on video as many of the
elders are dying and with them, a great deal of valuable information is being lost. The Information collected from the Elders by the Traditional Knowledge Coordinators and Land
Stewards is provided to two Kaska Natural Resource Agencies for protection and distribution to the communities.
6.1.3. Land Stewards
The Land Stewards represent the family hunting and gathering areas. Normally, the Land
Stewards, who are members of the family groups, are actively engaged in hunting and trapping activities. Their knowledge represents the most recent information regarding wildlife
and the impacts of any development or climatic change. As well, the Land Stewards repre367
Theme 6. TRADITIONS, CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
sent a living embodiment of the values that the elders have passed on to younger leaders in
the community. The Land Stewards are employees of the Kaska Natural Resource Agencies
which ensures that these resource management bodies have direct access to local traditional
knowledge for planning and management purposes.
6.1.4. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Analyst
Traditional knowledge is managed by the GIS analyst. As traditional knowledge is proprietary information, there are protocol agreements in place with all users of the knowledge
and the GIS analyst has the authority to provide the information as needed. GIS is used to
enable rapid processing of traditional knowledge onto maps that provide the Kaska Natural
Resource Agencies with the means to update their plans. Importantly, the Analysts also
provide a linkage from the community to the Kaska Nation by ensuring that all of the information kept on maps is available to all members of all the Kaska communities.
6.2. Integrating Traditional Knowledge with Forest Management
The step of taking the values and traditional ecological knowledge from the Coordinators, Land
Stewards and Elders and integrating them into plans and management practices differs between
the Yukon and British Columbia.
The Yukon resource planning process involves the full participation of the Kaska in a technical
working group, a recommendations body, and a high-level steering committee. Under a protocol
developed by the Kaska, Kaska traditional knowledge must inform the disposition process. It is
intended that this planning process will be blended with the forestry planning process created
under a Memorandum of Understanding on Forest Stewardship.
In British Columbia, the Kaska have incorporated two Kaska owned companies – the Kwadacha
Natural Resources Agency in the south and Gut Cho Natural Resources Agency in the north.
Each Natural Resource Agency is composed of a Board of Directors representing Kaska communities. The Agencies are the linkage to industry and Government on natural resource management issues and planning in their area. These Agencies direct resource planning, hold forest licences, ensure that ecosystem based management principles are maintained, and provide
a communications opportunity for all community members in the planning process. Broad based
communications ensure that community vision and goals drive the planning and disposition
processes. As well, the Agencies are responsible for integrating Land Stewards and Elders knowledge into strategic and operational planning decisions.
7. Empowerment and Capacity
The Kaska Dena intend to be at the center of natural resource decision making and be capable of
participating in the economic opportunities that derive from those decisions in their traditional
territory. The Kaska are in a powerful position as custodians of a huge and still mostly intact landscape but they also face enormous challenges. The Kaska Dena communities have unemployment
rates often in excess of 80%. All of the social ills associated with that level of unemployment are
present. Especially significant are very high suicide rates, and diabetes and heart disease rates up to
eight times the national average. While there are external forces to accede to massive development,
there is also internal pressure to fix these chronic social problems. The constant pressure on Kaska
leaders to make these different and conflicting choices, often in the absence of sufficient resources,
cannot be overstated.
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The use of traditional knowledge in sustainable forest management
in the Kaska traditional territory in British Columbia and the Yukon
The Kaska Dena have achieved a number of advances through Interim Measures Agreements, Economic Measures Agreements, the Bilateral Agreement, and Treaty Related Measures prior to the
settlement of a Treaty. These agreements have produced a high level of capacity and engagement
for a number of Kaska in the decision making processes. The Agreements have made the Kaska
Dena pivotal in allowing the Governments of the Yukon and British Columbia any success in the
development of resources held in the Kaska Traditional Territory.
As well, the Kaska have negotiated protocol agreements with environmental organisations that
stipulate the manner in which these organisations operate in the Traditional Territory, and how they
cooperate with the Kaska to achieve agreed upon conservation goals.
Ultimately it is the gift of Kaska values to the management of the boreal ecosystems in their traditional territory that will provide a deeper connection to the land that is missing in most of the
non-indigenous communities of North America. In fact, these values will be useful in providing
a countermeasure to the globalization of resources in British Columbia and the Yukon that is reducing the conservation ethic to sustainable development.
8. References
Kimmerer, R. W. 2000. Native Knowledge for Native Ecosystems. J. For. 98: 4-9.
Krajina, V. J. 1965. Biogeoclimatic zones and classification of British Columbia. Ecol. West.
N. Amer. 1:1-17.
Mitchell, S.J., and Beese, W. J. 2002. The Retention System: reconciling variable retention with the
principles of silvicultural systems. For. Chron. 78: 397-403.
369
Food security, fattori limitanti ambientali e strategie
di gestione tradizionale delle foreste nell’Amazzonia brasiliana
Peppino Stefano Disperati
Dipartimento di Produzioni Vegetali, Facoltà di Agraria
Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italia
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Le foreste rappresentano il secondo bioma mondiale, dopo le aree pastorali, in termini di estensione ed
il primo in termini di biomassa e biodiversità (State of forest, 2005). L’area globale coperta da foreste
è stimata in 3.869.455.000 ha distribuiti tra Africa (649.866.000 ha), Asia (547.793.000 ha), Europa
(1.039.251.000 ha), America settentrionale e centrale (549.304.000 ha), Oceania (197.623.000 ha) e
America Latina (885.618.000 ha). Nelle foreste tropicali vivono circa 300 milioni di persone (FAO 2005
)che per la propria Food Security dipendono dall’integrazione tra agricoltura tradizionale, pesca, caccia,
scambi ed accesso economico ai beni alimentari. Sul tema dello sviluppo sostenibile e della Food Security
della popolazione nella foresta tropicale amazzonica esistono in letteratura (Freitas et.al., 2004, Murrieta
et. Al., 1999, Eve and Eve, 1998, Caviglia, J. 2001, Franceschi and Kahn, 2003) indagini sullo stato della
Food Security delle popolazioni locali. La densità di popolazione in Amazzonia è di circa un abitante
per ogni sette chilometri quadrati e molti studi sottolineano come il bioma più ricco del mondo ospita
un numero esiguo di persone. Questo fenomeno è stato osservato antropologicamente e spiegato con il
concetto di “environmental limitation” (Meggers 1954, 1971, Ferdon, 1959) allo sviluppo delle culture.
Questo studio indaga sull’esistenza di fattori limitanti esprimibili come soglie assolute e sulle conoscenze tradizionali di gestione di questi vincoli ambientali. I fattori limitanti sono anche considerati in
relazione alle loro caratteristiche di interdipendenza con fenomeni ambientali, sociali ed economici, al
fine di comprendere quali componenti agiscono come variabili guida nei comportamenti di adattamento
delle comunità locali. La riserva denominata Xixuaù-Xiparinà è una riserva estrattiva situata sul lato
occidentale del fiume Jauperì che segna il confine tra gli stati brasiliani di Roraima, a cui l’area appartiene, ed Amazonas. L’area si estende per 172.000 ha ed è l’unica riserva naturale privata di questo tipo
nell’Amazzonia brasiliana. Il lavoro sul campo ha previsto campionamenti ed analisi di suolo (tessitura,
pH in acqua e KCl, azoto scambiabile, fosforo scambiabile, CSC, sostanza organica, calcio, sodio, magnesio, rapporto C/N) in 15 siti gestiti agronomicamente con pratiche tradizionali identificati attraverso
un approccio partecipativo insieme alla popolazione locale. I dati sono stati inseriti in un GIS ed integrati
con immagini telerilevate Landsat ETM+ con risoluzione spaziale di 30 metri. Per definire le abiotudini
alimentari e le tecniche di gestione tradizioanle sono state effettuate interviste semi-strutturate presso
le 126 famiglie che vivono nell’area.
I risultati delle analisi dimostrano che il suolo campionato nella riserva è un Latosolo Amarelo distrofico
secondo la classificazione brasiliana del 1972, detto anche Latosolo Amarelo distrofico tipico (classificazione EMBRAPA, 1999), Haplic ferralsols (classificazione FAO), Oxisol (classificazione USDA). In
Brasile i Latosuoli coprono un’area di circa 331.637.200 ha pari al 39 % dell’area del Paese. Dall’analisi dei
dati è evidente la funzione di organo di riserva svolto dal carbonio organico, specialmente per elementi
nutritivi come potassio e fosforo, ed il ruolo chiave che gioca nella conservazione della fertilità fisica e
chimica del suolo. Nelle aree indagate coesistono pratiche agricole a diversi stadi temporali. In terreni
forestali o al principio del ciclo colturale le concentrazioni di fosforo sono generalmente superiori ai 200
mg/kg ma in terreni coltivati da tre a quattro anni le concentrazioni decrescono da uno a due ordini di
grandezza, arrivando ad una media 15 mg/kg per lo strato superficiale e 4 mg/kg per lo strato profondo.
La gestione tradizionale di questo fattore limitante della fertilità fisica si basa su una combinazione di
rotazioni forzate e sistemi di allevamento basati su principi agroforestali.
370
Role of traditional villages for sustainable forest landscapes:
a case study in the Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains
Marine Elbakidze1 & Per Angelstam2
1
Ivan Franko National University, Department of Physical Geography
Doroshenko str. 41, 79020 Lviv, Ukraine
e-mail: [email protected]
2
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Forest Sciences
School for Forest Engineers, P.O. Box 43, SE-739 21 Skinnskatteberg, Sweden
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
To implement sustainability policies within actual landscapes, the needs, interests, and impacts
of different land users as well as their interactions need to be understood at multiple levels. Rural
populations play a major role in forest landscapes for different dimensions of sustainability in many
countries. In Europe’s post-socialist East this interdependence between traditional knowledge and
ecosystems has become increasingly vital during the transition period from central-planned to market economy with limited societal support. According to international resolutions and regional programs for sustainable land use, cultural heritage and traditional knowledge should be maintained in
Ukraine. The Skole district in the NE Carpathian Mountains was chosen as a case study focusing on
two issues. What does sustainable co-existence between man and nature mean in such forest and
woodland landscapes? Does traditional land use practices lead to sustainable landscapes? To evaluate the level of sustainability we studied local land use in villages using qualitative and quantitative
methods. Local people were still using their traditional knowledge as a base for maintaining a distinctive local culture. Livelihoods of local communities depended directly on traditional knowledge
regarding whole landscapes included in traditional village systems, once common throughout Europe. At the same time local people are not able to protect their unique culture from a rapid chaotic
market economic development, which is financed by the state and private businesses. Support of
traditional village land use systems should be a milestone in a regional program of Sustainable Forest Management, and village intactness would be a good indicator of success.
1. Introduction
According to numerous international resolutions and regional programs for sustainable land use,
cultural heritage and traditional knowledge should be maintained. To promote sustainability on
national as well as regional and local levels Ukraine has joined the process of developing forest
management ideas and principles oriented towards sustainable yield forestry, maintenance of forest
biodiversity and socio-cultural values (Balashenko et al. 2005). The Carpathian Mountain ecoregion which is represented in the south-western part of Ukraine is a good example (Turnock 2002).
While the Ukrainian Carpathians covers only 3.5% of Ukraine’s area and 10.3% of total area of the
Carpathian Mountains, nevertheless, this region has forest resources of high economic value; has
retained exceptional level of biodiversity and many of European’s last great wilderness areas. The
ecoregion is also home to several ethnographic groups of Ukrainians – Lemko, Boiko and Hutzul
– who have been shaping mountain landscapes for centuries and have created rich cultural heritage
(Hajda 1998, Anon. 1983).
Nowadays people in many parts of the Ukrainian Carpathians experience decreased standards of
living due to disintegration of the planned economy developed during socialism and ongoing tran-
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sition to market economy under acute political and economic crisis in the country. The picture is,
however, very complex, especially as most of the Carpathian ecoregion has been part of AustriaHungary, Poland and the Soviet Union during the past centuries. On the one hand the Carpathian
ecoregion is under severe threat from unsustainable logging methods, past replacement of natural
tree species with introduced Norway spruce (Picea abies), habitat destruction/fragmentation from
changing land use practices and infrastructure development (Gensiruk 1964, Trokhimchuk 1968).
On the other hand, due to economic reasons and the need to develop local livelihoods, local people
have to come back to their traditional land use practices. These were commonly practised before
socialism and played an important role for maintenance of biodiversity and cultural heritage, and
thus rural development in the Ukrainian Carpathians. The recent privatisation of land that began
after the collapse of the socialist system in 1991 has led to a revival of the social and cultural value
of forests in Western Ukraine, which often were a unbroken part of families’ cultural and natural
heritage for generations (Huntingdon 1996).
The aim of this study is to evaluate traditional villages as a resource to identify ways of integration of
best practices of traditional land use into rural economic development for developing social stability,
protection of cultural diversity and maintenance of biodiversity in the region. We collected quantitative data describing economic, ecological and socio-cultural dimensions of landscape sustainability
and made interviews with different actors to understand the role of traditional villages for sustainable development of forest landscapes in the Ukrainian Carpathians. The study is part of a transdisciplinary research network using multiple case studies located in regions with different biophysical
conditions, economic history and systems of governance in Europe’s East and West (Angelstam and
Törnblom 2004, Angelstam and Elbakidze in press). In our study we focus on two issues. What does
sustainable co-existence man and nature mean in forest and woodland landscapes? Could traditional
land use practice and traditional villages be an example of sustainability?
2. Methods
The Skole district in the Ukrainian Carpathians was chosen as a case study landscape. It represents: (1) forest management units with characteristic ecological, economic and social problems
for the Carpathian region in particular, and countries in transition in general, (2) one of the most
forested areas in Ukraine with a rural population directly dependent on using natural resources, (3)
an integral part of Boiko people’s ethnographic area with traditional villages, and land use closely
connected to forest and woodland ecosystems.
To understand different dimensions of sustainable landscapes there is need to: (1) map policies and
all the landscape’s actors, (2) analyse actors’ needs and interests as well as their land use practices,
(3) identify interactions among actors in time and space concerning use of natural resources, (4)
analyse the environmental history, especially historical development of rural land, and (5) gather
data describing economic, ecological and socio-cultural dimensions of sustainability. Hence, both
quantitative and qualitative methods were employed.
The compliance with the Pan-European Sustainable Forest Management discourse (Rametsteiner
and Mayer 2004) was evaluated by analysis of the national forest legislation, and the regional program for rural development and forestry in the Ukrainian Carpathians. Analyses of published statistical data and recent original statistics from the Skole district were used to quantify the state
and trends of economic and socio-cultural development of the region. To understand the real life
of villages, expert interviews were made with local land users in five villages. A standardised interview manual was used that contained several groups of questions including personal data of the
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Role of traditional villages for sustainable forest landscapes:
a case study in the Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains
respondents, data about household economy, sources of income, expenses, use of natural resources,
farming, public work and meetings, traditions and mobility.
The Skole district is situated on the north-eastern side of Eastern Carpathian Mountains in the upper part of the Dnister river basin. At present time of the total district area (147,100 ha) forests occupy 71%, agricultural land 25%, and urban areas 2%. The number of inhabitants in the case study
area is 49,438, and with 13% of urban and 87% of rural population. The average population density
is 33 person/km² (Anon. 2005). There are 56 settlements with 55 villages and 1 town in the Skole
district. The oldest village was founded in 1100 and the youngest one was created in 1842. Villages
are located at altitudes from 400 to 1000 m above the sea level.
3. Results
3.1. Historical development of the rural landscape
The Skole district has a long land use history. Continuous external political, economic and social
influences have had a great impact on land use practices conducted by local people. In the preagricultural period until the 13th century, the Skole area was populated predominantly by Slavic
tribes, which were engaged in hunting, fishing and gathering since the mid-Neolithic period
(Portenko 1958). In the times of the Kyivan Rus (10-11th cc.) and the Halych-Volyn’ Principality (13-14th cc), the agricultural activity in Skole was small scale. It was centred on the fortified
towns and monasteries, which appeared along the trade routes that went through the Stryj-San
Highland. During that time, 8 villages, or 13% of total number of villages in Skole, were founded
(Anon 1983, Hrushevsky 1995a, 1995b, Trokhimchuk 1968).
An era of profound human influence on the landscape started in the fifteenth century when
Boikos – an ethnographic group of Ukrainian highlanders who inhabit both slopes of the middle
Carpathians – began to settle. They have since then shaped landscapes for the last 500 – 600
years. They introduced their own traditions into land cultivation (Anon. 1983). Agricultural
land development went side by side with the appearance of new permanent settlements. From
the 15th to the end of 18th century 44 villages, 80% of the total number, were founded. The traditional land use practice of that time conducted by local people was to a certain extent a prototype of a sustainable use of natural resources. It depended completely on the availability of local
natural resources and on the maintenance of an ecologically balanced environment with minimal
use of outside resources and energy. Chief characteristics of the land use were: (1) using a twofield rotation system; (2) combining tillage and livestock production within one farmstead; (3)
dividing land into interchangeable plots and sowing by shifts; (4) using mechanical devices to
cultivate the land and to exterminate weeds; (5) protecting the soil from erosion by means of
special plowing methods.
The character and intensity of the use of natural resources in Skole began to change in the 19th century. One of the main reasons for this was the emancipation of serfs in 1848, which in its turn led
to the development of capitalism in the Halychyna. The agricultural cultivation of land intensified
and became more widespread (Trokhimchuk 1968, Hajda 1998. Anon. 1983). The role of livestock
production increased, especially meat, milk and hide and sheep fur production, since these products were in high demand on the Austrian market. The intensive use of meadows and deforested
areas for pastures led to the loss from their structure of valuable legumes and cereal grains.
As a result of high demand for wood in Western Europe, forest industry began to develop during
the 19th century. Forests were cleared mostly to export wood. Only a small quantity of wood was
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Theme 6. TRADITIONS, CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
processed at the same place where it was cut down (Anon. 1966). The demand for spruce timber
on the world market and the rapid decrease of its supplies prompted the owners of the forests
to replace the deciduous forests with the spruce forests. In 1882, this tendency was legalised by
the Austrian government, which passed a resolution to replace beech, silver fir and other native
forests with Norway spruce forests (Gensiruk 1964). Thus, during this period there has been
a significant increase in the use of natural resources in human activity, but the majority of the
population in the Skole continued to use traditional methods of agriculture. Only 3 villages (or
5% of the total number of villages) were created during the 19th century (Anon. 2005).
A complete change of political, social and economic relations that had a profound influence on
the ways in which natural resources were used was initiated in 1939 when the Western regions
of Ukraine became part of the Soviet Union. The Soviet regime (1939-1991) had an especially
disastrous impact on the local people’s traditional way of life and use of land. Private land property was expropriated, people were forced to emigrate, arable lands increased at the expense of
wooded grasslands, and forestry became more intensive (Trokhimchuk 1968). The structure of
land and forest properties was changed. Forests were now owned by state, private plots of land
were joined into collective farms (kolkhozes). Collectivisation and mechanisation left limited
space for the traditional way of life (Trokhimchuk 1968). The use of natural resources was thus
shifted towards industrial use of forests with spruce reforestation, which was caused by the
growing importance of forestry in the Carpathians in general, and within the Skole district in
particular. This was accompanied by increased harvesting and reforestation rates.
Since 1991, when Ukraine became an independent state, the economical crisis during the last
decade has made local people’s livelihoods directly depend on the local use of natural resources.
They have had to come back to their traditional agricultural land use practices due to economic reasons. Non-wood forest products (NWFP) such as mushrooms, berries, honey, medicinal
herbs, floral greenery, birch sap, resin and wild game began again a part of the social fabric and
livelihood of Ukrainian culture (Bihun 2005), especially in forest-dependent communities, like
the Skole district.
We define several five phases of cultural landscape development in Skole district which are the
results of integration different types of a land use activity, interaction in space and time various groups of actors under the different governmental and governance systems. These are: (1)
pre-agricultural period (till the end of 13th century); (2) period of traditional extensive land use
(14-18th centuries); (3) period of intensified traditional land use (19-early 20th centuries); (4)
intensive (socialism) land use period (mid to end 20th century); (5) period of extensive land use
(present time) (Table 1.).
Table 1. Historical development of cultural landscape in Skole district in the Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains
Type of land use activity
Phases of
development
Hunting
374
Fishing
Gathering
of NWP
Animal
husbandry
Pre-Agricultural Period
Period of Traditional extensive land use (14-18th Cc.)
Period of Intensified Traditional Land Use (19-Early 20 Cc)
Period of Intensive (Socialist ) Land Use
Extensive present land use
Plant
growing
Extensive
Forestry
Intensive
forestry
Role of traditional villages for sustainable forest landscapes:
a case study in the Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains
3.2. Comparing quantitative and qualitative data
The most common statement of local land users was “Our grand parents land and houses are
becoming empty”. The field observations in the Skole district show that marginal lands of former
collective farms, which are not used any more for grazing and crop production are being covered
by forests due to natural succession dynamic. Decreasing amounts of open land after the collapse
of collective farms is a natural result of transition from intensive agriculture during the socialism
time to the extensive land use practice conducted by local farmers at present time. Privatisation
of arable land by local people began after the collapse of the socialist system. However, the “new”
agricultural land distributed between local people after 1991 has not taken into account pre-Soviet ownership patterns. This past legacy is of exceptionally high significance for people in the
Western part of Ukraine where the old generation still has strong feelings of ownership and memories about unjust political and social events, which brought them to ruin. This is still the main
subject of conversion when meeting the old generation in the villages. However, at present time it
is not profitable for the local people to manage their land, they are escaping abroad to find jobs.
The abandoned land is thus tending to become an increasingly widespread present phenomenon
in the Skole district. According to official statistic data (Anon. 2005) the numbers of seasonal and
empty houses have increased during the last decade. In 2005, 9.6% of villages in the district have
empty houses and 36.5% of villages have seasonal houses. Although the total numbers of empty
(585, or 5% of total number of houses in the district) and seasonal (55, or 0.5% of total number)
are still quite low, local people perceive this trend in villages’ development as very painful. The
total number of villages has not changed during the last 200 years. However analysis of official
statistic data for the last 50 years shows that the size of villages according to the number of inhabitants has varied considerably during that time. Groups of villages with inhabitants less the
100, 100-199 and 200-499 people were the most stable. Their numbers have only slightly changed
(less then 2%) since 1959. The most noticeable changes happened with the groups of villages having 200-499 (positive dynamic, 11% more in comparison with1959) and 1000-1999 inhabitants
(negative dynamic, 9% less in comparison with their number in 1959), respectively.
The second common statement was “Young people are escaping to abroad. It is so hard for us to
take care of our land...”. Analysis the official statistic data shows that the total number of inhabitants has been permanently decreasing (15% less) since 1970 (the socialism period) to 2005 (the
transition period). At the same time a comparison of the dynamic of urban and rural population
shows two opposite trends. The size of the urban population has been growing since 1970 (16%
more in 2005 then in 1970), and the rural population has been decreasing during that period (19%
less in 2005 then in 1970). According to the data of age class distribution in the population the
largest groups are people in work-able age (28-53 year) (35% of total number of people) and pension age (more than 55 year) (27% of total). In reality, however, the number of people in work-able
age is considerably lower. The reason is that while all people have permanent residence registrations in their home settlements, at the same time many of them are working abroad.
The third prevalent statement of local people was “The government forgot about us – no jobs, no
market for our farming products, high prices for wood; without financial support from children
abroad we would die”. The number of employed people in the district is 17,600 (66% of people
in work-able age and 49% of total population), including 6,043 employees of state enterprises
(22.8% of those in work-able age or 12.4% of the total population) (Anon. 2005). The main individual employers are educational foundations (6.5% employed people from total number in
workable age), forestry sector (3.6%) and health service (3.2%). The main sources of income for
local people are pension/salary, financial support of relatives from abroad. The very low income
comes from farming activity (mostly selling meat) and private business.
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4. Discussion
4.1. Carpathian villages in an European context
The Ukrainian Carpathians is a good example of the complex historical development of Europe’s rural landscapes. We understand traditional villages as settlements where the majority of
local people have been maintaining traditional land use practice inherited from their ancestry.
Important characteristics of traditional land use are that (1) different types of natural resources
are used by local people, (2) traditional types of land use activity are employed, and (3) the
main goods and services are produced by local land users (Klokov 1997, Yamskov 2000). Here
the village with its characteristic zones of different land use from the centre to the periphery
is, still, a basic unit of the cultural landscape. However, loss of the authentic pre-industrial village structure characterised by a fine-grained structure of arable land and wooded grasslands is
a threat to both cultural heritage and biodiversity in many rural landscapes (e.g., Ramakrishna
2001, Angelstam in press).
The expansion of European Union (EU) to the western border of Ukraine could bring advantages
as well as disadvantages to the Ukrainian Carpathian ecoregion, now bordering three new members of the EU, namely Poland, Slovakia and Hungary. Closer integration into the EU’s Common
Market and some EU policies and funding will be leading to the intensification of a number of
threats to the natural values and long-term sustainability of the Carpathian ecoregion as a whole.
This includes development of mass tourism facilities, transportation infrastructure, and agricultural intensification as well as abandonment of traditionally farmed areas (Anon. 2006). At the
same time, however, increasing EU integration is also driving forward adoption and implementation of a number of progressive EU laws and policies. Even if Ukraine has not been presented with
the perspective of future membership in the EU, still, the country has been aligning its national
laws and policies to important pieces of the EU legislation. This harmonisation process presents
potentially powerful tools for nature conservation and sustainable development (Anon. 2006).
Comparing the development of cultural landscapes in the Western European countries and in
the Ukrainian Carpathians shows that there are many similarities and considerable differences
in rural development. In the past in the Western European countries, traditional low-intensity
agriculture was the norm (Vos and Meekes 1999) and the maintenance of biodiversity was an
unplanned by-product (von Haaren 2002). This phase is comparable with phases 1, 2 and 3 in
cultural landscape development defined for the Skole district (Table 1.). Then followed a transition from primary to secondary economics in the West, and industrialised agriculture led to loss
of biodiversity and other values (Höll and Nilsson 1999). This is similar to the period of intensive land use during socialism (phase 4), which had a destructive impact on cultural landscapes
in our case study landscape. However the political and socio-economic systems for that phase
were completely different in the West and the East, and created opposite initial conditions for
the next phase of rural development. For example, intensification of natural resources use and
disappearing cultural landscapes in the West were the result of developing of democratic societies with increased economic welfare. By contrast, in Ukraine the consequences of economic and
political development during the socialism time was linked to deep political and economic crises,
collapse of economy and undeveloped civil society. The present post-industrial society of the
Western European countries represents a third phase – a desire to maintain ‘the grandparents’
landscape’ (Angelstam in press) which seems like a luxury for developed nations. At present
time rural development in remote areas in Ukraine like the Carpathian region restoring and
maintaining of “the grandparents” landscapes are an “absolute necessity” for local villages and
ways to survive during the transition period from planned socialism to market economy.
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Role of traditional villages for sustainable forest landscapes:
a case study in the Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains
4.2. Main features of traditional villages and their role for sustainable landscapes
Are there traditional villages or not? Is it possible to restore traditional land use after long time
of socialism political and economic pressure aiming to destroy traditional culture and mentality
in the Western part of Ukraine? There are many discussions concerning what traditional land use
is, and what the role of traditional land use in rural development is (Klokov 1997, Korytnyy et al.
2004, Syroechkovskyy 1974, Yamskov 2000, Ramakrishna 2001), especially in the countries with
first nations. We agree that important characteristics of traditional land use are that (1) different
types of natural resources are used by local people, (2) traditional types of land use activity are
employed, and (3) the main goods and services are produced by local land users (Yamskov 2000).
To understand if present land use practices in the Skole district could be named as a traditional we
compared main characteristics of land use activity during the period of extensive traditional land
use (phases 2,3) (Table 1.) with those at present time (Table 2.). Analysis of Table 2. clearly indicates that the present type of land use activity is similar to the traditional with some reductions
in diversity of all characteristics, which is a result of evolutionary process in land use practices.
Table 2. Comparison main components of traditional land use activity in the part and at the present time
in the Skole district (the Ukrainian Carpathians)
Main components of land use
In the past
At present time
Type of natural resources in use
Arable land, meadows, non-wood
products, wood, wildlife
Arable land, meadows, non-wood
products, wood
Type of land use activity
Animal husbandry, plant growing,
useful arts, forestry
Animal husbandry, plant growing
Tools of land use activity
Hands, oxen, horse, plough, scythe,
axe, pitchfork
Hands, horse, plough, scythe, axe,
pitchfork
Main products of farming
Meat, milk, meal, cheese, vegetables,
potato, wool, cloth
Meat, milk, cheese, vegetables,
potato
We thus argue that there are at least two main features of traditional villages that can be used as
simple proxies for assessing sustainability (1) the traditional land use associated with cultural
landscapes; and (2) traditional spatial village’s structure.
The first feature is consistent with the development of different categories of cultural landscapes
adopted by the World Heritage Committee in 1992, and included in the associated Operational
Guidelines (UNESCO 1997). We consider that cultural landscapes associated with traditional land
use in the Skole district belongs to the second category of cultural landscapes – the organically
evolved landscape. This “results from an initial social, economic, administrative, and/or religious
imperative and has developed its present form by association with and in response to its natural environment. Such landscapes reflect that process of evolution in their form and component
features” (UNESCO 1997). They fall into two sub-categories: (1) A relict (or fossil) landscape is
one in which an evolutionary process came to an end at some time in the past, either abruptly or
over a period. Its significant distinguishing features are however, still visible in material form. (2)
A continuing landscape is one which retains an active social role in contemporary society closely
associated with the traditional way of life, and in which the evolutionary process in still in progress.
At the same time, it exhibits significant material evidence of this evolution over time.
These two sub-categories could be defined in the countries that have been developing without
deep cataclysms in their evolution. In the post-socialism countries, like Ukraine, rapid and fundamental changes in political and socio-economic spheres happened in the end of 20th century.
This has resulted appearing a new type of rural landscapes that we propose to name as a “revived
cultural landscape”. A revived cultural landscape is one which resumes an active social role in
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Theme 6. TRADITIONS, CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
contemporary society which still keeping alive their traditional knowledge in spite of political
cataclysms and in which the evolutionary process is unpredictable due to unstable land use activity. The revived landscape could be a third sub-category of an organically evolved landscape.
The second feature of a traditional village is a spatial village’s structure. Traditionally, the following traditional spatial zones are distinguished: (1) built-up area, (2) fields, (3) meadows and
(4) forests and pastures (see picture 1). There is thus a characteristic zonation from the centre
to the periphery in a village with different kinds of economic use of renewable natural resources
ranging from gardens and fields to pastures and forest (Mikusinski et al. 2003; Bender et al.,
2005). This spatial structure, as well as its degradation, can be monitored using remote sensing
data (Angelstam et al. 2003).
For several reasons the maintenance of traditional villages in the Ukrainian Carpathians is a very
important and urgent task: (1) the existence of traditional villages is a fundament for preservation of cultural heritage and diversity, (2) traditional land use is a unique ecological culture of
a nation, (3) in most cases traditional villages are an example of sustainable co-existence man
and nature. The landscape configuration and farming models that most Europeans understand
as a part of their history is the everyday reality for the people in this part of the world. This landscape is characteristic not only in parts of the Carpathian Mountains, and further to the southeast in the Balkan and Rodopi Mountains, but was common in many other European regions in
the past (Angelstam in press, Sporrong 1998, Vos and Meekes 1999).
5. Conclusions
As a result of rapid deep political and economic changes in Ukraine traditional villages have been reappearing in the Ukrainian Carpathians as a way for local people to survive. Nowadays they are key
components to protect cultural diversity and social stability of the region, an example of sustainable co-existence man and nature and playing an ecological, economic and social role for regional
sustainable development. At the same time there are some negative trends in regional economic development and conflicts between the needs of local people and limitations on use of forest resources
which belong to the state. Other threats are cultural and economic globalisation, and disrespectful
attitude from society and governmental organisations. Local people are not able to protect their
unique culture from a rapid chaotic economic development, which is financed by the state and private business. Therefore the support of traditional Boiko’s land use, which is closely connected to
forests, should be a milestone in a regional program of Sustainable Forest Management.
6. Acknowledgements
We thank local people for sharing their views about life in the Skole district. The Marcus and Amalia Wallenberg foundation provided economic support for this study. Finally we thank Mauro Agnoletti at the University of Florence for supporting the first author’s participation in the conference.
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a sustainable future. Landscape and Urban Planning 46: 3-14.
Yamskov, A., 2000. Traditsionnoe prirodopol’zovanie: problemy opredeleniya i pravovogo regulirovaniya. Moscow. (in Russian).
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Integrating traditional knowledge into global change analysis models
The case of Ridaura sessile oak forestland
(Natural Park of Montseny, NE Spain)
Francisco Javier Gómez, Martí Boada & Sònia Sànchez
Institute of Environmental Science and Technology, Autonomous University of Barcelona
Campus de Bellaterra, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
[email protected]
Abstract
Ridaura sessile oak forestland, located at Montseny Mountains (Barcelona) declared Natural Park
(1987) and UNESCO’s Biosphere Reserve (1978), presents outstanding socioenvironmental elements
for the manifestations of Global Change processes analysis. Firstly, biogeographically it is an ecotonic
border between Mediterranean biome and Eurosiberian biome, an especially sensible space to land
cover changes, like biome replacement processes. Secondly, the Ridaura’s socioeconomic dynamics in
second half of the 20th century has determined land use changes related to mountain economies crisis
and the progressive abandon of farming and forestry activities. In this study case, oral sources of information of different social actors related to Ridaura (actual and former landowners, forest workers
and merchants, and Natural Park land managers) were integrated into the analysis model. Interviews
were administrated for to recover Traditional Knowledge and Cultural Heritage (including vestige rural architectonic heritage that still remains today such as charcoal places and waves, stone walls from
croplands, etc.) and to reconstruct the sessile oak forestland Environmental History like an outstanding information input for to analyze land use and land cover changes occurred.
Keywords: cultural heritage, environmental history, global change, land use and land cover change,
traditional knowledge.
1. Introduction
Relations between humans and environment had been characterized since the origins of mankind
by the transformation, especially since the Neolithic period and the first agrarian works (González
Bernáldez, in Turner II et al. 1995); other authors located the origin of marked environmental
changes in the connection between Europe and America (Gómez Sal, in Turner II et al. 1995). Nevertheless, the historic episode identified like the beginning of deep environmental changes linked
to human activity was the Industrial Revolution. In this period biophysical factors’ importance
decreased in relation to socioeconomic elements (demographic trends, technological changes, etc.)
like key elements in global change processes.
Through the history, different interpretations of environmental changes have been succeeding, essentially characterized by three classic models of society-environment relation’s contexts: Biocentrism (XVIIIth-XIXth centuries), based on a supernatural providence belief where an “supreme entity” rules natural and social rhythms; Neodeterminism, based on Hippocratic currents recovered
in XIXth century, where environmental conditions are responsible of human society evolution and
of the apparition and support of certain cultural manifestations; and Technocratic point of view (or
Positive Anthropocentrism), where the society rules environmental rhythms and humans are the
dominators of the Earth through science and technological means.
Since consumption model’s generalization and consolidation initiated by the Industrial Revolution thinking currents that reported first environmental alterations signs arose; an example was
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Theme 6. TRADITIONS, CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
Rachel Carson’s “Silent Spring” (1962), one critic to development model in force from the analysis
of pesticide hazard. In this scenario of global environmental crisis, where humans have exceeded
their environmental transformation capacity (an underlying critic since thirties that reached its
climax during 1973 and 1974s energy crisis), the Negative Anthropocentric point of view of understanding society and environment relations, where technocratic (Positive Anthropocentrism)
arguments were considered erroneous and humans were pointed out like planet’s problems reason,
became important. The denunciation of Exceptionalist Paradigm’s (called Human Exemptionalist Paradigm later) fragility, where humans controlled environmental elements, supposed the replace of the
three classic approaches and the transition to the New Ecological Paradigm (Catton & Dunlap, 1978),
where humans, considered as an exceptional specie, were dependents of a global system, produced
environmental consequences and kept landscapes beyond their carrying capacity.
Related to this change of paradigm, ethic positions that emphasize value of nature per se and ecological laws of human rights and morals arose too. Some examples were the Egocentric Environmentalism (Eckersley, 1992) and other points of view where humans, like industrial society actors, were
the cause of environmental disorders and without them new natural and harmonic orders could be
possible, like Deep Ecology ideas (Devall & Sessions, 1985; Naess, 1989; Sessions, 1995). The validity of this image of virgin landscapes (Wilderness) and without humans has been criticized by some
authors and called The Green Fantasy (Stavrakakis, 1999). Usually, in the basis of these nature-without-humans visions, some classic ecology theories based on balance like the “superorganism” stability
proposed by Clements or the Gaia theory by Lovelock can be found. Sometimes, these approaches
has stepped out certain topics that have influenced in the conception of landscape by the society;
examples of these topics are that northern landscapes are best valuated than southern landscapes
and that cultural landscapes (modified by human activity) are less valuated than “natural” ones.
Nevertheless, this “untouched” environmental scenario is an invalid postulate, rather idealized.
In fact, the limit between cultural complex and ecological systems is one of the human knowledge
limitations. Classic visions of balance and lineal order have been replaced by complex approaches,
like net models (i.e. Bruno Latour’s Actor-Network theory, 1996) and interdisciplinary focusing (i.e.
Victor Toledo’s Hybrid Disciplines, 1998). Actually, we can’t separate nature and society; for this
reason, nowadays the study of environmental changes requires the integration of ecological and social criteria so as to unravel landscape dynamics complexity. In this line, analytic studies based on
hybrid methodologies that take into account the importance of Traditional Knowledge and Cultural
Heritage are basic tools to interpret these changes.
2. Methods
2.1. Study area
Natural Park of Montseny (30120.10 hectares) is situated in NE of Spain. In the massif there are
located three biogeographic regions: Mediterranean biome, the most extensive one, Eurosiberian
biome and Boreoalpine biome, low-extended region in the summit areas of the Montseny (up to
1600 meters). Montseny is catalogued like protected area under different figures (UNESCO’s
Biosphere Reserve, Natural Park), factor that doesn’t entail an untouchable status of landscape.
The effective protection integrates the compatibility between safeguard and traditional farming
and forestry uses, with the exception of areas catalogued like Qualified Natural Reserve.
The demographic trend of the 18 municipalities integrated into Park’s extension is, on the whole,
of population increase. Between 1983 and 2002, population grown from 26.049 to 39.743 inhabitants; in the year 2004 population arrived to 42.678 inhabitants. Nevertheless, general trend is not
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Integrating traditional knowledge into global change analysis models. The case of Ridaura sessile oak forestland.
the same for all the municipalities: low-altitude municipalities (the area called “Baix Montseny”)
increase their population meanwhile high-altitude municipalities, characterized by primary sector
economies and dispersed households, undergo rural exodus processes (Boada, 2002).
In the SE sector of the massif, between 800 and 1000 meters of altitude, there is located an atlantic influenced area that presents a sessile oak (Quercus petraea) forestland called Ridaura sessile
oak forestland (Teucrio-Quercetum petraeae), place name related to the mas de Ridaura where it is
included (the mas is the name of the traditional catalan countryside unity conformed by different primary sector activities linked to a household). The study area integrates public ownership
(County Council) and private ownership. The effective protection of the area doesn’t exclude
traditional primary sector activities.
2.2. Methodology
The methodology applied was based on the analysis of social-economic and biophysical driving forces, similar to IGBP-IHDP’s LUCC project (Land Use and Land Cover Change). This balance through
the 20th century, especially since second half, determined land use and land cover changes, key
indicators to understand past and present landscape changes and possible future scenarios. For to
analyze these temporal stages, there has been posed a diachronic model and a synchronic model.
2.2.1. Diachronic model
The diachronic model has analyzed landscape changes until year 2005, land use changes
approximately since the decade of thirties and land cover changes since year 1956. Different documentary archives references about human activities were consulted for the land
use changes analysis: County Council’s archive, village of Granollers’ historic archive, Fidel Fita historic archive and private archives like old Montseny forest workers’ tree felling
cut rights collections. Oral sources of information were included into model for to recover
Ridaura sessile oak forestland’s Environmental History. Traditional Knowledge of old men
and woman linked to Ridaura (and to massif of Montseny, too) has contributed to identify
and to characterize main land uses and their changes from information inputs of social
and ecological landscape dynamics. For to recover this knowledge, interviews were administrated to different social actors: actual Ridaura sessile oak forestland landowners (private
landowners and Natural Park land managers), former owners and forest workers, former
wood and charcoal merchants, etc.
Also, vestige rural architectonic heritage (part of the Ridaura’s cultural heritage) related
to former land uses (that still remains today in the Ridaura sessile oak forestland, such as
charcoal places and waves, stone walls from croplands, etc.) has been catalogued. In fact,
oral sources of information were key tools to document these old architectonic vestiges.
For the land cover change analysis, past studies about Ridaura’s botanic were consulted:
Guy Lapraz’s “Recherches phytosociologiques en Catalogne” of 1966 and Oriol de Bolòs’ “La vegetació del Montseny” of 1983. For to compare changes in sessile oak forestland flora composition in last 50 years, the catalogue of taxons has been actualized by the 2005 checklist of
plants. Too, aerial photographs of 1956 and 2003 have been analyzed by GIS to characterize
land covers and to monitor their spatial changes in this period.
2.2.2. Synchronic model
The synchronic model has analyzed actual Ridaura sessile oak forestland mass’ ecological
dynamics. For this objective, 12 experimental plots were distributed at different altitudes
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Theme 6. TRADITIONS, CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
(between 800 and 1000 meters) into sessile oak forestland area; half of the plots were located into areas that presented sessile oak forestland cover in 1957 and a half outside them.
In each plot, number and diameter (at 1.3 meters) of sessile oak and holm oak (live and
dead trees) and number and age of seedlings of both species were measured. Data obtained
in experimental plots has been structured and analyzed by statistical analysis.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Land use changes
In the 20th century, agrarian works were actives in Ridaura up to the end of the decade of 1980s.
The traditional products included wheat and potatoes, cultivated on alternative years in terraces
near the main house. Nowadays, these abandoned agrarian structures are still visible, especially
stonewalls; the general characteristic of these vestiges is the presence of vegetation poured out
onto terraces and stonewalls.
Documented farming activity of the mas was less significant than agrarian works. It consisted in
few cows devoted to produce milk and other small farm animals devoted to self-consumption.
Farming finished at the same time than agriculture. Related to neighbours’ farming activity
linked to Ridaura, only goat flocks (varying through the years during the second half of the 20th
century between 300 and 700 heads of cattle) occasionally grazed part of the sessile oak forested
area until the beginning of 1980s. Nowadays, Can Ridaura hasn’t farm activity but landowners
hand over remaining meadows to neighbour’s herd on summer.
Forestry in Ridaura included wood (of sessile oak, mainly) and firewood (of holm oak) extraction.
Oldest oral references of sessile oak wood extraction in Ridaura explained the use of this material
for railways construction works at the beginning of the 20th century; nevertheless, this use surely
was former, because the railway expansion in Barcelona began at the half of XVIIIth century and
the development was very fast: at 1860 railway arrived until Sant Celoni and Riells i Viabrea, two
villages of Baix Montseny. Even, the cultural footprint of this work had been gathered in Baix
Montseny’s language background like a reprimand to children (“We’ll send you to Ridaura to make
crosspieces!”). Too, sessile oak wood was used to produce joists (until year 1940, approximately),
pieces of furniture and cartwheels, product that underwent an outstanding demand peak during
First World War (1914-18).
Holm oak extraction destined to firewood remained active until the second half of the decade
of 1980s, with less recurrent intervention shifts than in the first half of the century, when were
approximately every five years. After the end of firewood extraction in Ridaura there weren’t any
interventions over sessile oaks and holm oaks forest masses.
Another destination of Ridaura sessile oak forestland biomass was the elaboration of charcoal.
Since the end of XIXth century, the elaboration of charcoal in the massif of Montseny reached
activity peaks, especially after Spanish Civil War years (1936-39). During the decades of 1950s
and 1960s, charcoal’s demand dropped, an effect linked to the spread of fossil fuels; this fact
conditioned the crisis of charcoal and firewood and the progressive abandon of these forest works
during the decade of 1970s. In Ridaura, charcoal production was especially active during the
decade of 1950s and ended at the beginning of the decade of 1970s. Nowadays, there are some
vestiges of charcoal activity through Ridaura sessile oak forestland that indicate this former land
use. One outstanding group of these vestiges are the old waves where charcoal workers elaborated a kind of less quality charcoal, the “carbonet” (catalan name, this kind of charcoal is called
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Integrating traditional knowledge into global change analysis models. The case of Ridaura sessile oak forestland.
and in spanish, “cisco”), from vegetable rests of forest clean and cut down activity and destined
to domestic tasks like cooking and heating. The most productive period of this product was the
decade of 1950s, when emigrants came to the massif of Montseny to work in charcoal activity
(the origin of these workers was Almería, Andalucía, South of Spain). Activity decreased since
the decade of 1960s and ended at the half of the decade of 1970s. Nowadays, still remain 21
vestige charcoal waves (sometimes with little charcoal pieces scattered at the bottom of the wave
and mixed with leaves and humus); these structures have been catalogued and mapped.
3.2. Land cover changes
Diachronic analysis model based on the comparison between aerial photograph of 1956 and orthophotomap of 2003 showed quantitative and qualitative land cover changes. These processes
were identified like an outstanding increase of forestland cover and a decrease of agriculture and
farming land covers.
Related to forestland, land cover has increased and modification processes have occurred. In
1956 sessile oak forestland areas were only two isolated strips and a little zone near the home,
with an extension of 2.0 hectares, approximately. At the same time, the rest of the study area,
excluding agrarian and farming land covers, presented a typical morphology of scrubland. On the
other hand, the cartography of the year 2003 showed a continuous forest land cover of 11.5 hectares extended onto the major part of study area. The conversion of all the agrarian land cover
and the partial modification of farming area have occurred; since 1956 until 2003, 0.4 hectares of
farming land cover have been turned into scrubland, 1.1 hectares have been turned into forestland and 0.4 hectares have been fragmented but still remained active like meadows.
The diachronic analysis model also analyzed qualitative land cover changes in study area, especially in sessile oak forestland zones. Human intervention over ecosystem’s dynamics recently
made that scientist reconsider the role of biotope transition areas in land cover processes until to
recognize the indicator capacity of ecotonic borders in front of environmental changes (Hansen
& Di Castri, 1992; Fagan et al., 2003; Peñuelas & Boada, 2003). Changes observed between
flora checklists of 1966 and 2005 showed two kinds of land cover changes. Firstly, in terms of
vegetation structure, the main trend was the reduction of open spaces and the increase of vertical barked biomass, in the line of the quantitative forestland area increase observed by the GIS
analysis. Secondly, in terms of community composition, the relative abundance of eurosiberian
chorology taxons like Teucrium scorodonia remained similar, but an increase near to 5% of characteristic mediterranean chorology taxons like Arbutus unedo has been documented; at the same
time, in open spaces between 1966’s checklist and 2005’s checklist eurosiberian species have
been replaced by mediterranean and pluriregional species.
Synchronic analysis model showed that in terms of basal area (total amount of trunks’ wood circular area measured at 1.30 meters) the predominance was by sessile oaks, maybe there were some
thick trees (diameter>30 cm.); in terms of tree density, holm oaks were more abundant than sessile oaks, approximately in 2:1 ratio. In the case of sessile oaks diameters, there weren’t statistical
meaningful differences between areas covered by sessile oak forestland in 1956 and didn’t ones
(Mann-Whitney test, Z= –0.548, p= 0.584), but in the case of holm oaks there were statistical
meaningful differences (T-Student test; t = 2.945; p =0.0035): holm oaks located in 1956’s notforested areas presented wide diameters than holm oaks located in 1956’s forested ones, fitting
with charcoal activity’s most worked areas since the decade of 1940s. In fact, human intervention
could be the one of the causes of major 1956s forested holm oaks individuals’ vigour; in fact,
former studies of Montseny’s holm oak forestland linked human intervention (clearing ups) with
an increase of holm oaks’ fitness and vigour (Retana et al., 1992; Mayor & Rodà, 1993).
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Related to mortality, sessile oaks had higher rate than holm oaks, especially in young trees. This
situation could be linked to competition relations (for resources like water, light, space, nutrients) between holm oaks and sessile oaks, and between sessile oaks themselves. In fact, competition relations are one of the cited determining factors in flora communities’ alteration (species
composition, phenology changes, etc.) (Bazzaz, 1996).
In the case of seedlings, number of sessile oak seedlings per hectare was higher than holm oak
seedlings, approximately in 14:1 ratio. Nevertheless, survival rate of these seedlings was lower
than holm oak seedling survival rate. On the assumption that it could be differences between
plots forested and not forested in 1956 by sessile oak forestland and sessile oak and holm oak
seedlings, statistical analysis didn’t show meaningful differences (Mann-Whitney test for sessile oak and holm oak seedlings data: Z= 0.480; p= 0.631 and Z= –1.121; p= 0.262, respectively).
4. Conclusions
It’s difficult to interpret the actual Ridaura landscape exclusively from botanical arguments according to observed land use and land cover changes. Changes in forest landscapes, both land cover
changes and land use changes, aren’t only linked to a single cause. In this line, only one disciplinary
point of view results insufficient to analyze environmental changes’ complexity and for this reason
the integration of disciplines for to analyze the landscape changes is necessary to take into account
the complex dynamics of biophysical and social-economical driving forces. For the methodology
of these kinds of driving forces-based models, traditional knowledge and cultural heritage are outstanding resources. Their role is not only like complementary information sources (sometimes
there are incomplete or non-existent), but like active inputs and key criteria for to recover the environmental history and to understand the environmental changes in our forest landscapes.
Related to this study case, three key driving forces that are inter-linked have been identified: demographic trends, political decisions and economic dynamics.
The mas of Ridaura has underwent demographic and ownership changes that can be translated into
changes of social actors and their wishes and needs. Basic changes in wishes and needs of Ridaura’s
social actors were related to the role of tenants and landowners of the recent history’s different
stages. Since second last 50 years, the mas of Ridaura has underwent the transition from rural traditional way of life, based on primary sector activities oriented to self-consumption and land custody
by catalan traditional rent lifestyle (masoveria), to a model based only in residential land use (usually second households) carried out by the landowners (a trend similar to other Alt Montseny’s
villages and masos that were uninhabited during second half of the 20th century), and based in the
role of a public entity characterized by non-intervention politics.
The political decision of to declare the massif of Montseny like a protected area and the existence
of public ownership surface determined landscape management in Ridaura. Taken into account the
relative brevity of County Council ownership (since year 1991), problems related to official organization troubles (slowness, lack of budget, etc.) have determined that there weren’t any intervention
in the public ownership area land cover.
At the same time, although traditional land uses are allowed, there weren’t agrarian, farming or
forestry intervention over landscape. Regional and global agrarian and farming dynamics, especially
since the decade of 1960s, cornered to subsistence primary economies in terms of activities’ costbenefit, like in Ridaura study case. These dynamics, combined with other circumstances like hilly
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Integrating traditional knowledge into global change analysis models. The case of Ridaura sessile oak forestland.
orography or modest familiar economies that difficult the access to items like mechanization, forced
the decrease of agrarian and farming works. In similar circumstances, forestry and charcoal activity
went into crisis as a result of fossil fuels expansion during the decade of 1960s. Barcelona’s influence area reduced the demand and forced the abandon of these activities in the massif of Montseny,
including Ridaura, main supplier of these raw materials. This land use change, characterized by
the abandon of primary sector activities and the replacement by residential use, represented the
transition from an agrarian model (characterized by self-consumption agrarian and farming works
and firewood and charcoal use) to a post-industrial model (characterized by third-sector society);
in this study case, the transition between global change general clusters was direct and without
signs of the industrial model, considered intermediate to two cited ones, and characterized by the
increase of primary sector activity inputs (chemistry and technology) and fossil fuel use.
The decrease and abandon of primary sector activities was a key factor in Ridaura’s vegetation
dynamics. The reduction of human appropriation that determined in the past a clearer landscape
structure than actual land cover, facilitated that these areas were settled by vegetation, a process
called secondary succession (Bazzaz, 1996). As a result there were land cover changes based on the
increase of forestland surface by the afforestation of scrublands and, mainly, of agrarian and farming areas, and on the increase of vertical barked biomass.
Related to biophysical driving forces, the most influential effects were not only linked with the
increase of temperature, process that usually has been identified like the main climate change consequence. In fact, the temperature increase (determined in 1.2-1.4º C during the second half of the
20th century in the massif of Montseny; Peñuelas & Boada, 2003) plus the absences of meaningful
rainfall regime’s changes determined an arider climate scenario. In these conditions esclerophyl
species were favoured in front of atlantic species, determining a biome replacement phenomenon
based in the flora taxons’ shift to favourable environmental conditions. In this study case, the biome replacement process is between mediterranean land covers over eurosiberian ones, a situation
called mediterranization, effect already documented in the massif of Montseny (Peñuelas & Boada,
2003). This trend was difficult to set in synchronic analysis models due to the complex nature of
change process, determined by a broad group of biotic (predation, pests, etc.) and abiotic conditions (light, temperatures, etc.) that couldn’t be 100% monitored at the same concision level. Even
so, results obtained like the increase of mediterranean chorology taxons between 1966 and 2005 and
the survival troubles observed in young sessile oak trees and seedlings suggested some uncertainties for the future: at mid-term and long term it could be possible a scenario where young sessile
oaks low fitness linked to competence (with holm oaks and with themselves), the death of old sessile oaks, the decrease of sessile oak seedlings and the increase of mediterranean taxons (including
holm oak seedlings) definitely determine the biome replacement process and the land cover shift
5. Acknowledgements
J. Barber (Natural Park of Montseny-County Council), A. Pèlachs (Geography Department– UAB),
J. Peñuelas, M. Eugenio (CREAF-UAB), E. Prat, N. Kosoy (ICTA-UAB); and especially thanks to
the “walking libraries”, our wise old men & women: J.M. Pons i Guri (†) (Fidel Fita historic archives,
Arenys de Mar), Jaume (Can Bordoi), Pere & Ana (Can Fèlix), Lola (Can Grau), Pep (Can Pla), P.
Arenes & J. Sibina (Sant Celoni) and Jordi & Adelaida (Can Ridaura).
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6. References
Bazzaz, F.A. (1996). Plants in changing environments. Linking physiological, population, and
community ecology. United Kingdom. Cambridge University Press.
Boada, M. (2002). El Montseny, cinquanta anys d’evolució dels paisatges. Barcelona. Publicacions
de l’Abadia de Montserrat.
Catton, W.R. Dunlap, R.E. (1978). “Environmental Sociology: A new paradigm”. American
Sociology, 13 (41-49).
Devall, B., Sessions, G. (1985). Deep Ecology: Living as if Nature Mattered. EEUU. Gibbs Smith.
Eckersley, R. (1992). Environmentalism and political theory. United Kingdom. UCL.
Fagan, W.F. Fortin, M.J. Soykan, C. (2003). “Integrating edge detection and dynamic modeling
in quantitative analyses of ecological boundaries”. Bioscience Vol. 53 No. 8 (730-738).
Hansen, A. Di Castri, F. (eds) (1992). Landscape boundaries: consequences for biotic diversity and
ecological flows. EEUU. Springer-Verlag.
Lapraz, G. (1966): Recherches phytosociologiques en Catalogne. Collectanea Botanica. Institut
Botànic de Barcelona. Barcelona.
Mayor, X. Rodà, F. (1993): Resposta de creixement de l’alzina (Quercus ilex L) a una aclarida de
tipus comercial al Montseny. III i IV Trobada d’estudiosos del Montseny. Diputació de Barcelona.
Servei de Parcs Naturals.
Naess, A. (1989). Ecology, Community and Lifestyle. United Kingdom. Cambridge University
Press.
Peñuelas, J. Boada, M. (2003). “A global change-induced biome shift in the Montseny mountains
(NE Spain)”. Global Change Biology 9: 131-140.
Retana, J. Riba, M. Castell, C. Espelta, J.M. (1992): Regeneration by sprouting of holm oak
(Quercus ilex) stands exploited by selection thinning. Vegetatio 99-100: 355-364.
Sessions, G. (1995). Deep ecology fort he 21st Century: Readings on the Philosophy and Practice of
the New Environmentalism. EEUU. Shambala Books.
Stavrakakis, Y. (1999). “Fantasía verde y lo Real de la Naturaleza. Elementos de una crítica lacaniana del discurso ideológico verde”. Tópicos en Educación Ambiental 1(1) 47-58. México. Mundi
Prensa.
Toledo, V. (1998). “Estudiar lo rural desde una pespectiva interdisciplinaria. El enfoque ecológicosociológico”. In VALDIVIA, E. (ed). Memorias del V Congreso Latinoamericano de Sociología
Rural. México. UACH.
Turner II, B.L. Gómez Sal, A. González Bernáldez, F. Di Castri, F. (1995). Global Land Use Change.
A perspective from the Columbian Encounter. Madrid. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones
Científicas (CSIC).
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Linking physical, economic and institutional constraints
of land use change and forest conservation in the hills of Nepal
Krishna Bahadur K.C.
Department of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the Tropics and Subtropics
University of Hohenheim, Institute 490c, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
This paper analyses the changes in spatial patterns of agricultural land use during the 1976–2000
period along the altitudinal gradients in a watershed in Nepal. Using information of land use derived from satellite images from 1976, 1990 and 2000, we examine the land change pattern. During
the 1976–2000 period, agricultural land use increased by 35% at the cost of loss of forestland. Agricultural expansion was most conspicuous at higher elevations (1150–2000 m). About 36%, 18% and
6% of forestlands were converted into agricultural activities from higher, middle and lower elevation
respectively in 1990-00 period. Results of spatial distribution of living standard parameters including farm family income, food availability, obtained from family survey, shows the decreasing trend
as the elevation increases whereas percentage of food bought shows increasing trend. In this way
it was found that, forests lost were smaller that were located around high-income areas with good
quality of agricultural land and near by administrative centre compared to areas located around lowincome areas with low quality of agricultural land and far from the administrative centre. Additionally, regression model is constructed, for linking the socioeconomic variables with the conversion of
forestland into agricultural activities, breaking the study area into smaller zones. The spatial trajectories of these zones are then contrasted, with particular attention to the socioeconomic condition
and institutional arrangements governing access to land resources. Study finds that while overall
land change patterns in the region are largely explained by elevation and socioeconomic condition
of people living adjacent to the forestland, more specific, sub regional, trajectories reflect the signatures of institutions governing access to land. As sustainability of watershed is dependent on forests, continued depletion of forest resources will result in poor economic returns from agriculture
to local people together with loss of ecosystem services.
1. Introduction
Forestlands have important functions from an ecological perspective and provide services that are
essential to maintain the life-support system. The forests of mountains not only supports of residents in the regions but also much more people residing downhill side (Rao and Pant, 2001). However, expansions of agricultural land at the cost of lost of forestland are common phenomenon in
the mountain zones of developing countries. Many studies have been conducted to demonstrate the
land use change in the mountains e.g. (Tekle and Hedlund, 2000; Gibson et al. 2000; Gautam et al,
2002 and 2004). This study aims at analyses the changes in spatial patterns of agricultural land use
during the 1976–2000 periods along the altitudinal gradients in a watershed in Nepal. The quantitative evidences of land use land cover changes observed provide important insights into the change
that occurred in forest area and other major land uses of Galaudu watershed in between 1976 and
2000 (see K.C., 2005). For complete understanding of land use changes, such studies need to be
supplemented by investigations of factors causing the changes and their effects (ESCAP, 1997).
Ecological factors are constraints in the ability to manage forest resources, while socioeconomic,
demographic and institutional factors play important roles in changing the resource use patterns.
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Theme 6. TRADITIONS, CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
This paper addresses this concern by analyzing spatial relationships between overtime changes in
land uses and some major ecological and economic factors, and institutional policies that are expected to have influence on changes in the watershed land use during the period.
2. Methods
2.1. Study Area
The study area constitutes a mountainous watershed named Galaudu watershed situated in
Dhading district of Nepal. Most part of the watershed is the mountainous region under hill
forest and upland cultivation. The soils of the watershed are loam, sandy loam, clay loam, silt
loam and sandy clay loam. Agricultural lands in the valleys are under intensive management with
multiple cropping systems and are mostly irrigated (ICIMOD, 1994). This high variability in
the ecological and economic conditions makes the watershed an appropriate site to study land
use dynamics and factors associated with it.
Figure 1.
Location of study area
2.2. Database development and analysis
Land use map of 1976, 1990 and 2000 was obtained by performing supervised digital image
processing for satellite images of respected year over the study area from Landsat. Land use
change pattern was examined using information of land use derived from satellite images from
1976, 1990 and 2000. The approach adopted here in order to analyze the spatial relationships
between overtime changes in land uses and some major ecological and economic factors, and institutional policies that are expected to have influence on changes in the watershed land use is to
begin by examining the degree to which patterns of agricultural conversion can be attributed to
a set of factors that have been identified as significant at broader scales in Nepal and elsewhere,
namely topography, prior land use patterns, socioeconomic condition and institution governing
access to land (Gautam et al., 2004; K.C., 2005; K.C. and Doppler, 2004).
Socioeconomic indicators were obtained conducting the family survey by diving the watershed
into three zones: lowland, middle land and highland based on their characteristic. 90 families,
30 from each sub study zone were randomly selected and information were gathered conducting
family interview with the help of structured standardize questionnaires. GIS techniques were
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Linking physical, economic and institutional constraints of land use change and forest conservation in the hills of Nepal
used to obtain the spatial characteristics of socioeconomic data from randomly selected farm
household survey data as well as to establish the linkage between the socioeconomic data to the
location specific biophysical condition. During the family survey, the geographical position of
each sample household was recorded using the global position system (GPS). Since the survey
data was available at point level for the sampled household only, the regionalization and spatial
representation required the creation of surfaces from the sample points. Based on the randomly
selected family’s location in the area, the spatial distribution of aggregated socioeconomic parameter such as subsistence food availability and food from the market, farm and family income
were prepared (see K.C. 2005 for detail).
The land use polygon themes for 1976 and 2000 generated from the land use assessment were
overlaid in Arc View GIS Version 3.2 (ESRI, 1997) and location and extent of land use change
were mapped and area of changes computed. The polygon theme of changes generated by overlaying the two land use themes (1976 and 2000) was then overlaid with the following GIS layers
one at a time to see the spatial relationships between land use change and the respective factors
including: i) elevation zones, ii) slope steepness, iii) 2500 m interval road buffers, iv) local economy, v) forest governance arrangements, and vi) socioeconomic condition. Finally, a regression
model is constructed, for linking the socioeconomic condition with the conversion of forestland
into agricultural activities, breaking the study area into smaller zones.
3. Results
3.1. Land use land covers dynamics
Land uses have changed in the past. During ten year periods from 1990 to 2000 forestland declined by 10.6 % while agricultural land increased. The annual rate of forest loss in the study area
was about 1.06 percent. Land uses change may be attributed to the change in spatial location of
land. The change of land use along altitudinal gradients in determining the type of forest vegetation that occurs at different physiographic regions across Nepal has been widely documented
(e.g. Jackson, 1994 and 1998; BPP, 1995). Little is known, however, about the association of
altitudinal gradients with over time changes in forest cover. The conversion of forestland to
agricultural activities was not similar through out the watershed (Figure 2.). In the highlands
zone more forestland were converted to agricultural land as compared to lower elevation area.
The results of this study, obtained by overlaying a polygon theme of sub study zones with polygon theme of land use changes during 1990-00 showed that higher elevation forests were more
dynamic compared to lower elevations. Rate of forestland converted to agricultural activities
were at least two-times higher compared to located at lower elevation (lowland) areas (Table 1.).
Around 36 percent of the forest area in 1990 within higher elevation zone (highland) was converted into agricultural land where as about 18 percent forest area from middle altitude and only
6 percent forest area from lower elevation (lowland) was converted in to the agricultural land in
the same period.
Table 1. Change in land use by elevation range in between 1976-2000
Elevation
range (m.)
Forest (ha)
Lowland agriculture (ha)
Upland agriculture (ha)
1976-00
1990-00
1976-00
1990-00
1976-00
1990-00
< 650
-158.7
-24.0
+187.7
-4.8
-36.1
+19.0
651-1150
-345.7
-122.3
+212.4
+7.9
+130.8
+114.2
> 1150
-130.1
-140.2
-3.1
+16.9
+134.1
+123.3
391
Theme 6. TRADITIONS, CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Figure 2. Biophysical and socioeconomic layer in 2003 (a) Land use change in 1990-2000 period (b) Altitudinal gradients (c) Spatial distribution of family income (d) Spatial distribution of value of food
crop production (e) 2500m Road buffer (f) 2500m Market buffer
3.2. Linking land use dynamics to economical, ecological and institution factors
3.2.1. Relationships between lands use dynamics and altitudinal gradients
Conversion of forestland to agricultural activities was not similar through out the watershed.
Higher amount of forestland from the higher elevation area (>1150m) were converted to
agricultural land as compared to lower elevation (low land) area. The results of this study,
obtained by overlaying a polygon theme of elevation zones with polygon theme of land use
changes during 1976-00 showed that higher elevation forests were more dynamic compared
to lower elevations. Rate of forestland converted to agricultural activities were at least twotimes higher compared to located at lower elevation (<650m) areas (Table 1.). Around 34
and 36 percent of the forest area in 1976 and 1990 within higher elevation zone (>1150
m.) was converted into agricultural land where as about 37 and 18 percent forest area from
middle altitude (651-1150m.) and only 29 and 6 percent forest area from lower elevation
(< 650m) was converted in to the agricultural land in the same period (Table 1.).
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Linking physical, economic and institutional constraints of land use change and forest conservation in the hills of Nepal
Two reasons may explain higher amount of forest loss in higher elevation areas. A lower
amount of forest loss in lower elevation zones suggests that forest conservation efforts by
the local communities and concerned agencies played important roles by bringing positive
outcomes in the balance of forestry land use in the watershed. The same could not happen
at higher elevations (highland) because of the inability of community-based forest management programs to cover those areas and virtually non-existent forest monitoring by the forest department thereby leading to an open access condition of the high altitude forests. The
existing model of community forestry systems was unable to bring high elevation forests
under management (Gautam et al., 2004).
3.2.2. Relationships between lands use dynamics and slope
The results show that among the six categories, highest level of forest loss occurred in
slopes of >30 percent and least in slopes of <5 percent. Due to the highest percentage of
forest area were losses from higher slope areas both upland and lowland agricultural activities were expanded in those marginal slope areas (Table 2.). Lower level of forest losses in
lower level of slopes might be due to smaller percentages of forest areas in the smaller slope
classes and the location of these areas near to the road and local administrative centre due
to which monitoring was at significant level and the communities’ involvement in forest
protection and management could be another reason.
Table 2. Change in land use by slope in between 1976-2000
Forest (ha)
Upland agriculture (ha)
Slope
class
1976
2000
Change
0-5
32.4
11.5
-20.9
5-10
19.8
10.5
-9.3
10-20
65.3
34.5
-30.8
20-30
128.6
85.7
-42.9
1976
Lowland agriculture (ha)
2000
Change
1976
2000
Change
33.4
60.3
+26.9
20.4
13.9
-6.5
14.9
23.4
+8.5
7.7
10.6
+2.9
45.4
66.8
+21.4
33.4
37.3
+3.9
63.3
96.3
+33.0
57.1
74.2
+17.1
30-50
611.7
388.8
-223.9
161.8
289.7
+127.9
203.0
281.7
+78.7
>50
965.6
657.7
-307.9
124.4
305.2
+180.8
120.8
255.3
+134.5
3.2.3. Relationships between land use dynamics and accessibility
The effect of accessibility on the changes in forest area reflected increasing trend of conversion of forest area into agricultural activities with the increase distance from roads. 70% forest area in 1976 within 2500m distance from roads remained unchanged until 2000, whereas
only 44% forest areas located 5000m far from roads were unchanged during the same period
(Table 3.). Proportionately lower amount of forest loss in areas of better accessibility, however, is generally an unexpected trend in natural condition. Higher concentration of forest
management activities in locations closer to the roads might be a reason. Likewise effective
monitoring of the community forests by local user groups could be another reason for improved forest condition in relatively accessible areas (Gautam et al., 2004).
Table 3. Change in land use by accessibility in between 1976-2000
Road buffer
(m.)
Forest (ha)
Lowland agriculture (ha)
Upland agriculture (ha)
1976-00
1990-00
1976-00
1990-00
1976-00
1990-00
< 2500
-194.0
-38.1
+193.2
-3.5
-5.6
+41.0
2500-5000
-124.0
-30.3
+95.5
+9.6
+26.6
+19.8
5000-7500
-253.0
-146.0
+124.0
+11.6
+129.3
+134.6
-64.4
-73.3
-15.2
+11.6
+79.4
+61.6
> 7500
393
Theme 6. TRADITIONS, CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
3.2.4. Land use dynamics and local economy
Forestry requirements and forest management objectives of semi-urban residents’ area are
different from those of rural people in most part of the watershed. Urban areas can thus be
characterized as having market-oriented economy, where forest management objectives are
mainly for watershed protection (Doppler, 1998). An overlay of polygon theme prepared by
creating a 2500-m buffer from local market centre with the land use polygon theme of changes in forest area during 1976-00 revealed that higher forest area were converted from forestland to agricultural activities those were located at rural area than that of located in suburban
economy (Table 4.) in between 1976 and 2000. Less deterioration and loss of forest areas
were observed at suburban economy whereas high deterioration and loss of forestland were
observed at rural areas having subsistence economy to the rest of the watershed.
Table 4. Change in land use by local economy in between 1976-2000
Local
economy
Forest (ha)
Lowland agriculture (ha)
Upland agriculture (ha)
1976-00
1990-00
1976-00
1990-00
1976-00
1990-00
1
-89.6
-98.5
-15.6
11.6
105.9
87.0
2
-246.0
-126.0
137.7
15.2
106.8
110.6
3
-225.0
-63.0
185.5
13.7
35.9
48.0
4
-73.7
-0.3
89.8
-11.1
-18.9
11.4
Note: 1 = Market oriented; 2 = Moderately market oriented; 3 = Less market oriented; 4 = Rural area
3.2.5. Land use dynamics and institutions
According to Gautam et al., 2002 VDCs with formalized community forests had significantly higher shrub lands-to-forest conversion during 1978-92 compared to the VDCs without formal community forests. The fact that proportionately less amount of forest lost and
degraded those were managed with the involvement of local forest user groups supports
the argument that legal transfer of resource ownership is an important precondition for
successful collective outcomes at the local level. One of the distinct differences between
community forests and government forests in this watershed is the involvement of local
communities in forest conservation in the former case. From this point of view, the findings of this study indicate that a joint investment by local forest users and local agencies
may improve the prospects for successful forest conservation at local level (Gautam et al.,
2004). Conversations with local forestry staff and local people revealed that the forested
areas under the government control are virtually in “open access” condition as the district
forestry staffs are mostly engaged in community forestry activities after the implementation of community forestry program. So the relatively high loss of forest area under state
control can be explained by their condition of open access.
3.2.6. Linking land use change to socioeconomic variables
Besides the biophysical condition and institutional framework for the management of forestlands, socio-economic condition of people, especially food crop production and food security
situation, living adjacent to forest land was presumed to affect the conversion of forest to agricultural activities. This is because in some of the locations of the watershed only a certain
type of upland crop can produced due to the poor potential capacity and low or negligible
land management practices which ultimately gives low level of food crop production this
then leads to the higher level of food insecurity of the people especially at higher elevation
areas, this could forced them to extending their agricultural lands towards the forest areas.
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Linking physical, economic and institutional constraints of land use change and forest conservation in the hills of Nepal
Forest lost is not continuous variables like crop production, forest lost were detected as
smaller scattered patches from previous forestland across the watershed. So, to model the
forest lost from socioeconomic variables, study area is divided into 10 smaller zones base
don the elevation and the percentages of forest losses and value of crop production from the
respective zones were summarized using the arc view GIS then information was exported
into spreadsheet then to SPSS then correlation between the crop production and the percent forest losses were observed. Result shows that there was a significantly high correlation
between crop productions to the forest lost. Thus, a regression model was constructed by
taking percentage forest loss as dependent variable and value of crop production as explanatory variable for the percent forest loss at zone level.
Table 5. Effect of food production on the conversion of forestland into agriculture
Variables
Coefficient
S.E
T Stat
Sig.
Intercept
58.155
10.551
5.512
0.001
Value of food production (NRS)
-0.0171
0.005
-3.724
0.006
R-Square = 0.634 F (test) = 13.871 Sig. = 0.006
The result shows that there is a very strong relationship between expansions of agricultural
land and the food crop production. About 63% of the percent expansion of agricultural land
at zone level can be explained by food crop production scenarios of the farmers (Table 5.).
Food crop productions have strong negative effects on the conversion of forestland into
agricultural activities. This is comparable to the actual situation because poor quality of
agricultural land gives low return, which is not sufficient for full fill the farmer’s food requirement so they have to extent their agricultural land towards the forest area.
The analysis demonstrates the high need of the improvement of food supply situation in
the area which would helps to protect remaining forest area in the watershed for achieving
the objective of integrated watershed development including both people and resources
by improving the quality of upland agricultural fields through the soil and water conservation activities together with other rural development activities in the watershed. Results of
spatial distribution of living standard parameters including farm family income, food availability, obtained from family survey, shows the decreasing trend as the elevation increases
whereas percentage of food bought shows increasing trend.
4. Conclusions
The GIS-based investigation of the spatial relationships between land use and ecological, economic
factors and institutional policies revealed that more pronounced changes within the forest area of
the watershed in between 1976 and 2000 took place in high-elevation, high slope inclination that are
far from the roads. Of the two governance types that were in existence in 2000, proportionately less
forest loss took place in forest managed with the involvement of the local forest user groups. Forest area under direct government control and without any local collective action occurred relatively
higher amount of forest loss.
In this study land use change (expansion of agricultural area at the cost of lost of forest land) was
found direct negative correlation with the food crop production. However, more still need to be
done because there are some limitation for example in this study point level socio-economic data
were collected from micro survey and continuous thematic socio-economic layers were developed
395
Theme 6. TRADITIONS, CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
by assuming each and every pixel of watershed has some socio-economic information. But if it
can be distinguished only for the agricultural land and see the impact will be more meaningful.
Similarly, due to the difficulties and still unavailability of modeling and simulating the possibility
of a changing land use pattern in a grid cell basis. This study used the aggregating information at
elevation zone level and relations were observed. So further research is necessary to develop the
methodology that really can assess probability of land use and change pattern at grid cell level using
socio-economic information will greatly help to the research community and achieving the goals of
both sustainable natural resources management and people livelihood together.
This study also demonstrated the complexity and interrelationships involved in forest governance
and management. The findings indicate that a joint effort by the government and the forest user
groups improves the prospects for successful forest conservation at local level. The study has been
able to provide information on the influence of some major factors in bringing over time changes
in land use land cover. Such studies, supplemented with more location specific in-depth studies,
would greatly help to refine our understanding of the association between land use dynamics and
community-based institutions.
5. References
BPP, 1995. Biodiversity Profiles of Midhills Physiographic Zone, Biodiversity Profiles Project (BPP)
Publication No. 13, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Doppler, W., 1998. Setting the Frame: The environmental Perspectives in Rural and Farming
Systems Analyses. In proceedings of the Third European Symposium on Rural and Farming Systems analyses: Environmental Perspectives. Hohenheim, Germany, March 1998.
ESCAP, 1997. Guidelines and Manual on Land-use Planning and Practices in Watershed Management and Disaster Reduction. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP),
United Nations.
ESRI 1997. Understanding GIS the ARC/INFO Method. Environmental System Research Institute (ESRI). USA.
Gautam, A. P., Webb, E. L., Eiumnoh, A., 2002. GIS assessment of land use-land cover changes associated with community forestry implementation in the Middle Hills of Nepal. Mountain
Research and Development 22(1): 63-69.
Gautam, A. P., Shivakoti, G.P., Webb, E. L, 2004. Forest cover change, physiography, local economy,
and institution in a mountain watershed in Nepal. Environmental Management 33(1): 48-61.
Gibson, C., McKean, M. A., Ostrom, E. (Eds.), 2000. People and Forests: Communities, Institutions, and Governance. The MIT Press.
ICIMOD, 1994. Application of GIS in rural development planning in Nepal. International Centre
for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal.
Jackson, J. K, 1994. Manual of Afforestation in Nepal. (in two volumes) Forest Research and Survey
Center, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Jackson, W. J., Tamrakar, R. M., Hunt, S., Shepherd, K. R., 1998. Land-use changes in two Middle
Hill districts of Nepal. Mountain Research and Development 18(3): 193-12.
K.C., Krishna Bahadur and Doppler, W. 2004. Integrating micro level and remote sensing data in
GIS analyses for natural resources management and socio-economic development: In proceeding
of International Conference on Rural Poverty Reduction through Research for Development and
Transformation. Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany. http://www.tropentag.de/2004/abstracts/
full/115.pdf
396
Linking physical, economic and institutional constraints of land use change and forest conservation in the hills of Nepal
K. C., Krishna Bahadur and Doppler, W., 2005. Modeling farm income using remotely sensed data
and GIS in a rural mountainous watershed in Nepal. In proceeding of GIS planet 2005 (II international conference and exhibition on geographic information system). Estoril, Portugal.
K. C., Krishna Bahadur 2005. Combining socio-economic and spatial methodologies in rural resources and livelihood development: A case from mountains of Nepal. In: Doppler, W. and Bauer,
S. (Eds.), Farming and rural System Economics. Vol. 69, Margraf Publishers, Germany.
Rao, K.S., Pant, R., 2001. Land use dynamics and landscape change pattern in a typical micro
watershed in the mid elevation zone of central Himalaya, India. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 86,
113-123.
Tekle, K., Hedlund, L., 2000. Land cover changes between 1958 and 1986 in Kalu District, Southern Wello, Ethiopia. Mountain Research and Development 20(1). 42-51.
397
Theme 7.
CONSERVATION
OF TRADITIONAL
FOREST KNOWLEDGE
The Effects of Traditional and Contemporary Forestry Understanding
on Drinking Water: Istanbul Example
Sultan Bekiroglu1 & Omer Eker2
1
Istanbul University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forestry Economics
2
Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University, Faculty of Forestry
Bahcekoy-Istanbul-Turkey, e-mail: [email protected]
Department of Forestry Economics, Kahramanmaras-Turkey, e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Istanbul, located between Asia and Europe, has always been a strategically important city. Due to
its geographical location a rapidly increasing population has historically caused Istanbul to experience water shortages. The level of demand for water has always been higher than the supply. For
this reason there are evidences of water and forest arrangements by various civilizations in order
to protect, improve and arrange the utility of water resources. In the earlier civilizations’ time (Roman, Byzantine and the Ottoman Empire) the need for water was met by small dams, which were
built in the forest. However, inadequate drinking water levels in the city also created a need to transfer water from neighbouring watersheds through waterways. To protect the waterways and water
resources from any damage settlement in the forestlands was also prohibited. In this study, water,
one of the important outputs of forest resources, and water regulation during the Ottoman and
contemporary periods were presented. Then the increasing importance of water production within
the multiple use contexts of the forest was explained by showing its significance in the designing
of forest management plans. As a result, within the traditional and contemporary regulations and
arrangements context contradictions about water resources were examined and discussed. Changes
in the understanding of water management in history and the effects of these changes in water
protection and improvement were described. The results of recognizing water in the boundaries of
forests as a part of forest output were also explained using Istanbul as an example.
Keywords: Drinking water production, Forestry, Relation between forestry and water production in
Istanbul.
1. Introduction
Water is one of our most important and vital natural resources. It is a finite resource, which means
that the total amount of water is limited. Human beings are the most threatening factor for water
resources. The increase of human population in cities makes clean water a critical problem. A large
proportion of freshwater is provided from the mountainous areas where the vegetation cover is forest. Therefore protection of forestlands and watersheds has a special importance. However, because
the land in and near cities can be allocated to more profitable uses, watersheds and forests are under
major threat.
Turkey, with a population of 72 million (DIE, 2006), is considerably limited in water resources. Utilizable water potential is about 200 billion m³ (DPT, 2001). Having a high population, limitations in
terms of preventing soil and water pollution and less precipitation than the average of world in general require authorities and people to pay more attention to available water resources in Turkey.
Besides the rapid population increase, a huge migration from villages to towns is also being experienced in Turkey. Among the cities Istanbul has the highest migration rate with 400 000 persons
every year (DIE, 2006). Its social, cultural, economic, historical and politic status presents a great
401
Theme 7. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
attraction and various opportunities for the people who live outside the city. Changes in human
value judgement have also caused conversion of forest areas and watersheds to alternative utilizations where high economic benefits were gained. As a result conservation of forest and watershed
lands in Istanbul is now a most important issue faced by the administrative organizations. For this
reason various regulations to protect and improve the utilization of water resources have been applied throughout the history of Istanbul. However, these measures today are not as powerful as they
used to be once and this causes exploitation and destruction of water resources.
1.1. Relation between forests and drinking water production
Fresh water is produced in the watershed where natural forests are located. Across the globe,
there are numerous examples of the vital role that forested watersheds play in protecting drinking water supplies (Geray; 2004; Dudley and Stolton, 2003). Forests can also store water and
delay its flow towards the lowlands and to the sea. Forest soils act as a reservoir as they usually
have a higher water storage capacity than non-forest soils. Moreover, forest vegetation keeps
water back and delays soil saturation (UNECE, 2004).
Evapotranspiration from forests of a certain age can remove a considerable proportion of storm
rainfall. Surface run-off can therefore be prevented or slowed down, even in high precipitation
events. The effect of flood reduction is particularly relevant at the local scale for small watersheds (UNECE, 2004).
Forests tend to slow down the passage of water and encourage the deposition of sediments, thus
reducing sediment transport, sedimentation of waterways and water pollution (SAEFL et al,
2002). In forests, high infiltration rates, interception of rain by forest canopies, the developed
root systems and coverage of soils by forest vegetation and leaf litter counteract soil erosion and
reduce the risk of landslides. Sediment retention and erosion reduction also have positive effects
on infrastructure, such as decreasing deposition of suspended soil particles in water treatment
installations, storage structures, pumping equipment and turbines, which in turn increases their
operating lives and reduces their operation and maintenance costs (UNECE, 2004).
1.2. Forestry and Drinking Water Production Relation in Turkey
Due to rapid population growth and rural poverty, forests and grasslands were heavily damaged in Turkey. Therefore the natural balance in watersheds became highly deteriorated and the
amount of sediment reached 500 million tones per year, reducing the life span of some dams
from 100 to 15-20 years. In order to regulate water functions and avoid soil erosion, afforestation
operations are applied to the environs of recently established dams. (GAP Projesi, 2002).
To resolve this unfavourable situation the General Directorate of Forest allocated 378 875 hectare as “protected areas”. However, authorities point out that technically the amount of protected areas in Turkey is approximately 3 042 489 hectares. The General Directorate of Nature
Conservation and National Parks is the responsible organization for the conservation of “protected areas” in Turkey (DPT, 2001). Turkey has various problems related to the management
of freshwater resources produced in watershed and forested areas. Among these unplanned and
heavy construction for residential purposes is the most common problem.
1.3. Forestry and Drinking Water Production Relation in Istanbul
Istanbul’s location is both unique and strategic. For more than a thousand years this was a centre of the civilized world, a capital of three great empires: the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman.
402
The Effects of Traditional and Contemporary Forestry Understanding on Drinking Water: Istanbul Example
Built on the edge of two continents, Asia and Europe, throughout history this was a bridge between the Orient and the trading centres of Europe and the Middle East. Connecting the Black
Sea to the Sea of Marmara is the Bosphorous Strait, a narrow fifteen-mile long waterway, cutting
through the heart of Istanbul (Anonymous, 2006). As new arrivals pour into the city, its water
supply begins to suffer. The surrounding watershed is still productive and unpolluted, but reservoirs within Istanbul are surrounded by illegal settlements. Inadequate sewage facilities threaten
Istanbul’s drinking water. The impact of mass migration on the city’s infrastructure is enormous
(Anonymous, 2006).
As seen in Table 1., the population of Istanbul has increased faster than the population of Turkey. According to results from the 1927 census, the population of Istanbul was 5.82 percent of
Turkey’s total population. This proportion increased to 15.7 percent in 2005 and the population
of Istanbul exceeded 11 000 000.
Table 1. Population and Population Growth Rates in Istanbul and Turkey
Census
Population
Population
Growth Rate
(%)
Years
Turkey
1927
Proportion
(%)
Istanbul
Turkey
Istanbul
13 648 000
794 444
-
-
5.8
1950
20 947 183
1 166 477
53.5
46.8
5.6
1960
27 754 820
1 882 092
32.5
61.3
6.8
1970
35 605 176
3 019 032
28.3
60.4
8.5
1980
44 736 957
4 741 890
25.6
57.1
10.6
1985
50 664 458
5 842 985
13.2
23.2
11.5
1990
56 473 035
7 309 190
12.0
25.1
12.9
1995
62 526 000
8 417 000
10.7
15.2
13.5
2000
67 803 920
10 018 735
8.4
19.0
14.8
2005
72 065 000
11 332 000
6.3
13.1
15.7
Except for 1927-1950, Istanbul’s population growth rate has been higher than that for Turkey as
a whole. This growth in population is closely related to rapid industrialisation and urbanisation
in the Istanbul Region (Eker and Ok, 2005).
Over the past 100 years, the world population has grown three times. With the rise in population of Istanbul has also increased from less than 800,000 in 1927 to around 12 million in 2005.
In this case Istanbul’s population has grown fifteen times in only seventy years (Eker and Ok,
2005). According to a projection, population of Istanbul is estimated to be 15 million in 2010,
16.5 million in 2020, 17.7 million in 2030 and 18.7 million in 2040.
At the municipal level, providing and transporting of drinking water, collecting and removal of
wastewater and protection of water resources in Istanbul are carried out by ISKI (Istanbul Water
and Sewage Works). ISKI’s authorization and service area was limited with the boundary of Metropolitan Municipality of Istanbul. However, demand for water with the increasing population
in Istanbul caused ISKI to provide more water from outside the border of the city. Therefore,
with the decision of Ministry Committee ISKI’s work and service area was extended outside of
the Istanbul’s border (Su Vakfı, 2006). Currently there are 15 dams with 9500 kilometers water
network in Istanbul (ISKI, 2005). However, these huge investments are not satisfactory to meet
the needs of Istanbul residents. With the investment in and out of the city borders ISKI cannot
increase the amount of water supply to the desired level.
403
Theme 7. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
A comparative study in Istanbul water supply and demand was carried out by assuming that
the daily water need per person is constant and the increase of water demand in 5 years would
be 50%. Findings show that water deficiency level would be drastically high. In fact, accepted
current water consumption level per capita is quite low (approximately 109 m³/year). Moreover,
possibility of increasing current water level by 25% per 5 years is considerably difficult. If the
current annual per capita water consumption level 109 m³ continues, today’s water supply will
need to be increased 374% in 2010, 411% in 2020, 441% in 2030 and 466% in 2040.
Another major problem is the lack of coordination between the organizations that manage forests and water resources. The General Directorate of Forest has reserved the areas where water
production was supplied in “steady protected lands” status. The General Directorate of Nature
Conservation and National Parks is responsible for protecting these areas while ISKI is responsible for the management of dams and lakes on these protected forestlands (Cevre ve Orman
Bakanligi, 2006). As a rule these two organizations must be in collaboration. However, there is
no agreement between these organizations on water production and protection. There are also
some recreational areas within the boundaries of these protected forestlands that are managed
by the General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks. Heavy use of these areas
by people causes damage on both forest and water resources and it also restrains water production function of forests.
The selection of forest and grasslands by people who migrate to Istanbul is an old habit with
deep historical roots. Most of the migrants are rural villagers. They believe that settlement in
these areas is their natural right. This belief encourages more migrants to come to the city and
illegally establish new houses. (Inalcik, 2000). The most dramatic example of green space loss
has occurred by the illegal establishment of a settlement area, called Sultanbeyli District, in the
Asian Section of Istanbul. Its population in 5 years (during 1985-1990) increased 2100%. This
district expanded by exploiting natural resources on its periphery and has become one of the
most crowded regions in Istanbul.
Today people who live close to the water resources have no rights and responsibilities towards
them. Having no obligation for caring and protecting of the water resources encourage them to
exploit and damage these resources. However, the most important threat comes from the conversion of watersheds and forestlands to other uses. For instance the area of Belgrade Forest was
15 000 hectares in 1920. However, 2/3 of its areas have been converted to other uses (TMMOB,
2006).
2. History of Forest Protected Areas and Drinking Water Production in Istanbul
2.1. The Understanding of Forestry and Drinking Water Production in the Ottoman Era
During the Ottoman Era, free public use of the forest, perceiving the forest as a financial resource and managing it for money with the introduction of planned management stages can be
identified (Bekiroglu and Ok, 1997). In this period, forestlands were abundant and there was no
organization responsible for the management of forests. Therefore, no rule was applied for the
use of forestlands. However, the decrease in forest vegetation in time led the Empire to establish the Directorate of Forest in 1839. This organization is connected to the Ministry of Trade
(OGM, 1992). In the 19th century, “Orman Koruculari” (Forest Watchmen) were given responsibility for the protection of forests by the graduated students of the Forest School. This duty has
passed from father to son in direct line.
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The Effects of Traditional and Contemporary Forestry Understanding on Drinking Water: Istanbul Example
Despite the abundance of forest resources drinking water resources have always been scarce.
Therefore, the organization called “Su Nezareti” (Ministry of Water), which is responsible for
drinking water, was established 300 years before the Directorate of Forest during the reign of
Suleyman the Magnificent (1520-1566). First, Su Nezareti, worked with the Sultan and then it
continued working under the umbrella of a municipal organization called Sehremaneti (Osmanlica Terimler Sozlugu, 2006). The person called “Su Naziri” (Minister of Water), directed Su
Nezareti. Maintenance and repair of the waterways during this period was given to the people
called “su yolcu” (Water Watchmen). This duty has been passed from father to son in direct line
like the “orman koruculari”.
At one time all the drinking water in Istanbul came from Belgrade Forest on the European side
of the city. At the time of Suleyman the Magnificent the Belgrade Forest was of strategic importance as the main source of water for the city. Water from the numerous springs and streams
in the forest was channelled into the city, and as the demand increased over the centuries dams
known as ‘bent’ were built to collect the water. There are 7 bents today and although they are still
in use they no longer play a crucial role in Istanbul’s water supply due to the rapidly increased
population of the city. The protected status of the forest granted in the 16th century has continued right through into the 20th century. Between 1554 and 1564 existing waterways were extensively repaired and new aqueducts were established in order to provide water for the increasing
needs of Istanbul (Kutluk, 1948; Nirvan, 1953).
Various small dams were built within the boundaries of Belgrade Forest. A Lack of large rivers
in the region led to supply water coming from small streams. Since the Byzantine times iron
or marble filters were used in order to prevent the water collection pools from the stones, tree
leaves and branches that were carried by the rivers during the peak rainy seasons. During Suleyman’s imperial period, it was noticed that the Belgrade Forest had strategic importance in terms
of providing water to the city. Therefore, the first protection measures for the Belgrade Forest
were taken during that time and the forest became a water collection pool for the city.
During the 16th century, a command was made against establishing houses nearby water resources in the forest areas and a team was charged with controlling and monitoring these areas
(Kutluk, 1948; Nirvan, 1953). In 1894 an act was passed to remove the inhabitants of Belgrade
Village to an area outside the forest because of the damage they were causing to the hydrologic
function of the forest. Strict protection measures followed this action (Eker, 1997).
In Istanbul, today’s increased demand in water supply is being met by using another forest, the
Istranca forest, which is a conservation site near the Bulgarian border. Despite the site being
situated far from the city, its choice indicates the importance that the Turkish authorities attach
to the role of forests and the necessity to protect them in order to guarantee a regular water supply of good quality.
2.2. Understanding of Forestry and Production of Drinking Water in Modern Times
Currently forests in Turkey are managed under the multiple use principle. It is accepted that
the forests are managed for production of timber and non-timber goods, provision of environmental and biological services such as watershed and soil protection, conservation of genetic
diversity, regulation of climate and carbon sequestration, recreational and aesthetic benefits, etc.
Since 1992 management plans of some Istanbul forests have been specifically managed under
the functional planning techniques that are arranged for different types of management classes
in the plans. In these plans, forests were divided into different uses (such as landscape, water
and soil conservation, etc) by taking management classes into account (OGM, 1992). However,
405
Theme 7. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
when both classical and current management plans are compared it is observed that the only
economic output provided from the forest is wood products. The recent management plans prepared for different forest management groups under functional management do not recognize
water as an economic output of the forest. In these recent management plans some recreational
areas were allowed to be established in water production areas. Because there is a high demand
for recreation in Istanbul the sites allocated for this purpose are being heavily used. However,
recreational uses of these areas adversely affect the water production function of the forests.
Besides, because the forest enterprises do not gain any economic benefit from the water supplied in their management boundaries forest managers do not care about the fallen trees that
block the water flow on the site. In short, forest managers do not make an effort to promote the
sustainable hydraulic function of urban forests due to a lack of any profit to be gained from their
intervention. On the other hand, ISKI collects the water from the dams and makes a profit out
of it without incurring any cost.
Today, protection of drinking water resources is undertaken by contractual or perpetual forest
staff/workmen. However, their work regions are often changed for political reasons. The threat
of change to their working status and areas causes compromises, which affect conservation of
natural resources.
3. Results and Discussion
Historically, the watershed resources in Istanbul could not meet the full demand for water. However,
with the traditional and district measures these watersheds used to produce more water compared
with the current situation. Under socio-economic pressures the watersheds and forests of Istanbul
were legally or illegally allocated for residential and industrial reasons to other uses causing degradation of these resources. Therefore the forest areas in Istanbul were considerably decreased and
some watersheds (such as Omerli, Terkos, Buyukcekmece and Kucukcekmece lakes and surroundings) were polluted. This caused Istanbul to depend on more distant water producing resources.
As a result Istanbul could not succeed in sustainable using its water resources. Besides not using
their water resources in a sustainable way Istanbul residents also deteriorated neighbouring cities’
forest resources and biodiversity by causing establishment of huge dams in the watersheds of these
cities.
While in the past the primary and the most important product of these forests was freshwater,
today this has been replaced with wood production and recreation. This situation was caused; by
not accepting freshwater produced in the forests as part of the output of forest, planning forest
resources only and mainly for wood production; and the resignation of some forest managers to
political pressures.
A decrease in the number of people who hold similar beliefs or increase in the number of people
who have conflicting values and economic goals will lead to increased pressures on the environment .A belief which in previous times was put forward for the purpose of resource protection and
then accepted by the public may no longer be valid today. Water is no longer accepted as a sacred
resource as it once was. This is partly because the number of people who have entered the city by
migration has increased dramatically. These outsiders often do not share the values and beliefs of
long-term city dwellers and they usually lack understanding of these issues. One instance, for example; ancient water sources with a variety of minerals were believed to have medical healing properties and were revered as sacred waters by local city residents. However, these sources today are not
well protected, and have in fact sometimes been deliberately destroyed by new migrants.
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The Effects of Traditional and Contemporary Forestry Understanding on Drinking Water: Istanbul Example
Currently, people who live near the water sources have neither rights nor responsibilities for these
water resources. However, historically these same people earned their livelihood from protecting
the water. Therefore, people who once did the protecting today do not care, and are often the ones
doing the most damage. The increasing number of buildings and other constructions at the edge of
and into the forestlands, and the pressures of rapid population growth have resulted in an increased
scarcity of water sources. Because Istanbul cannot provide satisfactory and good quality water out
of its own watersheds, it gradually loses the sustainability of its natural resources. Therefore, hazardous development activities in the protected forests, which were allocated for water production,
must be restricted and the water produced in the forests should be considered as the main resource
output. Forest enterprises should benefit monetarily from the water output of the forests they
manage. The conversion of forest and watershed areas to other uses must be prohibited and the
planned development of the city must be enforced. Finally, illegally constructed residential areas in
the protected forestlands must be expropriated and then removed and a system approach should
be considered in natural resource management. The ecological and economic added value provided
from the natural cycle and flow of water should be considered and this proportion must also benefit
the forestry sector.
Acknowledgements
The present work was supported by the Research Fund of Istanbul University. Project No.
UDP-723/2604042006
References
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Cevre ve Orman Bakanligi, 2005. I. Cevre Ormancilik Surası. Antalya (in Turkish).
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408
Customary traditions of self-governed institutions in mountain forests
of northern India – 1803-2003
Minoti Chakravarty-Kaul
Retd. Deptt. of Economics
Lady Shri Ram College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
Appt 59, Uttaranchal, 5 I.P. Extension
Patpargunj, Delhi 110092, India
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
There is a huge gap in our understanding of the history of human intervention in natural ecology
of the forests in the Himalayas. Also at the same time it is not recognised that the resources of the
mountains could not have been used in the past in isolation of those used in the plains. Thus the
environment cannot be protected only by the conservation of forests without paying due attention
to the interaction of human users both inside and outside the forests. Such traditional practices
have, however, been disrupted by a combination of structural and institutional changes; consequently particular players like the Gaddi shepherds and the Gujar herders today are commonly perceived as shiftless nomads who deforest and degrade the Himalayan environment. We will map and
document eco-systems known as doabs in northern India which operated within natural boundaries
of altitude, precipitation and rivers; identify both transhumant pastoral and sedentary arable users
of forests and examine their potential to conserve them and their ability to survive.
1. Introduction
The
forest pastures of the Siwaliks, or the foothills of north-west Himalayas, are historical remnants
of collective net-working of transhumant pastoral groups like the Gaddi shepherds and Gujjars with
sedentary cultivators both within these forests and in the plains. Such customary usage of forest
resources makes eminent sense. Collective action provides for institutional arrangements of risk
sharing and uncertainty bearing; enable sharing of costs of policing and monitoring of forest use
and in the process are reduced transaction costs of access, use and enforcement of rights. Thus
was tackled some of the problems associated with free-riding and tragedy of the Himalayan forest
commons.
1.1. Collective net-working in forest pastures: a culture of reciprocity?
British documents for the entire region of northern India, i.e. before partition in 1947, suggest
that forests were a part of a fallow-system of land-use in which transhumant pastoral movement
was not an isolated phenomenon, but was much more integrated into the mainstream agrarian
structure of rural life than it is today. Factors which affected survival in forest environments
both in the Himalayas and the sub-montane were to do with natural uncertainty and attendant
risks which could be handled only through a culture of reciprocity between resource-users. What
remains now are only fragments of long haul trails of the once dynamic system of transhumancesedentary net-works which spanned across the entire “land of the five rivers”.
1.1.1. Uncertainty and forest-pasture
Neither man nor beast can survive the Himalayan region at the alpine level in isolation.
Grazing resources here complement the forests below this level enable grazing but it is
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Theme 7. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
a struggle with uncertainty. The Himalayas being the youngest fold mountains in the world
makes them prone to volcanic action. The one that occured a couple of years ago reminded
the people of the devastation that occurred in 1904, in Kangra where Chamba is located.
The passes or jots through which the Gaddi shepherds traverse in autumn and summer can
also be dangerous as sudden hailstorms and snow blizzards can wipe out herds and herders.
Uncertainty is sharpened by the tropical location of the mountains so that the monsoons
can be torrential in the south-facing areas while dry conditions prevail in the steep rain
shadow slopes. A flourishing pasture can, fairly suddenly, lose its verdant grass cover by
landslips and unseasonable frost in the upper region and by flooding in the river banks in
the lower valleys.
Figure 1.
The study area
Uncertainty makes communication with the plains so much more difficult. The mountains
have a very brief frost-free period so the Gaddi shepherds are pushed to an intensive growth
period, where they concentrate on breeding of the sheep in their herds and grow food on
short fallows and also take up social activities. The Gaddi would then, by Israel Ruong’s
reckoning, be dictated by the “earth’s rhythm ... the biological layer of the earth’s surface,”
which “is a part of the entire culture layer” (Ruong, 1979: 11).
In the past mountains provided political security albeit at a price. Thus the Gaddi shepherds, who belong to Bharmour or Gadderan, were the nucleus of the ancient kingdom of
Chamba which according to epigraphic and genealogical records was ruled by generations
of one single family for more than twelve centuries and may thus “boast of an antiquity
equalled by few reigning houses in India and none in Europe” (Vogel, 1911: Preface).
However this political security of Chamba did not guarantee to the Gaddi unlimited access
to grazing grounds in the large forests of the State, and these would have been insufficient
in isolation and so they needed to transhumance to the lower hills and the plains of the
Punjab. In the forest pastures of Chamba, their own homeland, Gaddis sought access to
grazing through customary rights of bartan. These were user rights which were appendant
to their “dominant estate” which happened to be the private cultivated land which they had
taken on lease through a pattah or deed from the Raja of Chamba. (Trevor, 1912: 3) The
forests were actually exploited by the colonial forest department whom he had invited to
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Customary traditions of self-governed institutions in mountain forests of northern India – 1803-2003
manage them on lease for 99 years till the first part of the 20th century. Even after the Raja
took back the management of the forests, the Gaddis had little to gain, as the forest grazing
space remained in the hands of the forest department. They were thus foreigners in their
own homeland. Chamba was reckoned a non British territory and their flocks were treated as
“foreign” herds by the British settlement officers and the forest department. Hence whether
they went down to the Siwalik forests or up to the alpine pastures of Lahul, they were (and
still are) hustled around as “foreigners” and sought to be controlled in their movements
everywhere. (Wilkinson, 1913) Elsewhere, in the grazing runs of the forests in the lower
hills of Shahpur Kandi, in the Hoshiarpur bamboo forests of Karanpur and Brindaban and
in the Una forests, they had to have their rights of passage and pasture recorded by the
settlement officers.
1.1.2. Transhumance – an ecological response?
Such an inter regional pasture use pattern by the Gaddis required building up reciprocal
usages of exchange. Pastures, whether they were in the alpine tracts or in the inter riverine
areas had to be shared with the cattle of local sedentary farmers. Thus evolved patterns of
land fallows in both pastoral and arable lands. Transhumance was a Gaddi method of minimising individual risks by managing grazing fallows both inside the forest and outside in
arable land where land ordinarily cultivated is left fallow for grazing in alternate situations
and seasons. They protected their use of alternate pastoral resources by an oft repeated
sequence of using the sheep runs or alps at different altitudes in rotation almost akin to
cultivators rotating fallows and crops in the different seasons.
In the Montane, when the Gaddis came down from the snowy ranges of the upper Himalayas to graze their flocks in the lower hills, they avoided the runs of the Gujars. In the same
way, the Gujars with their buffaloes would take up “divisions on a hillside” (Kangra Settlement Report, 1865– 72: 16) and each community with its herds would respect “mutual
boundaries”. Since the composition of the herds of the Gaddis and Gujars was different, the
rights of the two communities were compatible, mutually non intrusive and did not require
the demarcation of the “runs”.
Additionally, transhumance involved a technique of mixing and matching herd composition and spreading the risks over species and owners. The herd composition was of utmost
importance as the goats for example were capable of providing milk not only to the herders on the move but also enabled the suckling of young lambs when the ewes were on the
move; besides there were the goat droppings to be provided at different levels of mountain
agriculture etc. Also the herd ownership was varied according to stocks of upper ranges or
lower ranges to enable marketability at different elevations.
To this was added scale adjustment in transhumant grazing. The scale was small for terraced fields in the Chamba hillsides being “no bigger than a billiard table” (Punjab Gaz.
1908, I: 363) The scale of grazing required was however, large, and cultivation alone could
scarcely have seen them through more than a part of the year without being supplemented
by trade or casual labour. Provisioning against uncertain and risky situations was also difficult, since the production and storage of fodder was not only labour intensive but required
capital as well. Therefore insurance against harsh winters would have been costly to match
the scale on which it was required. Seasonal pastoral migration was a way of lessening this
gap, but it imposed high transaction costs except when the Gaddi could manipulate two
circumstances to reduce overheads.
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Theme 7. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
The Gaddi then managed transaction costs by first, bargaining over reciprocal arrangements
with cultivators and the forest department all along the transhumant route and which had
to be shifted around ever so often as circumstances demanded. Such negotiations meant
time and that in turn meant expenditure too in material terms since such transaction could
rarely be done in advance even though it depended on customary reciprocity and that meant
cost of food and staying at a site of negotiations. Second, by reducing overheads in the first
instance by choosing to trade off the more risky with the less risky. This they did when they
complemented the pastoral resources in their homeland with alpine pastures elsewhere in
summer and those in the lower Siwaliks and the riverine areas of the plains in winter (Table
1.). The shepherd’s strategy succeeded because of the wide variation in location and quality of grazing resources available in the entire region. And third, Gaddis could minimise
risks per head and migration costs which were high because of ill-defined property rights in
pastures, if they operated on a large scale. They collected herds of several owners such as
the Lahulis in the region above Chamba who also face similar risks at high altitudes. The
movement with combined Gaddi and Lahuli flocks made not only their own migration more
affordable but in return their flocks could get accommodated in the summer months when
the Lahuli alpine pastures provided excellent grazing for large flocks.
Table 1. The Montane: Grazing Fallows
Districts
Kangra
Types of Grazing Fallows
Season
Bahan: fallow field in the terraced field or field in valley
Post harves
Kharetars: grass preserves in enclosed field on hill side (*a)
Post hay cutting
season
Intermediate waste between the different hamlets & settlements
Summer
Soanas: exclusive pastures used by Gujars in forests.
Spring & Summer
Dhars: grazing runs on hill side for sheep (*b)
Spring & Summer
Forest bartan: hill side and valley forest rights (*c)
Spring & Summer
Source: *a, *b, *c Kangra Settlement Report, 1864, 72: 43, 45 &19.
In the Sub-montane, arrangements had to be made for using the riverine belas (islands in
the channels) or chambs (marshes) of the Ravi, Sutlej, Beas, Jumna and other smaller rivers which provided winter pastures (RAF 1885: para 7) for cattle from all the three zones
– the upper ranges of the Himalayas, the sub-montane and the plains – in return for the
exchange of labour performed by Gaddis on arable land, wool and manure. In addition the
use of pasture in the stubble of the rabi or crop along with the grass left in the waste and on
the dhauls (embankments of fields) and dhanas (banks of the field channels) by the sedentary
cultivators and the nomadic cattle required institutions similar to the English custom of
“common of shack”, which was penning of the Gaddi flocks in the fields of the cultivators
for the droppings of manure and urine.
The sub-montane grazing lands served the interests of the Gaddis also as it was a transit
point for movements of herds of different composition originating from two opposite directions – north and south. The tract acted like a buffer by complementing the weather
and natural resources of two different regions. When the pastures in the plains below were
scorched or flooded, the cattle took refuge in these sub montane tracts; similarly if the
alpine pastures were covered with snow these foot hill regions became a haven. The synchronisation of these diverse movements with the sub montane region’s own pastoral needs
required detailed institutional arrangements. Transaction costs would have been prohibitive if individual cultivators or pastoralists had attempted to cope with settling the trails,
the halting facilities, the penning arrangements, the food, grazing in the stubbles and other
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Customary traditions of self-governed institutions in mountain forests of northern India – 1803-2003
requirements of camping and nomadic movements. Policing and enforcement of these arrangements would have been impossible and worse, the likelihood of chaos was inevitable.
Table 2. The Sub Montane Grazing Fallows
Districts
Grazing Wastes
Season of Grazing
Hoshiarpur
Common lands [Grass fallows]in villages.
Monsoon and Post-harvest
Gurdaspur
Banjar (fallow) plots in Andhar (*a) circle (Pathankot) and Bharari
circle. (Pathankot) and Bharari circle.
Winter
Grazing chambs of Gurdaspur and Jullundur:
Khanuwan Chamb, Magar Mudian Chamb(marsh)
Winter
Riverain tracts: Belas (*b) (islands) in the Ravi, Beas, Sutlej,
Kurari and Nahar ki Bir in Pathankot
Winter & Summer
Shamilat Forest Fallows: Gurdaspur: 16 village shamilat (common)
forest Hoshiarpur: 17 village shamilat forest (*c)
Winter & Monsoon
Forest fallows:
(i) Lower Siwalik, Hoshiarpur, Jaswan Dun,
Sola Singhi Range(*d), Mangowal Range,
Panjal and Lohara.
(ii) Gurdaspur: Shahpur Kandi.
Summer
Source: *a. Gurdaspur Gaz. 1914 : 102., *b. Siba Jagir SR, 1881 82 : 23., *c. Una Tehsil, Hoshiarpur SR, 1914 : 27.,
*d. P.S. Melville, Rev.& Agri. Forests, Progs. 3 5B, Oct. 1887 : 3.
Early reports from settlement officers like Richard Temple show that long fallows or banjar
kadim, were well organised categories of land within recognised village boundaries and that
they were held as common property in the sub montane region which was even at the time
of British annexation, in 1849, the most highly cultivated tract (Banga, 1978: 4). One can
explain this complex but orderly pattern of land use and rights using the logic which Dahlman (Dahlman, 1980) expounds in his study of the open fields of medieval England. It is
wisdom of a similar kind which was reflected in a land use pattern linked to a land right
pattern in the Siwaliks.
In the Plains, all these arrangements depended on the sedentary cultivators adjusting their
land use pattern to those needed by the transhumants. Inducement for such accommodation arose from their own specific need of services and manure which the transhumants
could render. Thus in the summer, when temperatures rose in the plains and floods occurred
in the riverine tracts, the cattle would be moved to the hills and the duns or valleys.(RAF
1885 : para 7) The Gaddi shepherds would once again act as the conduits between the
plains’ herds and those of the alpine ranges. Free from the heavy rains, fleas and mosquitos
of the riverine areas, Lahul would then offer summer grazing. At the same time pastures in
the hills facing south and the riverine tracts would see a monsoonic movement away from
them.(Ibid. Also Kangra SR, 1865-72 : 40) Likewise Gaddi shepherds would also accommodate the flocks of trading people like the Lahulis who had lent them money.
Usually village common lands which was cultivable were kept as long fallows or banjar kadim
which meant no crop was grown for approximately for eight seasons or more and even where
they were cultivated the area was seldom in scattered plots but were more in compact form.
It did not mean that the land was collectively cultivated but the returns on it via rent were
shared by the village community of land owners. On the other hand the short fallows or
banjar jadid were held individually, in scattered strips. However these were open fields and
without barriers, so that after the harvest all the stubbles on the cultivated fallows were
open to grazing. Strictly speaking there was no reservation between the cattle of the village
and those who came in from the outside. At the same time if the fields were on sloped terraces then there were physical reasons for controlling numbers on the terraced short fal413
Theme 7. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
low. Thus even the privately held short fallows became common pasture for the time that
they were kept fallow. This pattern was in a manner of speaking, a persuasive pressure on
individuals to go along with the collective design. Jointly the community could achieve full
potential savings in transaction costs of bargaining and policing of grazing resources which
prevented misuse by outsiders from the plains below and the hills above. Individuals would
scarcely have been able to regulate the grazing on private fallow land whereas communal
sanctions on fallows held in common had greater chances of being effective. Collectively
they gained.
The scale of these vast movements went much beyond the Gaddis’ tracks; they were a part
of an immense pastoral network spanning the entire riverine plains of the Punjab. Hence
the Gaddis could not be immune to what happened in the larger region. Interlinking at any
point in time or space was based on continuity in reciprocal arrangements. Such relationships deepened and also expanded during unseasonal weather cycles and drought, with
shortage in rain and intense summer heat driving the nomadic cattle from water holes of
the plains located in the far flung districts of Sirsa and Hissar to the riverain lands or up
the Siwaliks or Dehra Dun (RAF 1885: 324). Famines were a real testing time for such inter
regional use of fallows. The natural immunity of the hills to droughts made them the surest
refuge for graziers from the plains. There are several historical examples to prove this.
No individual could leave the system without imposing externalities on the others. Therefore in the event of an individual opting out there was a likelihood of a sanction. It could be
the threat of witholding social support at times of marriages, deaths etc, or withdrawal of
support in times of need as in times of revenue collection or withdrawal of rights of sharing
some of the common sources of income etc. Preventive institutions were perhaps even more
imperative as some of the grazing fallows, like the forests, were in the nature of open access
and were shared with others who had different scales of production.
2. Structural and Institutional Change and Collective Action
Collective control was modified starting 1803. Colonial intervention in property rights and canals
induced shortening of fallows within villages and enabled “breaking up of the waste” areas. These
intermediate waste lands between villages were granted to the communities of cultivators as their
village common lands or long fallows. Boundaries for these villages were marked out. Thus it is
that the open grazing ranges or “wastes” of the inter-riverine areas of the Punjab were internalized
and became the property of specific communities and so out of bound to the nomadic elements.
(Chakravarty-Kaul : 1996) Long distance movement now had to be re-negotiated between the new
communities and the old nomadic elements. Consequently it interfered with the movement of cattle or transhumance to long distance wastes. It also therefore interfered with the herders’ capacity
to adjust to the ecology of the larger region. Camel graziers became hemmed in from all sides and
shepherdic communities like the Gaddis increasingly had to fend for themselves in a smaller tract
for both food and fodder.
2.1. Compounding Uncertainty
Such official action compounded climatic and other natural risk in the pastures and forests of
the middle Himalayas. These pastures were critical, as herders used these on their way to the
upper reaches of Lahul. Official correspondence between officials in the forest department and
those of the administration of the districts show the growing constriction of space for example in
414
Customary traditions of self-governed institutions in mountain forests of northern India – 1803-2003
the sub montane district of Kulu where the open grazing lands were first demarcated and closed
to transhumance between 1848 and 1870-72 and then “reserved” in 1879 by the Government
which meant that the area was under control of the district of forest authorities, and therefore
closed to outsiders. (Hoshiarpur Gaz. 1904: 129) They also show pressure building up with the
management of the common forests, shamilat ban in Shahpur Kandi Gurdaspur taken up by the
Government in 1910 (Gurdaspur SR, 1912). The Gaddi found his tracks barred, his relationship
with the cultivators taken over and recorded, giving him no chance to negotiate and alter them.
Grazing fees were charged in the nature of counting the numbers of stock he herded and to keep
track of his movements. All along the route his halts and use of the forests were monitored and
sanctioned. His flexibility was reduced to a minimum.
Added to such increasing control in the districts, legislation like the Forest Act of 1878 placed
restrictions on Gaddi movements in forests which lay along their tracks but were now “reserved”
for certain parts of the year. This was not always necessary as observations of forest officials
show. But regardless of these findings trespass was punished. For example the forest department
was constrained to note that whenever monsoons were sufficient the graziers did not trespass
reserved areas, which clearly shows that the Gaddis were using forests only in times of distress
and not continuously with the intent of free riding. Conservation may have opened a new chapter in scientific forest management but in the process it broke down the institutions of collective
action which had been responsible for the sustainable patterns of land use in this part of the
Himalayas.
2.2. Post-Independence
Uncertainty of another kind has emerged in the last few decades, with the building of dams in
the Siwaliks. The Bhakra Nangal, Pong and Thein dams have swallowed large areas of winter
pasture, particularly in the communally managed forest tracts of the Shahpur Kandi, Karanpur,
Brindaban and Una forests. This has pushed the Gaddis further up into higher ranges and has
also forced them to remain longer in the alpine tracts. The consequences of all this change has
not been assessed as yet. All we have on record are insinuations made against them by forest
department officials, without empirical evidence.
3. References
Banga, Indu. 1978. Agrarian System of the Sikhs. Delhi: Manohar.
Chakravaty Kaul, Minoti. 1996. Common Lands and Customary Law, Institutional Change in
North India over the Past Two Centuries. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Dahlman, Carl. J. 1980. The Open Field System and Beyond. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
Gurdaspur Gazeteer, 1914 & Gurdaspur Settlement Report, 1849 54 & 1912.
Hoshiarpur District Gazetteer, 1904 & Hoshiarpur Settlement Report,1856.
Jullundur Settlement Report, 1852.
Kangra Settlement Report, 1850 & 1865-72.
McIntosh, 1914. Letter No 272 C, Lahore 6/11/1914, Government of Punjab, (Forests) Progs. 14
15A, 1914 .
Melville, P.S. 1887. Rev. & Agri., (Forests) Progs. 3 5B, Oct. 1887.
Punjab Gazetteer, 1908.
415
Theme 7. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
RAF 1885. Land Rev. & Agri. (Famine) Progs. 3 4 A, Sept. 1885 : para 7.
Ruong, Israel 1979. The Lapps. An Indigenous People in Fennoscandia. (Ontario: Department of
Indian and Northern Affairs).
Siba Jagir Settlement Report, 1881 82.
Trevor, C.G. 1912. Revised Working Plans of Upper Ravi forests, Chamba State. Progs. 10 13 A,
May 1912.
Una Tehsil, Hoshiarpur Settlement Report, 1914.
Vogel, J. P. 1911. Antiquities of Chamba State. (Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing),
Vol. 36.
Wilkinson, W.H.J. 1913. Punjab Govt. (Forests) Progs. 1 A, Sept. 1913.
416
Cultural Heritage, Sustainable Forest Management
and Property in Inland Spain
Cristina Montiel Molina
Universidad Complutense de Madrid
Department of Regional Geographic Analysis and Physical Geography
Faculty of Geography and History, Ciudad Universitaria, s/n. E-28040 Madrid, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Corporation woodlands are a cultural and natural heritage from traditional rural collectivism and
from the land system in central Spain during the Middle Ages. They have survived due to the
permanence of traditional cultures in a depressed rural society, where social relationships remain
at local level. The collective private woodlands have substantial problems adapting to the current
legal framework and the socio-political context. Nevertheless, as social-spatial structures where
traditional knowledge and social participation continue, they are a very interesting asset for rural
development in central Spain through sustainable forest management. The aim of this paper is
to provide a territorial viewpoint and assessment of common woodlands in the province of Soria,
which is one of the most extensively forested provinces in Spain and has a strong collective private
forest heritage. The great variety of this collective heritage stems from the origin of the land tenure,
land ownership and the rights to use land, as well as the social conflicts linked to legal organisation
difficulties, which will all be analysed.
1. Introduction
The concept of heritage is linked, by definition, to property and the utility value of assets. The
Mediterranean forests are a natural and cultural heritage and have an important historical component. These ecosystems have played a fundamental economic role in rural societies (Montiel,
2003). Collective private forest property is one of the most evident examples in some provinces of
the central Castilian plateau in Spain.
However, there is little awareness of this collective forest heritage, even when it involves large areas
and is the property of most of the local population in central rural areas, where the practice of agrarian collectivism has been more prolonged. For example, in Soria this includes 19% of the surface
area of the province (187,202.7222 hectares), 40% of the forest area of the province and 57.6% of
the privately owned forest area.
These woodlands, which belong to several owners within a common, indivisible legal framework (in
common and pro indiviso), are usually known as corporation woodlands (forest land owned in partnership).
There are no standardised characteristics for them, as there is a wide variety of collective private
woodlands, depending on origin of the land tenure, the system of owner representation, the system
of owner’s rights and the management system.
Most of the collective private woodlands belong to companies composed of owners or neighbours
based on a document of purchase from the State at a public auction for the sale of property confiscated from the Municipalities at the end of the XIX and the beginning of the XX centuries. Also, owners
acquired the common woodlands in the municipal areas by direct purchases from private owners, or
simply by being members of the town councils. They have survived due to the permanence of traditional cultures in a depressed rural society, where the social relationships endure at local level.
417
Theme 7. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
2. Methods
The methodology used to analyse the cultural component of corporation woodlands and their management consisted of the historical analysis of the structure of forest ownership, and then the
historical analysis of traditional knowledge and the economic role of forestlands in rural societies.
However, the starting point was the previous recognition of land tenure as a factor influencing forest management (Montiel, 2002; Parviainen, 2006).
The study area of the research was the province of Soria, which is located in the south east of the
Autonomous Community of Castilla y León. Soria is an isolated region and has a strong rural character. Besides, it is one of the most forested provinces in Spain. Its surface area is 1,031,800 hectares, of which 632,923.02 are woodlands (61% surface). This is partly due to the high rate of rural
migration which affected this province during the XX century. At the present time, the population
is sparse (90,954 inhabitants) and elderly. Moreover, the average population density is just 8.82
inhabitants per square kilometre. In addition, the population is very concentrated in a large number
of villages and hamlets (347 nuclei), which implies serious problems as regards spatial planning.
However, the permanence of a high number of small population nuclei has led to the persistence of
traditional systems of organisation of space and socio-economic activity, together with the maintenance of structures which are particular to agrarian collectivism, of which corporation woodlands
are part.
Due to its mountainous terrain, high average altitude and a harsh climate, the countryside of Soria
is made up mainly of pinewoods or oak forests in the mountains and highlands, while cereals are
grown in the basins and valleys. Thus, the main contrast as regards the landscape and the socioeconomic factors is the distinction between the southern agricultural areas and the cattle and forest
rangeland (Ortuño et al, 2006). In the forest areas, the main differences are established depending
on the dominant tree species, whose distribution has been strongly influenced by human activity
throughout history. The main units of the forest countryside are as follows: high forests (Pinus sylvestris and Pinus pinaster), coppice forest (Quercus ilex), savin association and grazing wasteland.
The ownership of forestlands is mostly private (70%), and these are generally distinguished by
smallholdings and a rather undefined legal status (see Fig. 1.). Nevertheless, private forests can be
owned by individual persons or collectives (legal) bodies:companies.
Mapa 2.
DISTRIBUCION DE LA PROPIEDAD
DE LOS MONTES EN LA PROVINCIA DE SORIA
LEYENDA
Montes de entidades públicas
Montes de particulares
Terreno urbano
Cultivos agricolas
Grupos de acción local
Municipios
ESCALA
10 5 0 10 kilómetros
Fuentes: ICONA (1994) Segundo Inventario Forestal
Nacional, 1986-1995. Castilla y León. Soria. Madrid; Junta
de Castilla y León, Consejeria de Medio Ambiente,
Dirección General del Medio Natural, SIGMENA (2002).
Carto_cyl.
Elaboración propia
Cristina Montiel Molina:
Estructura de la propiedad forestal en la provincia de
Soria: génesis y propuestas de gestión de los patrimonios
societarios
Figure 1. Distribution of the ownership of woodlands in the province of Soria
418
Cultural Heritage, Sustainable Forest Management and Property in Inland Spain
The main difficulty which this research had to overcome was to identify the owner companies in the
province of Soria and draft the list of corporation woods. The oral information sources in the popular memory of the villages are scarce in the rural regions due to the rural exodus, the abandonment
of the traditional forestry activity and a lack of young people in the area to take over from the older
generation. In the case of the collectively owned woodlands in the province of Soria, for example, it
is almost impossible to find witnesses to the acquisition of land, the constitution of companies, or
neighbours who know the systems of traditional corporation forestry management. Thus, the oral
information is usually contradictory and often mistaken.
In this situation, the only source which can provide complete information on the situation at provincial level is the Rustic Land Register where a search was made using a number of key words by
“owner name”, such as association, depopulation, woodlands, company, neighbours, owners, etc.
Once the corporation woodlands were identified, documentary information was sought (ownership
deeds for the woodlands, corporation memorandums of association, statutes regulating the functioning of the companies and forest management plans). The existing private files of the owner
companies were researched. A search was also made for public and private sale-purchase deeds
and for the constitution of companies through notary protocols, Property Registries and Historical
Municipal Files.
At the same time as the documentation process on corporation woodlands were carried out, a study
was made of the evolution of the territorial jurisdiction of the region from the time of the Christian
conquest and repopulation up to now in order to define a typology which would make it possible to
classify the assets depending on their origin and the ownership system.
A historical analysis of traditional knowledge and the economic role of woodlands was then carried
out with regard to local people. Finally, field work was performed, consisting of visits to the woodlands
selected as test-sites representing the corporation woodlands identified, in order to carry out an evaluation and to study the possibilities of the conservation of the traditional management practices.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Origin of corporation ownership
There is a close relationship between the political-jurisdictional organization system of the territory and the ways to use the land during the Feudal Regime and the current structure of forest ownership. The territory of Soria was organised throughout the Christian re-conquest and
re-population, between the XI and XIII centuries through the system of villages with assigned
land (Village and Land Communities). A total of twenty Village and Land Communities were formed
within the territory of the present province and each one of these had some uncultivated lands
(baldíos): woodlands belonging to the king by right of conquest, but for the collective use of all
the neighbours of the Village and Land Community.
The baldíos were more extensive in the mountainous areas and included the best grazing land,
thus, they were fundamental in order to maintain the migrating cattle (Photo 1) of all the neighbours on the land, and these acquired fundamental socio-economic importance for the Commu1
nities and for the town councils, as well as for the institution of the Mesta . In fact these were
1 The Mesta was an institution created by King Alfonso X in 1273, which united all the shepherds of the Crown of Castile and provided them
with important prerogatives and privileges, in order to facilitate the movement and passage between pastures. The herds of sheep from
Soria were the most important in the Mesta.
419
Theme 7. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
lands owned by the crown, but were defended as communal lands by the villages. Thus, the traditional systems for using the land, dominated by agrarian collectivism, (López-Gómez, 1954)
shared a popular consciousness of possession of the baldíos (uncultivated lands), used by all the
neighbours freely, and the majority of the crown lands became the property of the villages during
the liberal revolution of the XIX century.
Figure 2.
Livestock in San Pedro
Manrique (photo by Luis Galiana)
The use of the woodlands was also fundamental for the passage of carts, which was also based
on early medieval privileges, and consisted of the transport of goods throughout the peninsula
using wooden carts drawn by yokes of oxen. Its development was sustained in the area of Pinares
de Soria due to the woods, which provided the wood needed for the construction of the carts,
and the pastures for feeding the cattle (Kleinpenning, 1962).
However, the liberal revolution of the XIX century, with the reform of the municipal regime
(1812), the suppression of royal privileges as regards transport by carts (1834) and as regards
the Mesta (1836) and the disappearance of the concept of Village and Land Communities as
municipal units, with its grazing easements (1837), led to the break up and collapse of the traditional socio-economic system based on agrarian collectivism. Thus, after a period of economic
progress from the XIII century onwards, the province of Soria began to decline in the XVII century, through a depopulation process which would reach a climax in the XIX century, when the
development of the urban middle class and industrialisation slowed down. This has determined
the rural nature of the province and the continuance of the traditional social and spatial organisation systems.
Furthermore, the end of the Feudal Regime also involved the sale at public auction of all the
goods owned by the State, the clergy, the Town Halls and other public organisations, ordered by
the Law of Disentailment of Madoz March 1, 1855. Faced with the announcement of the sale of
the old uncultivated lands in public auction which entailed a threat to the traditional practices
of agrarian collectivism, in many places neighbourhood societies were formed to protect the
ownership rights over the woodlands which had been used collectively since the Middle Ages.
The objective was to prevent outsiders from acquiring the woodlands in the area. To achieve this,
the neighbours joined together in order to obtain the funds required to purchase the woodlands
in public auction as these were vital for their economies. This led to the collective ownership of
the Spanish woodlands during the second half of the XIX century and the beginning of the XX
century, which made it possible to continue with the traditional practices of agrarian collectivism
in the woodland areas.
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Cultural Heritage, Sustainable Forest Management and Property in Inland Spain
Finally, in the XX century, due to the massive rural depopulation, it was necessary to join villages
together to form municipalities with sufficient inhabitants to enable economic and territorial
planning. As a consequence of the disappearance of borders, new collectives of owners, whose
objective is to safeguard the rights of exclusive use in its woodlands, were formed opposing the
neighbours in the new municipality. Thus, the process of municipal unification, which particularly affected the most depopulated areas of the province, explains the territorial concentration
of collective forest ownership in the agricultural areas of the south of the province (Fig.2.).
Mapa 5.
DENSIDAD DE SUPERFICIE DE SOCIEDES POR TERMINO
MUNICIPAL EN LA PROVINCIA DE SORIA
LEYENDA
Grupos de acción local
% (Sup. Sociedades/Sup. T.M.)
0,0000 – 2,9571
2,9572 – 10,0066
10,0007 – 20,5708
20,5769 – 37,0098
37,0099 – 79,0826
ESCALA
10 5 0 10 kilómetros
Fuente: Catastro de la Propiedad Rùstica de Soria
Elaboración propia
Cristina Montiel Molina:
Estructura de la propiedad forestal en la provincia de Soria:
génesis y propuestas de gestión de los patrimonios societarios
Figure 3. The surface density of corporation woodlands by municipal area in the province of Soria
3.2. Classification of the corporation woodlands
There are a wide variety of collective private woodlands, according to their origin and the organisation system of the ownership corporation (see Table 1.). The more widely known cases are
those involving the woodlands which were auctioned off under the disentailment laws of 1855
and 1856, and were acquired by a person who acted as intermediary for a group of neighbours, to
which he subsequently transferred ownership of the woodlands (for example, the Pinar de Herrera de Soria or the woodlands of the Corporation Baldíos de Pozalmuro).
There are also corporations in which all the citizens acquired the woodlands though a sale-purchase document from a private owner, an heir or a buyer with the common ancient aristocratic
rights (for example, the Corporation of Conde de la Póveda). Moreover, mention should be made of
the corporations which were constituted in order to manage assets from uncultivated lands, which
had belonged to the Town Hall and had been used by the community as a whole until the liberal
reforms of the XIX century and which, were protected from the disentailment process and the interventionist, centralised management of the forestry policy at the end of the XIX century and the
beginning of the XX century (for example, the corporation of Neighbours of Tardelcuende).
Finally, a large number of corporations were formed due to the aggregation of municipalities in
order to safeguard the private rights of the citizen members of the new minor entity as regards
the totality of the neighbours of the unified municipality. There were also cases in which plots
were being concentrated in the area, in such a way that the Act for the Reorganisation of the
Property in the Area made it possible to regulate the legal situation of the woodlands and the
ownership of the neighbours constituted as the minor entity was acknowledged and could access
the Property Registry (i.e. the Corporation of Neighbours of Canredondo de la Sierra).
421
Theme 7. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
Table 1. Typology of the corporate woodlands in the province of Soria
Origin
Classes (land property & land use
rights)
Local cases
Buy on public auction (Disentitlement
process) or to the former landowners
Private pro-indiviso
– Corporation Baldíos de Pozalmuro
– Corporation of Conde de La
Póveda
Private pro-indiviso with
neighbourhood easements
Pinar de Herrera de Soria
Municipal neighbourhood
companies.
– Corporation of the Neighbours of
Tardelcuende
Minor local neighbourhood
companies.
– Corporation of the Neighbours of
Canredondo de la Sierra
Communal woodlands affected by
county gatherings
In accordance with the legal regime (ownership rights and rights of use), three wide categories of
woodlands should be differentiated. In the first place, are the woodlands where ownership rights
and rights of use are exclusively in the hands of the heirs of the buyers of the woodlands (i.e.
Palositos woodlands, in Espejón), or in the hands of the de iure members of the corporation of
neighbours (i.e. woodlands of the neighbours corporation of Tardelcuende). However, the ownership rights and the rights of use may be split in such a way that there are conditions and/or
easements as regards the benefits deriving from the use of woodlands. This occurs in the Pinar
de Herrera de Soria, where the condition for profiting from the production of the woodlands is
to live in the local area and be the heir of the buyers. Finally, the third category is composed of
the corporation woodlands with a communal origin, which have private land property rights, but
communal land use rights (Montiel, 2005).
In all cases, forest landscape is the result of the link between forest management and cultural
practices. Specifically, coppice forestry and forest pasturage (Photo 2) predominate. Consequently, there is also a close relationship between the systems of ownership and the dominant
forest species. The majority of corporation woodlands are grazing wasteland or open forests of
Quercus ilex and Quercus faginea which are a result of the traditional ways of using forests and forest products (Parviainen, 2006).
Figure 4.
Forest landscape resulting from the traditional forest management as regards making use
of firewood and pastures (Corral del Llano,
Castilviejo) (photo by author)
3.3. Conflicts and needs
The ownership of corporation woodlands presents greater difficulties. The corporation woodlands are the forestry properties which currently have the greatest difficulties as regards management due to the judicial confusion in this regard, that is to say, with regard to collective
ownership. Furthermore, depressed economies and depopulation of rural areas, which have resulted in the disorganization of the traditional systems of forestry management, often render the
management of these woodlands impossible as certain decisions can not be adopted without the
participation and agreement of all the owners of the property.
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Cultural Heritage, Sustainable Forest Management and Property in Inland Spain
This is impossible in the current situation of multiplication, dispersion and lack of knowledge of
the co-owners (third and fourth generation descendents of the buyers currently resident outside the
municipal and provincial area), and the lack or loss of Foundational Statutes of the companies. The
lack of property deeds in the most cases, ignorance about property history and the common lack of
registration of property rights have always caused numerous disputes about land ownership.
The previous clarification of the legal status of forest ownership is a necessary condition for the
sustainable management of resources, the maintenance and improvement of the living conditions of the current population, and the guarantee of the continuity of the ecosystems for future
generations. In addition, the consolidation of ownership can invert the emigration and rural
abandonment processes and lead to new dynamic processes which entail demographic revitalisation and the recuperation of the heritage.
4. Conclusions
The cultural heritage values in forest areas are linked to the collective land tenure systems in some
Spanish rural areas. For instance, the existence of corporation woodlands has made it possible to
maintain traditional practices related to agricultural collectivism in districts of Soria. However, as
a consequence of their recent dynamic, ownership structure in Mediterranean forests are disorganised and fragmented.
While the collective private woodlands show substantial problems as regards adaptation to the current legal framework and the socio-political context, they are nevertheless a valuable asset for the
rural areas under development. These territorial concentration, association and social participation
structures are ideal for calculating the value of the terrain within the framework of sustainable development strategies.
Consequently, knowledge about land tenure and regulation must be a priority of National Forest
Programmes in Mediterranean regions. Well-planned regulation of land tenure can preserve the
cultural heritage and valuable knowledge passed down through generations and lead to the implementation of sustainable forest management.
5. References
Kleinpenning, J., 1962. La región pinariega. Estudio geográfico del noroeste de Soria y sudeste de
Burgos (España). Groningen.
López-Gómez, A., 1954. Valdelaguna – Colectivismo agrario en las montañas burgalesas. Estudios
Geográficos. 57, 551-568.
Montiel, C., 2002. Land tenure as an influence factor on National/Regional Forest Programmes in
Spain, COST E-19 National Forest Programmes in a European Context. Working Papers: Papers on
influence factors on NFPs. Available at: www.metla.fi/eu/cost/e19/montiel.pdf
Montiel, C., 2003. El patrimonio forestal mediterráneo: componentes y valoración. Bois & Forêts
des tropiques. 276 (2), 73-83.
Montiel, C., 2005. Los montes de socios: un problema territorial de difícil gestión. Boletín de la
AGE. 40, 181-200.
Ortuño, S., Martín, A., 2006. Forest externalities and rural development in inland Spain. Forest
Policy and Economics. 8(2), 109-122.
Parviainen, J., 2006. Forest Management and Cultural Heritage. In: Forestry and our cultural heritage. Proceedings of the Seminar 13-15 June, 2005, Sunne, Sweden. MCPFE, Warsaw, 67-75.
423
Opportunities in Turkish Cultural Heritage for Conservation of Natural Values
Taner Okan & Kenan Ok
Department of Forestry Economics, Faculty of Forestry
Istanbul University, Bahçeköy, Istanbul, Turkey
e-mail: [email protected] & [email protected]
Abstract
Turkey’s long history and rich cultural heritage causes conflicts and generates opportunities for
present conservation activities of the natural and cultural values. Turkish people believe that hunting of the some wild animal species such as deer and gazelle produces a bad destiny in future. Some
places or trees in forests are accepted as holy so that nobody desires any destruction of them. Since
traditional medicine uses some plants based on the forest, people are more sensitive to conservation of them than others. These values can be considered opportunities to promote sustainable
forest management. On the other hand, timber is the main load bearing material of the traditional
Turkish House. Most of the geographic areas where the Turkish House has spread are within seismic zones in Turkey. It may because timber frame construction systems were devised and widely
used. However, during last fifty years, timber material has lost its position in the building sector
and concrete was generally preferred. Protection of some traditional structures is linked to protection of the the knowledge used in their construction. Knowledge generated by local masters is hidden in these protected structures. After the 1999 earthquake in İzmit, the importance of the timber
material was remembered again and a new opportunity may be used to protect cultural heritage
and to expand the demand on timber material. In this study, opportunities hidden in the Turkish
Cultural Heritage are explained with reference to use in natural conservation activities.
Keywords: conservation, natural values, turkish culture and forests.
1. Introduction
Tangible goods produced by forests have attracted attention almost every term of mankind. However, social demand on forestry services and values or intangible goods of the forestry increased
rapidly in the last century. Consequently, forest resources managers in present have to manage all
values of the forests concerning to the sustainability principle.
Humankind has made contact with nature, has affected it or has been affected from it since beginning of the human life. This relationship is easily seen in Hittites who was one of the first civilizations of Anatolian. Name of Şuppiluliuma, who was the most famous king and commander of the
Hittites, means “clean spring, clean pool or holy lake” (Akurgal, 1997; Çığ, 2000). It is known that
when kings ascend the throne, they accept a specific name what they want. He preferred a name,
which means clear water. Rivers and mountains were important for II. Muwatalli, which can be observed from his prayer tablets that written the names of the cities and the Gods together with rivers and mountains (Alp, 2000). Another king of Hittites was Telipinu, who identified himself with
nature, bequeathed written literature that meant “Whenever God Telipinu will certainly get cross
all nature dies, when he comes back it refreshes (Akurgal, 1997). Likewise, they could believe that
when kings or community crime, their country has a natural disaster (Çığ, 2000). This belief proves
that identification of Telipinu includes more wide periods.
Therefore, it is not coincidence to find secret opportunities not directly related nature but suitable
for nature conservation activities in cultural heritage produced by long history of human. Today in
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Opportunities in Turkish Cultural Heritage for Conservation of Natural Values
Turkey, protected areas consist of thirty-five National Parks (636.631 hectares, ha), seventeen Nature
Parks (69.370 ha), thirty-five Nature Protection Areas (84.230 ha) and fifty-eight Nature Monuments.
Most of them acquired protection status as taking into consideration of their natural protection values. However, while some protected areas have directly cultural values such as Çanakkale National
Park and Başkomutanlık National Park, most of the others have cultural values indirectly.
The aim of this study is to investigate hidden opportunities in the Anatolian culture will able to be
used in nature conservation activities. Culture or civilization is a complex system including knowledge, art, tradition-custom, ability, accomplishment and practices learned or gained by human as
a member of the society (Güvenç, 1997). Therefore, this article focuses on nature protection opportunities in Turkish Culture from the point of views of wildlife, cultural places, traditional medicine and non-wood forest products, and architecture.
2. Wildlife in the Anatolian Culture
When historic ruins are examined, it is seen that Anatolian civilizations made nearby contact with
wildlife. Although, it is thought that first settlings started after the agricultural activities, excavations in Çatalhöyük indicate that there was a settlement of hunter community before agricultural
revolution. Historic relief and drawings include figures of lion, deer, fallow deer, wild ox, tiger and
leopard. In today, it is not possible to see any lions, wild oxes, tigers and leopards in Anatolian forests. It is known that there were animal parks in today’s Kültepe between B.C. 1800’s and 1700’s.
(Yavuz, 2002).
Fallow deer (Cervus dama) and deer (Cervus elaphus) were called in the folk stories. In a folk story
written by Yaşar Kemal who is famous writer in Turkey and also world (Kemal, 2004). Fallow deer
is called as Alageyik in Turkish and Alageyik story was published as a novel, composed as song and
made a movie in many times. This story could not prevent decreasing of fallow deer population in
Anatolia. But, in recent years there have been more people believing this story and not any tolerance for fallow deer hunting.
In Turkish culture, particularly in Alevi communities, while crane, goose and pigeon, cock are accepted as auspicious, mule, rabbit (Lepus capensis) and partridge (Alectoris chukar) are defined as
unlucky animals (Arslanoğlu, 2001). Nevertheless, there are some exceptions about partridge and
rabbits. In southeast part of Anatolia, owing a partridge provides honor and prestige for owners.
There is not a common thinking about accepting rabbit as unlucky. While rabbit was one of the first
totems of Turks in Asia, it has become a bad animal by the time for some Turks in Anatolia. According to Öktem, some Anatolian peoples were affected from Christians applying the rule of the
Fourth Council. Fourth Council prohibited eating rabbit for Christian people to stop some pagan
applications (Öktem, 2002).
Bringing good luck and holiness of pigeon is especially valid for turtledoves (Streptopelia decaocto).
It is believed that hunting these birds brings bad luck. Therefore, in big cities, there is possible
to see that turtledoves and pigeons are very close to people. There are private nests called as bird
place in some old buildings. In most cities of Anatolia, people having a great interest in pigeon and
there are pigeon markets to facilitate barter. Besides pigeons, nightingales (Luscinia spp, Cercotricas
galactotes, Erithacus rubecula) and goldfinches (Carduelis carduelis) can also be seen easily to barter in
these markets.
Stork (Ciconia ciconia) is another bird that Turks feel attracted to it. Storks nest on chimney of high
buildings, posts in the middle of cities and people take care so that these nests couldn’t be dam425
Theme 7. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
aged. Also, nests of the swallows (Delichon urbica) are allowed to construct into the eaves of the
houses. Anatolian people do not permit to damage these nests.
Predator birds have a specific importance with regard to hunting ability and power in Turkish culture. Especially, in East Blacksea region, female sparrow hawks (Accipiter nisus) are obtained and
trained so that they can hunt other birds. In this region, having a good predator bird means a big
prestige. According to written literature, this tradition originates from Ottoman Era (Çanakçıoğlu
and Mol, 1996).
3. Cultural Places and Monuments for Nature Conservation
In Anatolia, some places are more important than the others. Mountains are interesting places in
that context. According to mythology, Great mother of the Gods, known as Kubaba, Hepat, Kybele, Artimu, Artemis, Rhea in Anatolian civilizations was accepted as mother of the goddess and
people. The mother goddess feeds all livings, forgives all sins and all winds and seas are belong to
her. Snow covered summits of holy Olympus Mountain were defined by Anatolian people as her
thrones (Yavuz, 2002). Turks also accepted the mountains as divine places before their migration
from central Asia. In Old Oğuz tribes, each clan or each tribe had a holy mountain and every year
they visit there (Arslanoğlu 2001).
Yatır and Türbe words are corresponding a tomb in Turkish. People believe that there was an important and holy person’s grave in the Yatır. According to some authorities, Turk’s belief in the
god of the sky in Central Asia changed as Yatır tradition in Anatolia. Yatırs are usually located on
mountains and hills.
Beliefs on Yatır create an opportunity for nature protection by transferring tree cult of old shaman
Turks. In Initial Turkish beliefs, single trees, especially beech and black pine, were accepted holy
trees (Duymaz, 1993). As a result of these beliefs, if there is a Yatır or Türbe, people do not cut
these trees. Similarly, people also do not cut trees that have a specific story. In Anatolia, today, when
a single tree or small woodland, different from the others, is seemed, probability of finding a Yatır
near it or a story about it is strongly high.
Yatır and other holy places are visited in particular days of a year. One of the most important visiting is Cılbak, which is conducted from many places in Turkey to Sarıkız, Karataş and Baba Hills in
Kazdağı National Park (Kudar, 1999). This visit takes place in every year in August and it continues
for a week. There are many people joining and celebrating Cılbak visit. These activities prevent
forgetting why this place is accepted holy. Therefore, while holy places support protecting trees,
forests around, they provide sustaining of cultural values.
In Anatolia, there are also two important celebrations named as Nevruz and Hıdrellez related natural values. While Nevruz is celebrated on 21 of March for spring, Hıdrellez conducted on 6th of
May for summer in every year. Hıdrellez is a word derived from Hizir (Hızır) and the prophet Elijah
(İlyas). While Hızır is strong person helping people on land and symbolizes hot, İlyas is symbol of
seas and symbolize water (Yücel, 2002). In Hıdrellez day, people go to natural areas near spring of
water and rural areas to meet nature.
4. Traditional Medicine and Non-wood Forest Products in Anatolia
Non-Wood Forest products (NWFP) have a specific importance concerning their both use and
non-use values for nature conservation. NWFP that can be used as a raw material for food, spices,
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Opportunities in Turkish Cultural Heritage for Conservation of Natural Values
paint, spell, poison, ornament or medicine may also include option value concerning their potential
usage areas.
Cultural diversity and very rich flora indicate that traditional medicine is important in Anatolia
(Yeşilada, 2002). In a research project in order that it saves this diversity there were scanned all Turkey and relevant literature so a Data Bank Of Turkish Folk Medicine (TUHIB) was set up. According to this data bank, distribution of the plants used in traditional medicine is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Overview of data in the Data Bank Of Turkish Folk Medicine (TUHIB) segregated by origin (i.e. plant
family, animal, mineral and human) and medicinal and non-medicinal uses (Yeşilada, 2002)
Family name
Total use
Non-medicinal uses
Medicinal uses
Lamiaceae
954
127
827
Rosaceae
914
97
817
Asteraceae
608
90
518
Plantaginaceae
375
4
371
Urticaceae
332
6
326
Pinaceae
275
11
264
Malvaceae
246
19
227
Liliaceae
230
43
187
Cucurbitaceae
226
5
221
Apiaceae
180
87
93
Solanaceae
174
7
167
Caprifoliaceae
164
5
159
Ranunculaceae
162
15
147
Fabaceae
163
50
113
Cupressaceae
155
11
144
Poaceae
132
19
113
Anacardiaceae
123
27
96
Hypericaceae
118
2
116
Plant-originated
7380
874
6506
4
125
Animal-originated
129
Inorganic material
9
9
Human-originated
4
4
TOTAL
7522
878
6644
The number of plant species employed as folk remedy was approximetly estimated about 500.
However, through evaluation of the data accumulated in TUHIB, the number of wild/cultivated
plant species employed as folk medicine in Turkey is found as 1011. It should be taken into consideration that this number is obtained only from the available scientific studies have been published
so far and entered in TUHIB. The rank order list of plants that are employed most frequently in
traditional medicine is listed in Table 2. (Yeşilada, 2002).
It is able to be understand that Endemic species in protected areas have an option value or not by
examining of traditional knowledge. Likewise, as shown in Table 2., it is known that Sideritis arguta,
Sideritis congesta and Sideritis psidica are endemic species. For this reason, it is possible that benefiting types from these species may be known only in Anatolian cultures. Therefore, while their characteristics on endemism cause their existing values, traditional uses of them generates a usage value
for local people and option values for other people in the world. On the other hand, protection of
these plants and traditional knowledge on using types create bequest value for future generations.
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Theme 7. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
Table 2. Rank-order list of plant species according to their citation frequencies for the treatment of any
ailment (Yeşilada, 2002)
Genus name
Plantago sp.
TOTAL
USES
371
Main species
lanceolata, major
Rosa sp.
354
canina, montana
Urtica sp.
327
dioica, urens
Sideritis sp.
194
arguta, congesta, libanotica, perfoliata, psidica
Malva sp.
188
neglecta, nicaensis, slyvestris
Ecbalium sp.
176
elaterium
Rubus sp.
175
canascens, discolor, hirtus, sanctus
Pinus sp.
173
brutia, nigra, sylvestris
Teucrium sp.
158
chamaedrys, polium
Sambucus sp.
147
ebulus, nigra
Juniperus sp.
146
drupacea, foetidissima, oxycedrus, sabina
Salvia sp.
145
fruticosa, tomentosa, triloba, verticillata
Allium sp.
140
cepa, sativum
Thymus sp.
121
atticus, longicaulis, praecox, pseudopulegioides, zygioides
Hypericum sp.
118
atomarium, lydium, olympicum, orientale, perforatum, scabrum, triquetifolium
Plants in Table 2. are the most demanded plants for medical treatments and other reasons. It is
possible to think that these plants may be more destroyed than the others in Anatolia or the world.
However, List of Restrictly Protected Species in Bern Convention does not include the species in
Table 2. While sub-species of the Sideritis, Teucrium, Juniperus, Salvia, Thymus and Hypericum can be
found in the List, species benefited for traditional purposes cannot be observed in the List. On the
other hand, it is known that Sideritis arguta in Table 2. has only LR cd (lower risk, conservation
dependent) status concerning classification of IUCN in 1994. Sideritis congesta and Sideritis psidica
in Table 2. are classified as LR nt (Lower risk, near threatened) according to same classification for
nature conservation. These results may be indicators of the sensitivity of people on sustainability
of species used traditionally.
5. Architecture in Anatolia and Turkish Culture
In Byzantium, although houses included widely stone or bricks, most of the buildings were constructed by using wood. Spreading in tradition of wooden house in Ottomans may be related to
influence of Balcanic Culture (Batur, 2002). The basic system of construction in traditional Turkish
houses is the timber frame within filling material or and plaster. All these characteristics are the
same for all houses, regardless of the societal class of their owner. (Günay, 1998). Nevertheless, it
may be considered that this building type is also an inheritance for the periods including thousands
years. Indeed, this kind of houses were developed by Anatolian and related other civilizations.
Timber which is the main load-bearing material of the Turkish Houses also defines, its geographic
boundaries. The chestnut is the most dependable tree in timber construction along the Black Sea
coast. Oak and yellow fir are preferred in western and Northern Anatolia, while in the Mediterranean and up on the Tauros mountains cedars, cypresses and junipers are generally used. Different
types of pine were preferred in the interiors. Generally in humid and windy coasts the exterior was
cladded with wood while in others it is lime plastered. In forested areas the roof was cladded with
wooden slates while in most of the other regions cylindrical clay tiles were used (Günay, 1998).
The main building material in the Turkish house is wood and consequently the building method
is generally timber frame. The timber frame construction is preferable because Anatolia region is
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Opportunities in Turkish Cultural Heritage for Conservation of Natural Values
within the seismic zones. For the same reason the details of wood construction are very simple; simple joints and nailed bindings have been preferred to complicate joint details. The broad sectioned
timber elements do not exist in the Turkish house. This construction method also facilitated the
reconstruction, within a short time when whole quarters were destroyed instantaneously by fire.
(Günay, 1998).
Despite all advantages mentioned in above and secret opportunities, concrete and tenements for
houses took place of wooden buildings in last fifty years in Anatolia. Increases in price of wooden
materials, migration from rural areas to urban and fashionable trends etc. cause decreasing in the
number of wooden residences. But, after the İzmit Earthquake, in 17 August 1999, people reminded that Turkey is in seismic zone. Forty thousands people died in İzmit earthquake and too much
concrete houses and tenements were destroyed. After the earthquake, wooden residences became
a current issue and alternate for concrete.
According to Sözen, art historian and architect, wooden houses constructed on tableland imply the
best way of life adaptable to local snow, cold, rain, tree and fruit, shortly local conditions. Vanishing
of these cultural values means that lost of traditional knowledge and masteries produced by local
experiences (Sözen, 2002). Therefore, the main problem is not protection of a cultural existence, is
to conserve the knowledge hidden in it.
Restoration workings especially in Safranbolu region stimulated attention of the people for traditional Turkish houses and quarters. Another successful restoration workings in some places such
as Kastamonu, Muğla, Beypazarı, Taraklı, Göynük, and İbradı also increased attention of Turkish
people for the advantages of traditional Turkish houses. This situation should be considered as an
opportunity ensured by cultural conservation activities for forests which a resource of materials
needed for cultural aims. In other words, cultural conservation generates positive externalities for
forest management and nature conservation.
6. Discussion
Social assessment is a subject mentioned often in recent years in forest resources management. It
is used to determine the variables in planning environment and to evaluate alternate management
regimes concerning social conditions. However, there are some differences between contents of
social assessment studies. For example, planners of the ecotourism activities in protected areas
prepared different charts or forms on inventories, to determine ecotourism values of planning area.
In these studies, cultural values related to planning unit also considered. But, it is understood
that planners could take into consideration generally tangible components of culture. However, as
explained above, only in Turkish cultural heritage, many intangible elements are hidden and create
an opportunity for nature conservation. Whereas, the share of intangible elements of culture that
mentioned above is not enough in the inventory or social assessment analysis in present.
In order to discover the opportunities hidden in intangible cultural values for nature conservation,
site-specific situation analysis must be realized and expanded from tangible to intangible cultural
values. Furthermore, when occupations responsible for nature conservation activities, such as forest engineer, landscape architecture, biologist, ecologist, are investigated, it is understood that
they don’t have knowledge and experience to expose intangible culture values. Consequently, there
should be constituted a team, which helps for discovering together tangible and intangible cultural
opportunities for nature protection.
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Theme 7. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
7. Conclusion
When cultural inheritance in Anatolia is investigated, it is seen that there are some opportunities
to provide positive supports for wildlife protection. Especially, the sympathy on fallow deer, pigeon,
turtledove, goose, stork can be used as a symbol for public awareness in conservation projects. In
this way, attention of the people may be attracted on some animals such as wild cat (Felis silvestris)
and black stork (Cicinia nigra) that they have serious problems to survive their life. While management plans are developed for protected areas, entrance gates, simulation places, visitor centers and
education tracks are also designed. In this step, to use the species those were exhausted such as Anatolian leopard, lion, tiger is another opportunity to call attention on restrictly-protected species.
However, people having a great interest on breeding of hunter birds, partridge, nightingale, and
goldfinch may be accepted as potential human source for voluntary activities and participation opportunity for nature conservation. Especially, breeding of hunter birds was perceived like an illegal
activity in Turkish legislation and there were some serious conflicts between official employees and
breeders. In today, it can be done taking a “breeder certificate” and this situation is more suitable
protection strategy for cultural conditions. At the same time, if these breeders are controlled, it is
clear that there is another opportunity to sustain old experiences related to biology of these animals
for using in nature protection.
Experts preparing the nature protection plans in present have opportunities by discovering of intangible cultural values using some of them to support protection aims. But, it should not be
forgotten that some elements of culture might be a threat for protection aims at the same time.
Beliefs on owl, rabbit, partridge and boar in Anatolian culture have negative characteristics, at least
for some parts of the people. And these believes are the weakness, or problems and are accepted as
targets of the nature conservation projects.
In Anatolia, some local stories increase both value of protected areas and function as a cultural
memory. For this reason, visiting such as Cılbak should be included in official activities of agents
responsible for nature. Responsible conservation organizations must join effectively to manage
to this kind of folkloric activities and support them. These places both protect trees and forest in
which theirs around and provide sustainability of culture.
Likewise, Nevruz and Hıdrellez should be entered in timetable of official institutions. In this context,
Hıdrellez may be accepted and declared by General Directorate of Nature Protection and Natural Parks
as a beginning of the visiting season of protected areas. By celebrating of Hıdrellez officially, Directorate on nature conservation may benefit from these cultural opportunities for its public relations.
Lists of the benefited and protected species prove that there is no relationship between using of
NWFP density and sustainability. However, it is known that some species used in mass production
and traded densely such as Orchis spp are under the risk and vulnerable plants. These examples prove
that people connected with nature by using their traditional knowledge are more sensitive than commercial collectors. Therefore, traditional usage of people regarding protected areas should not be restricted; on the contrary this experience should be introduced as an “option value indicator” of other
plants.
However, while plant species are protected, traditional type or shape from them also must be recorded and sustained by nature conservationists. Consequently, a protected area not only conserves
natural values but also conserves traditional knowledge and intangible cultural heritage. As much
as NWFP, there should be saved knowledge related to these products. For this reason, introductory
and demonstrative activities that stimulate the traditional knowledge on NWFP should be used in
management plans of nature conservation.
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Opportunities in Turkish Cultural Heritage for Conservation of Natural Values
As shown in architecture example, achievements in protection projects on pure cultural values are
able to create positive approaches or opportunities regarding forests and natural protected areas.
For this reason, it should be researched that there are some possibilities of constituting synergy
in culture and nature protection issues. In this context, a decision of the Turkish Council of Ministers, numbered with 2512 in 2001 was an experiment to support cultural values by subsidizing
with cheap material for restoration projects. Unfortunately, quantity of the timber material used in
restoration project by using facility in the decision of 2512 is very low because of price applied for
allocation. By determining the timber prices near market, nature conservationists could not start
a cooperation opportunity.
8. Acknowledgment
The present work was supported by the Research Fund of Istanbul University.
Project No UDP-722/26042006.
9. References
Akurgal, E., 1997. Anadolu Kültür Tarihi, TÜBİTAK Popüler Bilim Kitapları 67, Ankara.
Alp, S., 2000. Hitit Çağında Anadolu, TÜBİTAK, Popüler Bilim Kitapları 140. Ankara.
Arslanoğlu, İ., 2001. Alevilikte Temel İnanç Unsurları ve Pratikler, Hacı Bektaş Veli Araştırma
Dergisi, 2001/20: 33-134.
Batur, A., 2002. Anadolu Uygarlıklarından 3. Binyıla Mesajlar, Geçmişten Geleceğe Arayışlar
Buluşması, 9-10 Mart 2002, Mimarlar Odası Genel Merkezi, İstanbul.
Çanakçıoğlu, H., Mol, T., 1996. Yaban Hayvanları Bilgisi, İ.Ü. Yayın No: 3948, O.F. Yayın No: 440,
ISBN 975-404-424-4, İstanbul.
Çığ, M., İ., 2000. Hititler ve Hattuşa, İştar’ın Kaleminden, Kaynak Yayınları, İstanbul.
Duymaz, A., 1993. Balıkesir ve Çevresindeki Yatırların Fonksiyonları Açısından Bir Değerlendirme,
6. Milli Türk Halk Edebiyatı ve Folkloru Kongresi.
Günay, R., 1998. Tradition of The Turkish House and Safranbolu Houses, YEM Yayın, ISBN 9757438-68-5, İstanbul.
Güvenç, B. 1997. Kültürün abc’si, YKY 902, İstanbul.
Kemal, Y., 2004. Üç Anadolu Efsanesi Köroğlu, Karacaoğlan, Alageyik, Yapı Kredi Yayınları.
Kudar, A., 1999. Ortaasya’dan Anadolu’ya Tahtakuşlar Rehberi, Tahtakuşlar Köyü Özel Etnografya
Galerisi Kültür yayınları No 9.
Öktem, N, 2002. Anadolu’daki Irksal ve Kültürel Alaşım, (Anadolu Uygarlıklarından 3. Binyıla Mesajlar, Geçmişten Geleceğe Arayışlar Buluşması, 9-10 Mart 2002), Mimarlar Odası Genel Merkezi,
İstanbul.
Sözen, M., 2002. Koruma Kültürü ve Kastamonu, Kastamonu Valiliği, ISBN 975-585-314-6.
Kastamonu.
Yavuz, Y., 2002. Erken Anadolu’daki Dinsel İnançların Günümüz Toplumları Üzerindeki Etkileri
(Anadolu Uygarlıklarından 3. Binyıla Mesajlar, Geçmişten Geleceğe Arayışlar Buluşması, 9-10 Mart
2002), Mimarlar Odası Genel Merkezi, İstanbul.
Yeşilada, E., 2002. Biodiversity in Turkish Folk Medicine, 3rd IUPAC International Conference on
Biodiversity, November 3-8 2001, Antalya– Turkey, (in Biodiversity Biomolecular Aspects of Biodiversity and Innovative Utilization, Edited by Bilge Şener, Kluwer Academic).
Yücel, A., 2002. Türk Dünyasında Hıdırellez Kutlamaları ve İşlevleri, “Hıdırellez” Celebrations and
Their Functions in Turkish World, Milli Folklor, 2002, S.54, ss. 35-38.
431
Learning from traditional knowledge on plants uses: a field investigation
in the area of Monte Ortobene (Nuoro, Sardinia)
Maddalena Piredda, Piero Bruschi & Maria Adele Signorini
Department of Plant Biology, University of Florence
p.le delle Cascine, 28 – I 50144 Firenze, Italy
e-mail: msignorini@unifi.it
Abstract
During the years 2004-2005, an investigation about local traditional uses of plants has been carried
out in the area of Mount Ortobene. The collected data were stored in a data-base and are currently
being processed. First results show that traditional uses of plants are still widely known within the
investigated community.
1. Introduction
Documenting and safeguarding traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) have become a central issue
in natural resource planning and management. Traditional knowledge of plants and their uses is the
result of natural evolutionary dynamics and technical skills developed through education methods
(e. g. telling stories) and experience (both apprenticeship and self-directed learning-while-doing).
In developed countries, the major part of this knowledge has already been lost as a consequence
of the “insatiable growth of the modern-industrial world system” (Zent, 1999). Consequently, it is
essential to record this fast-disappearing knowledge before it definitively vanishes together with the
present generation of elders.
Several researches on this subject have been carried out or are currently in progress in the Department of Plant Biology of the University of Florence, both in developing and in developed countries.
In the island of Sardinia (Italy), people are still very proud of their traditional cultural heritage
and a lot of folk uses of plants are still maintained, especially in rural and mountain areas. On this
subject, see, among the others, Camarda, 1990; Atzei et al., 1991; Ballero & Fresu, 1991; De Martis
Murranca, 1992; Ballero et al., 1997. 1998; Ballero & Poli, 1998; Loi et al., 2002; Palmese et al., 2001;
Maxia et al., 2005; and the recent monograph by Atzei, 2003.
2. Methods
This investigation has been carried out at Monte Ortobene near Nuoro (Central Sardinia), during the years 2004-2005. The extension of the investigated area is approximately 40 sq km, the
mountain is up to 995 m. high and the prevailing geological substrate is granite. The climate can be
referred to the Mediterranean type and vegetation consists mainly of different stages of Mediterranean series (maquis, scrubs, grasslands). Human settlements in this area are documented since
3500 B.C.
Special care was taken in choosing the informants. All of them were native and the source of their
knowledge about local uses of plants was only traditional culture. They were interviewed through
semi-structured questionnaires. All the plants cited by the informants were collected in loco during
plants gathering excursions leaded by the informants themselves. Plant specimens were later iden432
Learning from traditional knowledge on plants uses: a field investigation in the area of Monte Ortobene (Nuoro, Sardinia)
tified and dried; they are currently being mounted as herbarium specimens and will be filed into the
herbarium FIAF in Florence. All the collected data were recorded in a detailed data-base consisting
in a spreadsheet with rows containing the species names and columns containing the information
on each species. For each plant, the following general data were recorded: scientific name (species
or subspecies); botanical family; local; vernacular name(s); number of informants reporting that
use; categories of use; number of different uses; whether the plant is wild or cultivated; local frequency; and habitat. Apart from scientific names and classification, all the data have been recorded
exactly as they were referred by the informants.
For each category of use, further information was collected, such as used part(s) of the plant, preparation and detailed explanations of their usage (recipes, etc.). For medicinal plants, also therapeutic
action, administration methods and dosages were recorded.
In processing data, some indexes were also used, in order to quantify the diversity of information
contained in each species of plant and/or in each informant. They were:
Shannon Index:
s
H’= – ∑pj logpj
j=1
Evenness Index:
E: H’/log s
In both, s is the number of cited uses, for each plant or for each informant.
3. Results
Data processing is currently in progress, but initial results are of some interest.
The informants were mainly women (82%), and almost all over 60 years old (94%, with 35% over 75
years old). Educational levels varied among informants: 6% had received education at the university
level, 35% at the high school level, 6% at the secondary school level, and 53% at the primary school
level. Some of the initial results of the investigation are summarized in the Table 1.
Table 1. Summary of initial results
Total number of used species
109
Number of used species per informant
Min. 2 – Max. 83
Total number of known uses
352
Number of known uses per informant
Min. 3 – Max. 136
Shannon Index per informant
s
(H’=-∑pj logpj)
j=1
Min. 0.63 – Max. 4.16
Evenness Index per informant
(E = H’/log s)
Min. 0.57 – Max. 0.87
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Theme 7. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
As shown by Shannon Diversity Index values and Evenness Index, the information was not equally distributed among the informants. However, this different level of knowledge proved not to be
statistically related to any socio-economic attribute of the informants.
Traditional uses were reported for 109 different taxa, belonging to 37 botanical families (Fig.2.).
The most represented families resulted to be Compositae (32%) and Rosaceae. Most of the
plants are widespread and even synanthropic species, growing mainly in disturbed habitats, such
as wastelands, marginal areas, roadsides, field edges and courtyards.
As expected, the most numerous categories of use resulted to be food and medicinal plants, but
information was also recorded about other uses, such as: magical-medicinal, domestic, handicraft,
ludic (i. e. as toys and pastimes), agricultural, religious-ritual, ornamental.
4. Conclusions
First results of this research show that a high richness and diversity of knowledge on traditional
plants uses still survives as a part of the cultural heritage of the studied community. It is of great
importance to consider this heritage in a sustainable management approach, with the aim to preserve all the components of environmental diversity.
5. References
Atzei A. D., 2003. Le piante nella tradizione popolare della Sardegna. C. Delfino ed., Sassari.
Atzei A. D., Orioni S. & Sotgiu R., 1991. Contributo alla conoscenza degli usi etnobotanici nella
Gallura (Sardegna). Boll. Soc. Sarda Sci. Nat. 28, 137-177.
Ballero M., Floris R. & Poli F., 1997. Le piante utilizzate nella medicina popolare nel territorio di
Laconi (Sardegna centrale). Boll. Soc. Sarda Sci. Nat. 31. 207-229.
Ballero M., Floris R., Sacchetti G. & Poli F., 1998. Ricerche etnobotaniche nel comune di Ussassai
(Sardegna centro-orientale). Atti Soc. Tosc. Sci. Nat. Mem., Serie B. 105, 83-87.
Ballero M. & Fresu I, 1991. Piante officinali impiegate in fitoterapia nel territorio del Marganai
(Sardegna sud occidentale). Fitoterapia. 62(6), 524-531.
Ballero M. & Poli F., 1998. Plants used in folk medicine of Monteleone (Northern Sardinia). Fitoterapia. 69(1), 52-64.
Camarda I., 1990. Ricerche etnobotaniche nel comune di Dorgali (Sardegna centro orientale). Boll.
Soc. Sarda Sci. Nat. 27, 147-204.
Loi M. C., Frailis L. & Maxia A., 2002. Le piante utilizzate nella medicina popolare nel territorio di
Gesturi (Sardegna centro-meridionale). Atti Soc. Tosc. Sci. Nat., Mem., Serie B. 109, 167-176.
Maxia L., Piredda S., Falqui F. & Loi M. C., 2005. Piante spontanee e alimentazione: utilizzi nelle
tradizioni popolari in Sardegna. Inf. Bot. Ital. 37(1, B), 990-991.
Palmese M. T., Uncini Manganelli R. E. & Tomei P. E., 2001. An ethno-pharmacobotanical survey
in the Sarrabus district (south-east Sardinia). Fitoterapia. 72, 619-643.
Zent S., 1999. The quandary of conserving ethnoecological knowledge. A Piaroa example. In: Gragson T. L. and Blount B. G. (eds.) Ethnoecology. The University of Georgia Press, Athens.
434
‘Vayal’ – the sacred landscape in the forest of Kerala
Chirakkal Ramapanikker Rajagopalan
Center for Folklore/Indigenous Knowledge Studies
Trichur, Kerala, India
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
This paper discuss on the complex eco-sacred heterogeneous landscape called ‘Vayal’ (meaning
‘agriculture field’) by the first people of Kerala, the forest dwelling tribes in the Parambikkulam
wild-life sanctuary (area km2 295.00, date of notification 12 Feb 1973), Palghat district. The ‘Sahyadri’ forest, the Western Ghats is a hotspot of diverse flora and fauna. Each community in the
forest has distinct tribal features and ethnic eco-history. The tribes living in tune with nature have
a very strong oral tradition, eco-culture, epistemology and shamanistic performances encoded with
a number of concepts for the preservation and enrichment of biodiversity. Their indigenous knowledge systems and culture impart a lot of information about their contributions for keeping the
ethno science and fertility ecology; and this forest lore about their primitive landscapes was handed
over from generation to generation. Their knowledge about the tuberous roots, medicinal plants,
honey, rice varieties, edible plants and of fruits is rich and scientific. As totemism connected with
the concept of conservation of bio-diversity was strong, its rituals and customs were automatically
transmitted. Animism and anthropomorphism was a strong concept and also a practice; hence
they had a devotional feeling towards land, animals, plants and the whole forest landscape. They
worshipped trees, animals, hills and rivers; and their myths and songs are indicators of their intuitive knowledge and worldview about nature. Ethnic people have acquired knowledge about their
surroundings through hundreds of centuries of experience and observations.
‘Vayal ‘is the part of the landscape ecology of the forests of Kerala.The main inhabitants in the
forest is Kadar, Malayar and Muthuvans of this area.’Vayal’ is the open space in the middle of the
evergreen forest and usually the wild animals like Spotted deer, Samber deer and Gaur (Indian bison) gather here for grassing, drinking water and using it a resting place. I collected ethno zoological, ethno botanical and environmental knowledge from the tribes on this landscape. Some of the
‘Vayals’ are very marshy and like Myristica swamp. There are many fresh water swamps in Kerala
evergreen forests, there the common trees being, Myristica magnifica, M. malabarica etc. Myristica
swamp is reported by Krishnamurthy (1960) as a rare and threatened habitat from the Western
Ghats of southern Kerala. The natives considered this open space as sacred and it is the ‘watershed of the forest’. We can study the ‘observation method’ and the knowledge of wild ecology from
the conceptions about this open space of tribes. They have there own world view about the forest
ecology. This is part of the ecohistory of the landscape. The water in this space called ‘old water’,
means primitive water and they never touch or misuse this sacred pond or natural tank. They also
observe the behavioral system and internal signaling methord and the communication net work of
the animals in the forest.
Indigenous knowledge is the sum of all the achievements traditionally attained in every field by the
indigenous people in each place. Traditional Environmental Knowledge is a branch of indigenous
knowledge systems that latended in the cultural expressions of ethnic communities. Indigenous
Knowledge Systems have views different from the conventional modern research practices. Its
strategies are totally eco-centric and objective as well as intuitive and they are derived from practical and innovative life of the generations. Their classification systems, identification through the
observations, etc are different from modern science. The methodology cannot be defined as a uni435
Theme 7. CONSERVATION OF TRADITIONAL FOREST KNOWLEDGE
versal formula for everything and everywhere, but it sprouts from the logic of the local people and
specific landscape. The subtle categorization of aspects related to conservation ecology, indigenous
agriculture, ethno zoology etc. at micro levels, is done by acquiring knowledge from local people
intricately and is supported with the massage of sustainable harvesting of biological resources. The
images, motifs and metaphors in the local myths and art forms are imprints of their simple life and
primitive landscape. Their songs and myths are the diachronic documentation of eco-history. Performing arts are the visual language of the landscape they live in, and all of them invariably are the
register of the biodiversity. These sacred landscape help to retain the alluvial soil and water level
of the area providing ecological balance. These swamps are left untouched and protected by forest
communities which are the like herbariums of the forest.
References
State Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for Kerala, 2005. Kerala Forest Research Institute,
Peechi.
Rajagopalan C.R. (ed). 2004. Summer Rain: Harvesting the Indigenous Knowledge of Kerala,Centre
for IK studies, Trichur.
436
A Blackfoot (Kainai) traditional land use study: preserving and protecting aboriginal
traditional knowledge through natural resource education in Alberta
Lorne West1 & Francis First Charger2
1
Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service
2
Traditional Land Use Coordinator and Blackfoot Elder, Red Crow Community College
e-mail: [email protected]
Cardston, AB, Canada T0K 0K0
e-mail: fi[email protected]
Abstract
Traditional land use and occupancy studies have been completed in various parts of western and
northern Canada during the recent past by local and regional First Nations communities, to assist
in the collection and conservation of traditional aboriginal ecological knowledge and culturally significant sites. These studies are costly to complete, and funding issues often represent one of the
major challenges to be faced. Through an innovative process of intergovernmental collaboration,
the Red Crow Community College, in association with the Blood Tribe (Kainai) in southern Alberta, Canada, recently implemented a significant traditional land use study for their reserve lands and
traditional area. By developing a specialized course curriculum and education program targeting
local community members, and combining this with local elder traditional knowledge, a community
driven project was completed. With adequate financial resources from the First Nations Forestry
Program (FNFP) and other national and provincial government funders, a program was developed
to include completion of geographic information system (GIS) training and database management.
Traditional plants were located, identified, and mapped with local First Nation elder guidance, and
recorded using a Global Positioning System (GPS). By integrating the involvement of aboriginal
youth trainees, Blood Tribe elders, and modern computer technology, the study facilitated the collection of and provision for the transfer of traditional ecological knowledge for the tribe. The First
Nations knowledge collected and mapped during these studies is also proving useful for informing
and negotiating with external decision-makers seeking to access to and develop of local resources
within the traditional territory. Specifically, the cultural significance of local plants, animals and
culturally significant places, e.g., medicinal sites, burial sites, ceremonial sites, and other sites
of traditional events or significance are now able to be given full consideration before development proceeds. This process will help ensure conservation by providing a better understanding of
and enhancing stewardship of local resources. In summary, the study describes a unique approach
to ensuring the conservation and management of traditional knowledge from a Canadian aboriginal perspective. Though collaboration, a community-based knowledge collection and preservation
model is described, which will be of interest to other aboriginal and non-aboriginal communities
throughout Canada and internationally. This approach will also describe how historic and culturally significant information, essential for meaningful participation by aboriginal groups in resource
management can be recorded and utilized.
437
Theme 8.
PLANNING
AND MONITORING
FOR CONSERVATION
Multitemporal forest spatial patterns analysis
in the framework of sustainable forest management
Gherardo Chirici
Università del Molise, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Quantitative methods that link spatial patterns and ecological processes at broad spatial and temporal scales are needed both in basic ecological research and in applied environmental problems.
Ecological processes such as plant succession, biodiversity, foraging patterns, predator-prey interactions, dispersal, nutrient dynamics and the spread of disturbance all have important spatial components. New methods to analyse and interpret landscape have been developed in the past decades
thanks to the growing diffusion of Geographic Information System technology and the increasing
offer of remotely sensed data. Landscape ecology methods emphasize large areas and the ecological effects of the spatial patterning of ecosystems. Specially they consider (1) the development and
dynamics of spatial heterogeneity, (2) interactions and exchanges across heterogeneous landscapes,
(3) the influences of spatial heterogeneity on biotic and abiotic processes, (4) the management
of spatial heterogeneity. Since the mid of the 80’s landscape ecology is increasingly dealing with
spatial analysis of ecosystems. The ability to quantify landscape structure is a prerequisite to the
study of landscape function and change. Therefore, much emphasis has been put on developing
methods to quantify landscape structure. Landscape ecology is frequently specifically linked to the
study of the spatial and temporal characteristics of natural and semi-natural environments, even if
important applications are also linked to other environments (for example in urban and agricultural
areas). In this area the conjunctions between forest monitoring and landscape ecology have a growing interest, especially in order to achieve the result of fulfilling such a source of information in
traditional forest management approaches. Within such a framework a number of studies are now
dealing the relationships between forest spatial patterning and forest functions.
Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) represents a vision for the use of forests based on satisfying ecological, economic and social values. The international and national policy arenas, the forest
sector, non-governmental organisations and scientists are the major actors trying to develop and
interpret international and national policies on sustainable development in forests. In Europe the
Ministerial Conference for the Protection of Forests in Europe (MCPFE) has derived a complete
set of indicators defining different SFM criteria at the policy level, including biodiversity and forest health. Landscapes are not constant. The variation among different European regions in the
trajectories of the development towards the SFM vision is a reflection of this. Because most of
Europe’s landscapes have an origin as forests or wooded grasslands, forests and forestry must be
seen in a landscape perspective. Spatial indicators are then required for the policy implementation
process. Following the review of policy instruments related to Biodiversity and Nature protection
and their respective objectives, identified available European sets of indicators. Regarding specific
forestry related indicators the “Improved Pan-European indicators for Sustainable Forest management” comprises a set of six criteria and 35 quantitative indicators. The keys factors as potential indicators of European forest biodiversity project BEAR of the 5th EU RTD that characterize
the forest ecosystem according to the major ecosystem attributes (structural, compositional and
functional) and scale (national/regional, landscape, stand). Indicators for Biodiversity and Nature
protection, reference to the European Core Set of the European Environmental Agency, for reporting and policy-making on several thematic environmental topics has been made, particularly on
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Theme 8. PLANNING AND MONITORING FOR CONSERVATION
sets on biodiversity and terrestrial environments. In more detail some of the most relevant already
operative indicators directly related to the landscape dimension of forests are: in MCPFE indicators 1.1 (Forest area and changes) and 4.7 (Landscape pattern); in the BEAR factors “forest area
with respect to forest left to free development” and “History of landscape use”; from the EEA the
indicators “Landscape changes” (BDIV 06) and “Landscape-level spatial pattern of forest cover”
(BDIV 06A).
It is now clear that forest spatial pattern is one of the main source of information to correctly support sustainable forest management choices. The relationship between forest spatial patterning
(and its relationship with the scale of analysis and the changes over the time) and forest functions
have to be anyway clarified and investigated with more detail. In the present paper several methods
for quantifying forest spatial structure are presented in a set of test areas where multitemporal forest maps have been carried out. For each forest map, for each test area and for each date of analysis
a complete group of spatial pattern indicators have been tested both at landscape and patch level
with the extensive use of moving windows filters in a GIS environment. The final aim of the work
is to provide an evaluation of different techniques for the quantitative evaluation of changes in
forest spatial pattern, enhancing information contribution and redundancies between indicators related, for example, to: fragmentation, landscape diversity, cohesion, contagion, core areas and patch
shapes. Results are presented and discussed in order to support the future operative use of multitemporal forest maps for spatial pattern analysis providing useful information for the derivation of
indicators to support SFM as required in most relevant international frameworks at pan-European
level (such as MCPFE and EEA).
442
A methodology to integrate SFM standards on forest cultural heritage
into meso-scale forest planning: preliminary results of the Ri.Selv.Italia 4.2
research project
Laura Secco1, Silvia Agnoloni2, Paolo Cantiani4, Isabella De Meo3, Fabrizio Ferretti2 & Davide Pettenella1
1
Dipartimento Territorio e Sistemi Agro-Forestali – Università di Padova,
Viale dell’Università 16, Agripolis, 35020 Legnaro (PD), Italy
2
Consiglio per la Ricerca e Sperimentazione in Agricoltura – Istituto Sperimentale per la Selvicoltura
(CRA – ISS) SOP Firenze, Viale delle Cascine 1, 50144 Firenze, Italy
3
CRA – Istituto Sperimentale per l’Assestamento e l’Alpicoltura, P.zza Nicolini 6, 38050 Villazzano (TN), Italy
4
CRA-ISS, via S. Margherita 80, 52100 Arezzo, Italy
e-mail: [email protected], [email protected], paolo.cantiani@ entecra.it,
isabella.demeo@ entecra.it, [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
Nowadays, the role of traditional cultures and local knowledge for maintaining forest landscapes
values is recognised by different sets of standards for Sustainable Forest Management (SFM),
such for example those developed at international level by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)
or those defined within the framework of the Ministerial Conferences on the Protection of Forest
in Europe, which are now the basis for the Programme for Endorsement of Forest Certification
schemes (PEFC). A national research project named Ri.Selv.Italia – task 4.2, launched in 2001 and
with more than 30 among scientists, experts and public forest officials taking part in, is developing
a methodology to integrate such SFM standards into meso-scale forest management planning. In
addition, considering that public participation is a key-element to identify traditional knowledge,
social values of local forest landscapes and ecosystems, and their most appropriate management
systems, the project is dealing with participatory approaches too. The paper includes four parts. In
the first one, some key concepts to understand the Italian forest planning context and examples of
sets of SFM standards which include forest cultural heritage and related themes are reported. In
the second part, the Ri.Selv.Italia 4.2 research project and the (draft) methodological approaches
proposed by the research group are presented, focusing on forest cultural heritage and landscapes.
Preliminary results and expected outputs are described into the third part of the paper. Final considerations and recommendations are included in the fourth and last part.
Keywords: meso-scale forest management planning, SFM standards, participatory approaches, Italy.
1. Introduction
The adoption of SFM standards as forest resources management guidelines or as forest management certification requirements is becoming more and more familiar within the forestry sector
world-wide. The role of traditional cultures and local knowledge for maintaining forest landscapes
values is recognised by different sets of such standards (Principles, Criteria and Indicators) for Sustainable Forest Management (SFM). According to the SFM standards developed at international
level by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), for example, sites of special cultural, ecological,
economic or religious significance to indigenous peoples or local communities have to be clearly
identified and protected by forest managers; indigenous peoples have to be compensated for the
application of their traditional knowledge regarding the use of forest species or management systems in forest operations. Similar requirements are included in other sets of SFM standards, such
as those developed at the level of forest management unit within the framework of the Ministerial
Conferences on the Protection of Forest in Europe, which are now the basis for the Programme for
Endorsement of Forest Certification schemes (PEFC).
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Theme 8. PLANNING AND MONITORING FOR CONSERVATION
At the same time, the adoption of participatory approaches is increasing within the forestry sector,
following progresses in decision-making processes for environment protection and management.
Regarding this, it is worthwhile to mention that local communities participation and stakeholders
consultation are key-elements to properly identify traditional knowledge, social values of local forest landscapes and ecosystems, as well as the most appropriate management systems for protecting/improving them.
A research project named Ri.Selv.Italia – task 4.2. is developing a methodology to integrate selected
SFM standards and participatory approaches into meso-scale forest management planning. A brief
description of some key concepts to understand the Italian forest planning context, included the
meso-scale planning concept, and examples of sets of SFM standards which refer to forest cultural
heritage and related themes are reported in this first part of the paper. In the second part, the research project and the (draft) methodological approaches proposed by the national research group
are described. In the third part, the main preliminary results and expected outputs are described.
1.1. Key concepts to understand forest planning in Italy
Making reference to the National Forest Inventory (actually in progress), forests in Italy extend
over 10,673,589 ha, corresponding to 35.4% of the total land area. In order to fully understand
the Italian forest planning context, it is worthwhile to briefly describe hereafter some key features (Pettenella et al., 2005).
First of all, potential vegetation of Italy envisages forest distribution from coastal and plain
zones up to the higher elevations, mainly because of the climate heterogeneity of the country.
Various forest environments are distributed over the different Italian regions. Not only the Italian flora includes more than 5,800 species (5,300 herbaceous and 500 woody) (in the all Europe
1
there are in total 7,500 species), but 5 main forests types are spread along the peninsula and
approximately 150 forest typologies are officially defined at national level.
Moreover, plain mesic deciduous forests, in the past abundant in the northern river valleys (i.e.
the Po Valley, from Turin to Venice), have been cleared a long time ago and replaced by agriculture, industry and heavy urban settlements. Most of the wooded areas (about 95%) are therefore
left on hills and mountain regions, which often represent the less developed areas. In such areas,
where industry is not developed or very limited, agriculture and forestry are poor economic activities: income of local population is often based on tourism and quality farm products, while
timber and fuelwood productions have a minor role.
Italian forests are often multi-functional forests. Soil-erosion control and water cycle regulation
are very important goals in Italian forest management due to the very irregular morphological
features of the country and the importance of water resources. It is also important to keep in
mind that people’s demand for recreational uses, as well as itsconsciousness of the ecological role
of forests for biodiversity conservation, are very strong today. Among others, forests’ functions
like recreational, tourism and educational uses are strictly connected with landscapes protection,
cultural heritage and local tradition conservation. Often, incomes from mushrooms, chestnuts,
truffles, and other NWFPs but also from tourism and recreational services (e.g. concerts in forests with famous national and international artists in July and August in Trentino region) are
often much higher than those from timber production (Pettenella et al., in press). Nevertheless,
the economic value of these kind of forests services is rarely recognised by the market.
1 Italian forests, according to the syntaxonomical classification system, can be grouped within the following main types: Mediterranean
evergreen forest (Quercetea ilicis); Mixed oak woods and other mesic forests (Querco-Fagetea, Alnetea glutinosae, Salicetea purpureae);
Montane beech woods (Querco-Fagetea); Alps and Apennines pine woods (Erico-Pinetea, Junipero-Pinetea); Boreal coniferous forests
(Vaccinio-Piceetea).
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A methodology to integrate SFM standards on forest cultural heritage into meso-scale forest planning:
preliminary results of the Ri.Selv.Italia 4.2 research project
Especially in the last years, a decreasing active forest management can be recorded in the country. A part from the general trend of abandonment of mountain rural areas, this is due to some
structural weaknesses of the Italian forest sector: high fragmentation and very limited dimensions
of forest ownerships (60% are private forests, with an average area of about 3.2 ha/holding; 40%
are public forests, mainly owned by municipalities and communities); environmental and land
management policies based on strong “command and control” instruments, without any forma of
compensation for the protection against soil erosion, forest fires, environment degradation, etc.;
very limited dimensions and scarce organisational structure of logging companies and sawmills, if
compared with non-domestic competitors; reduced competitiveness of local supply in the framework of the international timber market (internationalisation and concentration of wood working
industries, low prices for low quality wood products, etc.); still limited development of new markets for public environmental and social services deriving from forests management.
As a consequence of the abandonment process, there is a clear forest cover expansion: about 23 millions hectares are actually under natural conversion to forests, on a total amount of about
10 millions of hectares of wooded lands. This phenomenon leads to some positive impacts (increased stock, biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration), but also to negative ones, especially in Mediterranean areas: risks of fires, un-controlled grazing, homogeneous landscape and
habitat, loss of cultural heritage, loss of employment opportunities, etc.
Finally, decentralisation of the administrative power in the agro-forestry sector has to be mentioned. Exclusive competencies in the forest sector have been transferred to the Regional and Local
authorities. As a consequence of a federal administrative structure, in Italy there are 21 regional
forest policies, but not a National Forest Plan, while the State still maintains a national forest
service (Corpo Forestale dello Stato). This situation has led to many different models of institutional
arrangements for forest policies implementation at local (regional) level throughout the country.
In this context it has been considered of high relevance to agree among the representatives of
2
various regional forests administration with the support of a group of researchers a common
methodological frame for a meso-scale forest plan (Piano Forestale di Indirizzo Territoriale – PFIT).
This planning instrument is intended to have an intermediate role between forest-managementunit-level plans and regional forest plans. PFIT should address long-term forest management issues, with special attention to land and environmental aspects (such as landscapes, biodiversity,
etc.) that cannot be properly considered by referring to a single forest management unit (i.e.
single forest ownership). In other word, it should refer to an area which includes several land
ownerships, presumably both public and private (e.g. a watershed, a valley, a park, …).
Moreover, PFIT should be designed taking into account also specific management objectives
and targets expressed by local actors and institutions, even those only marginally involved in
forest related activities (tourism, recreation, watershed management, pasture, renewable energy
resources, etc.). In such a perspective, it is expected to be a useful tool for collecting information
on a certain territory and for better coordinating all local actors.
1.2. SFM standards on forest cultural heritage
By means of specific Criteria and Indicators (C&I), the SFM standards are reference documents
that regulate a large range of forest management, forest planning and monitoring aspects, taking
2 F.Ferretti is the scientific responsible person for the “Ri.Selv.Italia 4.2 – Information Systems to Support Forest Management” Research S.Agnoloni,
I.De Meo and P.Cantiani are member of the working group coordinating the research at national level. D.Pettenella and L.Secco are the
scientific responsible persons for the project’s section 4.2.10 – Criteria and Indicators for SFM.
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Theme 8. PLANNING AND MONITORING FOR CONSERVATION
into consideration environmental, social and economic dimensions (e.g. biodiversity conservation, property rights, forest workers health and safe, environmental impacts of harvesting operations, multi-functionality of forests, forest plantations, etc.). As the SFM is a concept based
on values that inevitably differ throughout the world’s forests and forest management systems,
SFM standards differ by regions or countries (Rametsteiner, 2000). In addition, SFM standards
differ according to: application level (global, regional or local, forest management unit); predominant approach (performance-based or system-based); main goals (monitoring of forest resources trends towards SFM or forest management certification); groups of interest which have
developed the standards (governmental or non-governmental initiatives).
As a consequence, existing SFM standards world-wide are various and numerous (Lammerts
van Bueren and Blom, 1997; Rametsteiner, 2000). Among those developed at international/re3
gional and governmental level can be mentioned: the ITTO C&I for tropical forests, the ATO
Principles and Criteria for Central/South Africa, the FAO/UNEP lists of criteria and indicators
for other African regions, the Tarapoto, Lapaterique and Montreal lists of criteria and indicators
respectively for South and Central America, and for temperate/boreal forests outside Europe,
the MCPFE Criteria and Indicators for European forests. Among the standards developed by
non-governamental initiatives at international level can be mentioned: the FSC Principles and
Criteria which are the basis for the FSC forest certification scheme; the PEFC Criteria and Indicators (developed in the framework of the MCPFE standards) which are the basis for the PEFC
forest certification programme. National standards have been developed by governments in several countries, e.g. Canada, Norway, Malaysia, Brasil, Denmark, Ghana, etc. Most of them have
been recognised under the PEFC umbrella. SFM standards have been defined also by research
institutes like CIFOR or the Tropenbos Foundation.
The paper refers only to those standards more strictly regulating aspects of forest management
related to the protection and improvement of forest landscapes and ecosystems, cultural heritage and traditional knowledge. Some examples of such kind of rules are reported in the following,
not exhaustive list (in bracket, the specific standard which they source from is mentioned):
Sites of special cultural, ecological, economic or religious significance to indigenous peoples
or local communities have to be clearly identified and protected by forest managers (FSC P2,
PEFC 6.5).
Indigenous peoples have to be compensated for the application of their traditional knowledge
regarding the use of forest species or management systems in forest operations (FSC P3, P5).
The relationship between forest maintenance and human culture is acknowledged as important
(CIFOR C.5.3): i. Forest managers can explain links between relevant human cultures and the
local forest; ii. Forest management plans reflect care in handling human cultural issues.
Where the landscape is under protection for well recognised high conservation values (on the
basis of local authorities documentation), the forest landscape’s historical structure is maintained at least over 30% of the area (SAM – AAT 7 – AT 1.1).
Research and educational programmes oriented to local cultural heritage and traditional knowledge conservation are established and carried out (SAM – AAT 7 – AT 2.1).
3 The acronyms reported in the paper are: ITTO: International Tropical Timber Organization; ATO: African Timber Organisation; FAO/UNEP: Food
and Agriculture Organisation/United Nations Environment Programme; MCPFE: Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe;
FSC: Forest Stewardship Council; PEFC: Programme for Endorsement of Forest Certification schemes; CIFOR: Centre for International Forestry
Research.
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A methodology to integrate SFM standards on forest cultural heritage into meso-scale forest planning:
preliminary results of the Ri.Selv.Italia 4.2 research project
2. Methods
The national research project named Ri.Selv.Italia, financed by the Italian Agricultural and Forestry
Department of the Government, was launched in 2001. The task 4.2 – Information Systems to Support Forest Management is led by CRA-ISS (Consiglio per la Ricerca e Sperimentazione in Agricoltura
– Istituto Sperimentale per la Selvicoltura) and specifically deals with forest planning. One of the main
goals of this task is to create a common method for developing meso-scale forest plans to be used
all over the different Italian regions.
More than 30 among scientists, experts, forest managers, technicians and public forest officials
(belonging to Regional Forest Services) are taking part in the project. With a positive cooperation
attitude, the participants are periodically meeting at the national working group plenary sessions,
which are scheduled every 2 months, in order to discuss details on a meso-scale forest plan minimum contents, on practical problems and limitations in implementing the planning method, etc.
Restricted sessions, where single topics (e.g. social-economical aspects of forest planning, intersectoral coordination among forest planning and urban planning, etc.) are discussed and addressed
by sub-working groups, are also carried out.
An important part of the project is led in collaboration with Dept. TeSAF of the University of
Padova, with the objective to incorporate Criteria and Indicators of SFM into meso-scale forest
management planning. In other words, the forest management plans based in the future on this
method will take into account all data and information needed to demonstrate that forest management practices effectively comply with selected SFM Criteria and Indicators. Another objective, at
the same scale, is to integrate participatory approaches into forest planning.
As regard the first objective, different sets of SMF C&I have been analysed in order to select those
which properly can fit into a meso-scale forest management plan in the framework of the Italian forestry context. The selected standards are the following: a) the FSC Principles and Criteria
developed at international level, adapted for the Italian alpine regions; b) the PEFC Criteria and
Guidelines developed in the framework of the MCPFE and adapted at national level; c) the standards developed at national level by ANPA, the former APAT (Agenzia nazionale per la Protezione
dell’Ambiente e per i Servizi Tecnici), as a basis for monitoring the Italian forest resources and their developments towards sustainable management; and d) the SAM (Standard Appenninici e Mediterranei)
developed at national level by the initiative launched by Accademia Italiana di Scienze Forestali. All
this standards’ requirements (indicators) have been analysed, partly simplified and included, when
appropriate, into the modules for field surveys and/or other scale-specific studies which are needed
for meso-scale forest planning. The modules have been developed on the basis of those defined for
local-scale forest management plans by ProgettoBosco research project (Bianchi et al., 2006).
As regard the second objective, questionnaires have been developed for local stakeholders interviewing and actively involving into the planning process from the very beginning (Cantiani, 2006).
Among the toolkits that are going to be developed by the project, the first one is the definition of
a “methodological framework” (that means a procedurally well-defined participation process) with
basic operating rules, minimum contents and specific rules for public communication (Secco and
Pettenella, in press).
The method is actually being tested in field in 4 pilot areas in Italy: in the area of the Comunità
Montana Collina Materana, in Basilicata region, in the South; in two areas (Comunità Montana Alto
Molise and Comunità Montana Trigno-Medio Biferno) in Molise region, the first one with an high forest vocation, and the second one with relevant farming activities and soil conservation and slopes
stability harms; in the area of municipality of Seneghe, in Sardinia region. These areas have been
447
Theme 8. PLANNING AND MONITORING FOR CONSERVATION
selected on the basis of 2 main criteria: (i) proper geographical, vegetation and socioeconomic characteristics; and (ii) a specific interest expressed by local forest public authorities to implement and
test a meso-scale forest plan.
3. Results and Discussion
At the moment, only preliminary results are available and a draft methodology has been developed,
as the project is expected to be finalized by the end of 2006 – mid 2007.
As mentioned, modules used in field surveys have been integrated for gathering basic data and
information on all the selected SFM standards requirements. Some of these requirements refer to
local landscapes features, traditional forest knowledge, uses and management practices, cultural
and social values related to forests.
Examples of how the attributes related to these aspects have been included in the modules can
be seen in Figure 14 . They refer to the micro-habitats and forest landscape esthetic elements attributes as surveyed in the field by adopting a forest inventory approach.
By means of direct interviews to local population/stakeholders, carried out within the framework of
the public participation approach, information on local forest landscape’s most appreciated characteristics, special places and their location, social values, etc. have been collected. Examples of how
the questionnaire is organized can be seen in Figure 2.
In addition, ad hoc direct surveys for evaluating tourist-recreational demand/supply have been carried out by means of a systematic survey of accesses for recreational activities; questionnaires to
a sample of tourists/visitors; direct interviews to public officials, hotels & restaurants associations,
cooperatives of operators supplying tourist and recreational services. Ad hoc surveys have also been
carried out for zoning the area on maps and for creating itineraries/routes about historical elements (rural houses, mills, furnaces, etc), cultural elements (museums, mansion houses, etc), religious elements (chapels, cloisters, churches, etc), naturalistic elements (springs, caves, etc), scenic
elements (viewpoints, panoramic roads, etc), wine and gastronomy elements (local food, typical
dishes, etc) and others.
The practical and widespread implementation of the method in Italy shall provide:
Common, minimum core set of data on forest resources over different Italian regions, which
is not fully achievable at the moment because of the mentioned 21 different “regional” forest
policies. Such a core set of data shall be a preliminary condition for comparing diverse forests
conditions and for (possible) coordination among local authorities.
Better coordination/integration of forest plans with other planning instruments, such as urban
planning, landscape management planning, transport network planning, economic development plans (e.g. Rural Development Programmes).
A wider use of forest management plans (also over small private forest ownerships).
4 Please note that the extract from the modules for field surveys (Figure 1.) as well as the extract from the questionnaire (Figure 2.) reported in
the present paper must be considered drafts still under development: they have to be submitted to the final discussion of the national working
group before being finally approved. At the moment, they are being tested in field and changes are possible on the basis of tests results and
of internal discussions.
448
A methodology to integrate SFM standards on forest cultural heritage into meso-scale forest planning:
preliminary results of the Ri.Selv.Italia 4.2 research project
Figure 1. Micro-habitats and forest landscape esthetic elements attributes extracted from the draft module for
forests’ field survey
Bozza in fase di sviluppo riservata al gruppo di lavoro Ri.Selv.Italia 4.2
SCHEDA DI DESCRIZIONE DELL’AREA DI RILIEVO
BOSHI
Assenza di microhabitat
MICROHABITAT
Microhabitat a carattere lineare o puntiforme
Microhabitat estesi
Specificazioni
Radure
Acque superficiali
Zone umide
Ghiaioni, macereti
Strutture abbandonate
Elementi geomorfologici rilevanti
Altro
Muretti a secco
Macere
Sorgenti, risorgive
Alberi con cavità naturali
Tane, grotte, ripari naturali evidenti
Alberi morti in piedi > 20 cm
Alberi morti in terra > 20 cm
Altro ______________________
no
PECULIARITA’ ECOLOGICHE-ESTETICHE
Specificazioni
Piante con caratteristiche di monumentalità
Alberi di particolare pregio estetico (fioritura vistosa, cambiamenti cromatici)
Abbondanza di epifite, licheni, muschi ricoprenti fusti e rami
Piante isolate con rami prostrati
Zona di nidificazione avifauna
Elementi geomorfologici rilevanti
Altre peculiarità
Figure 2. Examples of survey on relationships between local stakeholders and their own lands extracted from
the draft public participation questionnaire
Bozza in fase di sviluppo riservata al gruppo di lavoro Ri.Selv.Italia 4.2
MODULO PARTECIPAZIONE – Interviste
L-IL PAESAGGIO E IL LEGAME CON IL TERRITORIO (stetica e valore)
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Si sente legato al suo territorio?
A lei piace il paesaggio del suo comune?
SI
NO
Qual è la caratteristica che le piace di più? (zone agricole, pascoli, boschi, paesi, plternanza pascoli
e boschi, ...)
Secondo lei, il paesaggio è apprezzato da chi non è del posto?
SI
NO
È migliorabile?
Può indicarmi nella carta un luogo dalle caratteristiche paesaggistiche particolarmente attraenti per lei?
Ritiene che sia un compito degli enti pendersi cura del passagio?
SI
NO
Cosa potrebbero fare gli enti per prendersi cura del paesaggio?
E la popolazione locale cosa può fare per contribuire a mantenere un bel paesaggio?
Ci sono dei luoghi per lei molto significativi e tipici? (a cui si sente legato, es. luogo di cerimonie, feste ...)
In quali luoghi porterebbe un suo ospite? Perchè? (segnare sulla carta con “ospite”)
In generale, che importanza da’al paesaggio che la circonda?
Alta, media, scarsa ..................................................
Perchè? (E’bello, mon è bello, non è più bello come una volta, ha un valore affettivo, lo vedo come una
fonte di guadagno per me, per la comunità, .........................................................................................................)
449
Theme 8. PLANNING AND MONITORING FOR CONSERVATION
4. Conclusions and recommendations
Landscape management is a complex issue which needs a multi-disciplinary approach. The methodological proposal presented in this paper is aimed at providing a tool for landscape planning at
meso-scale level based on a reasonable compromise between data collection costs, stakeholders’
information and consultation, practicability of the method and quality of results. By sure other approaches, based on more detailed field analysis and on dynamic simulations of different land use alternatives, could lead to more detail results in understanding and planning landscapes structures.
In setting down the methodological approach special attention has been given to the aspects connected with the method’s feasibility, e.g. implementation costs. A detailed analysis of the costs connected with the method implementation will be part of the final step of the research programme5 .
Additional costs related to new forest planning attributes (i.e. those related to more detailed landscape aspects) and to a larger involvement of stakeholders in the planning process will be evaluated.
Local community participation and stakeholders consultation are crucial to identify traditional
knowledge, social values of local forest landscapes and ecosystems, as well as the most appropriate
management systems for protecting/improving them.
Finally it is possible that in the future, through field tests made by the research team and the practical implementation of the methodology by practitioners, a more balanced condition among traditional forest indicators on stocks, increments, removal potential and “new” indicators connected
with non-wood production functions will be reached.
5. References
Bianchi, M., Cantiani, P., Ferretti, F., 2006. ProgettoBosco. Metodi e organizzazione dei dati per
la pianificazione e la gestione dei boschi in Emilia-Romagna. Annali Istituto Sperimentale per la
Selvicoltura. Numero speciale, Arezzo anno 2001. Vol. 32.
Cantiani, M.G. (2006). L’approccio partecipativo nella pianificazione forestale, Forest@ 3 (2): 281-299.
Lammerts van Bueren and Blom, 1997. Hierarchical Framework for the Formulation of Sustainable
Forest Management Standards. The Tropenbos Foudation, NL.
Maso, D., Pettenella, D., Secco, L., in press. Timber production in the Italian Alps: an evolving
paradigm in forest management. In: Proceedings of IUFRO group 4.05.00 “Managerial economics
and accounting” International Conference – Rottenburg (Germany), May 17-20, 2006.
Pettenella, D, Brun, F., Carbone, F., Cesaro, L., Ciccarese, L., Klöhn, S., Venzi, L., 2005. Italy. Forest sector entrepreneurship in Europe. Country studies. Cost E30 Economic integration of urban
consumers’ demand and rural forestry production. Acta Selvatica and Lignarica Hungarica, Vol. 2,
383-436.
Rametsteiner, E. 2000. Sustainable Forest Management Certification. Ministerial Conference on
the Protection of Forests in Europe, Liaison Unit Vienna.
Secco, L., Pettenella, D., in press. Participatory Processes in Forest (Resources) Management: The
Italian Experience in Defining and Implementing Forest Certification Schemes. Paper presented at
“Public participation: Apple-Pie or a new mode of governance?” International Symposium. Gerardmer (France), June, 26-29, 2005.
5 The research programme results will be available in the Ri.Selv.Italia 4.2 Research Project web site at URL: http://win.ricercaforestale.
it/riselvitalia.
450
Analisi e valutazione degli indicatori per la caratterizazzione del paesaggio
su scala locale nell’Umbria centro meridionale
Andrea Sisti
Federazione regionale dei dottori agronomi e dottori forestali dell’Umbria, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Il lavoro si è posto l’obiettivo di individuare una serie di indicatori per misurare la qualità dello
stato attuale del paesaggio e le sue potenziali trasformazione nell’ambito di un contesto territoriale
prevalentemente rurale nell’area centro meridionale dell’Umbria dove la componente agroforestale
risultava dominante nella caratterizzazione del paesaggio. Dopo la caratterizzazione del territorio
di studio e le analisi delle diverse componenti del paesaggio attraverso la documentazione cartografica, fotografica ed ortofotografica, sono stati definiti degli indicatori di identità, di qualità e di
trasformazione nonché parametri oggettivi per la costruzione di un modello trasferibile per la valutazione e certificazione dell’identità e della qualità paesaggistica. Il secondo obiettivo è stato quello
di porre in relazione l’identità paesaggistica con le attività economiche e le produzioni tipiche del
territorio interessato, analizzando le relazioni, le dinamiche storiche ed il grado di rappresentatività
della/e produzione nella caratterizzazione del paesaggio esaminato. Il terzo obiettivo è stato quello
di porre in evidenza la caratterizzazione della/e identità paesaggistica/che del territorio analizzato
con gli interventi di trasformazione avvenuti in ambito rurale negli ultimi 5 anni ed il loro grado di
correlazione con le identità paesaggistiche evidenziate. I risultati hanno posto in evidenza alcuni
indicatori in grado definire le identità paesaggistiche territoriali, la loro qualità nonché indicatori
che consentono di valutare la trasformazione e la loro compatibilità con il paesaggio di competenza.
Tali indicatori sono trasferibili e possono rappresentare un utile strumento per la certificazione dell’identità dei paesaggi e degli interventi di trasformazione potenzialmente possibili (certificazione
in fase progettuale). La relazione tra contesto paesaggistico e prodotto tipico è abbastanza rilevante
ma allo stato non ne rappresenta un elemento di valorizzazione ed appunto nel caso di studio, gli
interventi di trasformazione eseguiti negli ultimi 5 anni non sono in relazione con le identità paesaggistiche individuate sia per funzione, per contesto e per forma.
451
Theme 9.
CULTURE AND
TRADITIONAL
KNOWLEDGE
The production of pitch in Calabria in the 18th century
Maurizio Gangemi
Università degli Studi di Bari, Facoltà di Economia
Dipartimento di Studi Europei Giuspubblicistici e Storico-economici
via C. Rosalba, 53, 70124 Bari, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
From ancient times until today, certain coniferous trees of the forests of Calabria have provided
resinous substances which, when suitably treated, have been use for a variety of purposes, from the
food sector to shipbuilding. One of the results of the growing human pressures on forests and the
progressive shrinking of wooded areas, is the impoverishment of specialist production of such nontimber products which has often been particularly valued for their quality. In the course of the 18th
century the resin-producing sector appeared to be in a clear state of crisis and was no longer able to
contribute significantly to the growing requirements of the navy of the Kingdom of Naples, which
was expanding rapidly in the last decades of the century. The deteriorating condition of the forests
of the Calabrian Sila, a vast Crown property over which the monarchy claimed wide-reaching rights
(including those of ownership of the trees and the production of pitch), was a subject of repeated
concern to the Neapolitan reformist movement. It is, however, the judge of the Vicaria Giuseppe
Zurlo who, at the end of the century, provides us with the most detailed analysis of the extent and
topography of the Sila area, of the conflict between the different interests involved (the Crown,
private individuals and the community), and of the centuries-old production techniques employed
locally in the treatment of resinous trees.
1. Introduction
As is perhaps true for many, also for me the word “pitch” for a long time represented something
dark, contaminated and even dangerous. In part this negative meaning originated in the family.
How often parents exclaim to their children expressions such as: “How do you always manage to
get as black as pitch”. Or: “Stop it, or I’ll hit you until you’re as black as pitch”. In both cases, if
they were dictated by desperation or assumed threatening tones, it was clear from these expressions that pitch promised nothing good: it was black, dirty and dangerous. It was better never to
have anything to do with it, above all after the terrorizing form which it inevitably assumed when
we came across it in the course of our studies at school. Pitch was the “thick black tar” that boiled
in the fifth pit of Dante’s Inferno in which swindlers, rogues and cheats of every kind were forced
to remain completely submerged and suffered eternal torment.
And yet, in the course of an excursion in the mountains between Africo, in the heart of the Aspromonte, the visit to a small and dilapidated church forced me to radically modify my sense of aversion
for pitch. The church was dedicated to St. Leo, and I had never seen such a strange statue: the saint
held pitch (in the form of a sphere) in his left hand and an axe in his right. The statue was dated
1635, but the cult had probably flourished as early as Byzantine times: St Leo was a “pitchman”,
that is he worked pitch, and the axe served to cut into the trees from which it could be obtained;
from the mountains of Calabria he went to Messina in Sicily, where he sold the pitch so as to help
the poor.
455
Theme 9. CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
Figure 1.
Church of St. Leo
(Africo mountains),
statue of the Saint. F. Bagalà
In this way pitch passed from the Dante’s terrifying infernal depths
to the hands of an Italo-Greek saint and, in relieving poverty, served
the common good. What a fascinating transformation! From further
study of the history of the region I learned how close was the relationship of Calabria with the production of pitch, and how pitch was
not always only “black”, but might even be “white” as well. From the
Bretti peoples to the Greeks and Romans, the great Calabrian forest, which with the name”Silva Brutia”, in ancient times, indicated
a geographical continuum – from Mount Pollino to the present-day Sila
and, across the Serre as far as the Aspromonte – had always provided
excellent wood for construction and a sought after quality of pitch.
This was so highly prized as to represent a kind of trade-mark, almost
a DOC ante litteram, if it is true that the mark on a fragment found in
excavations at Pompei in the 1980s indicates a specific content (Pix
Bruttia, pitch from Bruzio) and perhaps a particular special form of
amphora (De Caro,1985). All the classical sources (Cicero, Dionigi,
Strabone, Virgil and Pliny) agree in celebrating this important local
production, which continued, even though as a minor activity, until
the present day.
2. Traditional management of resin-yielding trees and forests in Calabria
In addition to the many ways in which their wood is used, various conifers (including the scotch pine,
cluster pine, larch, Aleppo pine and spruce fir) have always been tapped for resin to obtain substances
of use in shipbuilding, medicine, veterinary medicine, and in the sectors of food, typography and art.
Many trees of this species grow in the south of Italy, but in Calabria over a long period of time that
commonly known as “zappino” assumed a particular economic importance both for the utilization of
the wood and the production of resin1 .
An effective description of the techniques employed for this purpose in the Sila is that which Giuseppe
Zurlo gives in his “Official Report” of 1792, without neglecting some aspects of the productive process (Zurlo, 1852)2 . At the end of the 18th century the Crown which had already for many centuries
enjoyed prerogatives on the ownership of the trees of the Sila and held the monopoly on the production of pitch (jus picis), contracted out this right to an individual on the payment of rent. The contractor, in turn, contacted a certain number of “partitari” (sub-contractors) who undertook to carry out the
necessary work for five or six years, with the commitment to deliver a specific quantity of the product
every year in return for the corresponding amount of money (Zurlo, 1852, 58-59. Table 1.).
Table 1. Products delivered to the contractor every year by the “partitari” of pitch (18th century)
Years
Turpentine (cantara)
White pitch (barili)
I
15
700/800
II
12
1000
Black pitch (barili)
III
1000
IV
1000
V
700/800
Source: Zurlo, 1852. 58-59.
1 Although here we are speaking of the pinus laricio, the name zappino or according to G. Rohlfs, (Rohlfs, 1982) indicated different species of
pine and fir. For Zurlo (Zurlo, 1852) the fundamental distinction remains that between “red pines”, producing resin and employed in the making
of pitch, and “white pines” unsuitable for this purpose. The whole argument is more fully dealt with in Gangemi, 1989 and bibliography ivi cit.
2 While for an analytical description of the whole area cfr. (Zurlo, 1862-1867), see (Ostuni, 2004) for the most recent transcription of the Report to
the Minister Acton, together with that edited in the 1780s by the Presidi of the province of Calabria Citra (Cosenza), G. Danero and V. Dentice.
456
The production of pitch in Calabria in the 18th century
In selecting the forests, the “partitari” not only took into account the good quality of the trees and
their favourable exposition to the sun, but they sought as far as possible to obtain those nearest to
the villages of the areas of Cosenza and S. Giovanni in Fiore and the homes of the workers who, as
in previous generations, still used the experience, knowledge and techniques they had inherited to
extract the pitch (Placanica, 1985).
The first work should have begun in October but rarely did so before April. On the trunk of every
tree, on the side facing the sun and about two “palmi”3 from the ground, a notch was cut to collect
the the resin (Zurlo, 1852). This first operation, known as “intaccatura” (notching), was followed
after at least forty days, by another phase to “rinfrescare” the trees: having removed the bark, incisions were progressively made in small portions of the trunk above the notch, forming grooves that
guided the resin towards the cavity, while that which had already deposited was removed. The trunk
was barked up to four palmi above the notch within the first year, and up to 6 or 7 palmi within the
second year. This work continued all summer, according to a precise rotation. The workers divided
the forest into three sections; every day they worked to rinfrescare the trees in one of these sections,
each of which was subdivided into three “mangiate” (meals), so-called because the workers ate after
finishing work on the trees there. At the end of the third day they returned to the section they had
worked first, and in this way they continued for the three or four months of summer. For two years
they usually collected the resin, which was then refined by heating in the so-called “caccavi” (cauldrons) so as to obtain turpentine and white pitch.
From the third until the fifth, but sometimes even the sixth year they continued to produce black
pitch4 . To obtain this product it was necessary to “stellare” the trees already involved in the previous operations. A “stella“ is the piece of the trunk which is obtained by cutting ever more deeply
with an axe the part previously rinfrescato reaching, with the aid of the necessary trestles, a height
of more than 10 palmi from the notch. According to the peciari, in the course of these three or four
years the trees matured: that is there was a growing volume of resin flowing to that part of the trunk
continually exposed to the combined action of repeated cuts, the sun and the air, action which they
favoured by frequently hitting the tree with their axes. The pieces of trunk were then taken to the
places where the ovens were. Here, arranged in the form of a pyramid and covered by clay in a first
oven (Padula, 1977), they burned from the top: the substance which flowed out was the tar which,
refined in a second oven, became black pitch.
3. Decline of resin production in the late 18th century
The white pitch and turpentine were used in pharmacopoeia, in soap-making processes and in the
composition of colours and paints, while tar and black pitch were used in great quantities in a sector that was of great importance for the economy of the Kingdom – shipbuilding and the activities
connected to it. A limited demand for white pitch was accompanied by a greater requirement for
other resinous products for the expansion of the naval sector which began in the second half of the
century (Gangemi, 1999) and which had to be satisfied on foreign markets.
In 1771, the Kingdom exported white pitch and resin, for an overall value of 3,133 ducats while it
imported black pitch and tar for 19,832 ducats, the deficit was of 16,699 ducats (Galanti, 1969).
At the end of the century, the possibility of continuing to rely on traditional suppliers from the Sila
was judged to be seriously threatened. And the difficulty of production, which was even suspended
for some years, was reflected in prices, which increased by as much as four times in the course of
the 18th century (Figure 1.).
3 Unit of mesurement and money of the Kingdom of Naples used in the text: palmo = 0,263670 m.; rotolo = 0,8990997 kg.; barile = 50 rotoli (in
Calabria Ultra), 70/75 rotoli (in Calabria Citra); 1 grano = 12 cavalli, 10 grani = 1 carlino, 10 carlini = 1 ducato.
4 If the agreement is stipulated for six years, 1.000 barili are delivered for the fifth year and 700-800 for the sixth. (Zurlo, 1852, 80).
457
Theme 9. CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1750
1754
1758
1762
1766
1770
1774
1778
1782
1786
1790
1794
1798
1802
1806
Figure 2. The price of pitch from the Sila in Naples. 1750-1806. (grani per rotolo)
(Source: Romano, 1965. 118)
For every pitch-producing oven, Zurlo estimates that 60,000 pines were necessary and in some
years as many as 14 ovens were built at the same time, with an indiscriminate use of trees (Zurlo,
1852, 79). In his opinion, it would have been useful to prolong the period of turpentine extraction
and production could have been increased by cutting the notch for the collection of resin as low as
possible so as to exploit as much as possible the trunk of the pines, then using a large part of the
tree for the creation of pitch.
The trees intended for this purpose, however, after having supported for some time the treatment
described here, remained standing as long as they were able to resist the force of the winter winds and
the weight of the snow. Once they fell (they are then said to be “traverse”) they cluttered wide stretches of forest, and with or without permission from the authorities the proprietors started fires to free
the ground and make it suitable for sowing. If the fires reached other forests, so much the better. The
Crown’s rights over the trees and the production of pitch were, in fact, seen by the proprietors and
local communities as an intolerable yoke, a limit on full possession of their property, even though
these had often been obtained through the illegal occupation of crown property. Consequently, fires
and deforestation succeeded each other in a destructive spiral that seemed to know no limits.
The contribution that could be made by the remaining forestal resources of the region continued to
be limited with respect to the great Sila. But not even the conifers in the mountains of the Aspromonte were spared the damage provoked by centuries of pitch extraction (Liberti, 1984). Perhaps an
availability of fewer resources in this narrower part of southern Calabria may explain some differences that a source of 1740 appears to indicate in the practices adopted in the feudal mountains
of Bagnara: much evidence confirms that ovens and caccavi for pitch were used here for as long as
memory recalled; it is however specified that white pitch is extracted from zappino trees unsuitable
for the building of ships; black pitch, on the other hand, was obtained from the roots and trunks of
fallen zappini trees5 . In contrast with the practices on the Sila, therefore, it seems that in this area
of the Aspromonte, stellatura of the standing trees was not employed for the production of pitch,
instead, as was commonly the case in other localities, it was obtained from trees which had already
fallen and various parts of the trees were utilized6. The data on the exportation of pitch produced
in the Catanzaro and Reggio areas that I have managed to document, though discontinuous, appear
to indicate also here an activity that was in sharp contraction during the last years of the century
(Gangemi, 1991. Figure 2.).
5 State Archive of Catanzaro, Regia Udienza Provinciale, Cartella D 150, fascicolo XV, a. 1740.
6 Pine leaves and branches could also be used, as well as the clods of earth soaked in resin that had flowed from the trees (Giornale d’Italia,
1767).
458
The production of pitch in Calabria in the 18th century
1400
white pitch
black pitch
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1760
1763
1764
1765
1766
1767
1768
1769
1774
1775
1776
1778
1780
1783
1788
Figure 3. Pitch exported from Calabria Ultra in some years of the 18th Century (barili)
(Source: Gangemi, 1991. 43)
After describing the typical techniques and methods of pitch production and indicating its limits, in order to complete his task Zurlo makes some proposals for the improvement of the system
(Zurlo, 1852, 76-84). Above all he argues that the fiscal regime should be reviewed as he considers it to be an excessive burden on the sector, a considerable brake on greater production, which
was also penalized, in the long term, by the backwardness of the technology employed and by the
“fragmentation of the firms” Probably the creation of “a large industrial organization directly managed by the state”, as well as contributing to an overall rationalization of the sector, would also have
made it possible to reduce the damage caused by the utilization of the forests that was extensive
rather than intensive7 .
Zurlo then expresses a negative opinion on the renting system: for the purpose of the construction
and maintenance of the ovens: the contractors could enter private land with large numbers of men
and animals, thus provoking continual damage and sharpening the aversion for the forests on the
part of the proprietors’, whose only interest was that of spreading as much as possible the fires
in the forests that were to provide pitch. A valid alternative could have been that of limiting the
Crown’s rights to the fiscal returns and entrusting the proprietors of the land with the production
of pitch; they would then have viewed the pines as a valuable source of income which therefore deserved protection and development. Another solution was to restrict production only to some forests with clearly limited boundaries where only a few ovens would be built. Once the pitch work was
completed, the forests could be cut down or burned as long as they were renewed with the planting
of seeds in other, preferably sterile locations. The Crown would, however, have to directly assume
the responsibility of managing the whole sector itself, appointing honest and competent officials to
guarantee the supervision and direction of the work. This would avoid the many frauds perpetuated
by the contractors at the expense of the Treasury and the uncontrolled exploitation of a resource
that was once so abundant as to have perhaps created the mistaken idea that it was inexhaustible.
7 A proposal the echo of which could still be heard in the mid-twentieth century (Milone, 1956).
459
Theme 9. CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
References
De Caro, S., 1985. Anfore per pece del Bruzio. Klearcohs. 21-32.
Liberti, R., 1984, L’industria della pece nelle montagne dell’Aspromonte a metà del XVII secolo.
Incontri meridionali, 1, 191-194.
Galanti, G. M., 1969, (but first published Naples, 1786-1790, 4 vols), Della descrizione geografica
e politica delle Sicilie. (Eds De Marco D., Assante, F.), vol. II, E. S. I., Napoli, 554-557.
Gangemi, M., 1989, Boschi e legnami in Calabria nel XVIII secolo (1734-1806). Tesi di dottorato in
Storia Economica, Istituto Universitario Navale, Napoli, 44-57.
Gangemi, M., 1991, Esportazioni calabresi nel XVIII secolo. Le tratte di “Seccamenti salumi tavole
legnami e altro”. E. S. I., Napoli, 43.
Gangemi, M., 1999, Des arbres pour un arsenal royal: Naples fin XVIIIe siècle. In: Corvol, A. (ed),
Forêt et Marine, L’Harmattan, Paris, 41-62.
Giornale d’Italia spettante alla scienza naturale, e principalmente all’agricoltura, alle arti, ed al
commercio, 1767, XLVI, 362, (Maniera di ricavare il sugo resinoso dei Pini, e farne varie utili preparazioni per la Marina e per le Arti).
Milone, F., 1956, Memoria illustrativa della carta della utilizzazione del suolo della Calabria. C. N.
R., Napoli, 30.
Ostuni, N., 2004, “Un mistero inesplicabile”. La Sila nelle relazioni settecentesche. Liguori, Napoli.
Padula, V., 1977, Calabria prima e dopo l’Unità. (Ed. Marinari, A.), vol. I. Laterza, Bari, 180.
Placanica, A., 1985, La Calabria nell’età moderna, vol. I, Uomini strutture economie. E. S. I., Napoli, 346-357.
Rohlfs, G., 1982, Nuovo dizionario dialettale della Calabria. Longo, Ravenna, 803.
Romano, R., 1965, Prezzi, salari e servizi a Napoli nel secolo XVIII. Banca Commerciale Italiana,
Milano, 118.
Zurlo, G., 1852, Relazione ufficiale al cavaliere Giovanni Acton ministro di Sua Maesta Siciliana
intorno allo stato in cui erano le Regie Sile di Calabria nell’anno 1792, preceduta da una epitome
per Girolamo Scalamandrè. Stab. Tip. R. Ministero dell’Interno, Napoli, 58-64.
Zurlo, G., 1862-1867, Stato della Regia Sila liquidato nel 1790 da Giuseppe Zurlo Giudice della
Gran Corte della Vicaria. 4 Vols, Stamperia Nazionale, Napoli.
460
Russian wooden architectural heritage: century-old traditions to use forest products
Margarita Kisternaya1 & Valery Kozlov2
1
State Kizhi Open-air museum, 10a Kirova Sq., 185000 Petrozavodsk, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
2
Forest Research Institute, Karelian Research Centre of Russian Academy of Science
11 Pushkinskaya St., 185910 Petrozavodsk, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The paper compares the quality of pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) timber used in 18th century wooden
monuments and the wood quality of trees growing in old-age stands in Republic of Karelia. A wide
range of wood properties was investigated: wood density, annual increment, late wood proportion,
resin content. The research shows that timber of different quality was used in the monuments.
The density ranges from 400 to 600 m3, average tree ring width – from 0.08 to 0.20 cm, late wood
content from 22 to 30%, resin content from 5 to 10%. All logs have 200-300 annual rings. In ancient
times constructional methods were used to extend the service life of structures. They used higher
strength logs in the load-carrying parts of the structure and decreased the structure weight using
looser timber for the upper part. In nearly all parts of Republic of Karelia with intensive forest management only small sites with old-age trees (stock of 100-150 cub. m) have been preserved. The
timber has high density, high late wood proportion and low increment. The main problem however
is that as a rule this wood is damaged by wood-destroying fungi. Our paper discusses the new based
on deep knowledge approach for selection the timber for the restoration.
1. Introduction
Republic of Karelia located in North-West Russia is the land of forests and lakes. Scots pine (Pinus
sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst) are the main forest species in the region. The
tradition to use timber as a building material goes back to ancient times. Timber is an excellent
building material with good strength, insulation properties, processing capacity.
Wooden architectural monuments traditional for North-West Europe are an essential part of world
cultural heritage. Nowadays, Northern Russia is a treasury of wooden architectural monuments
200-600 years old. Problems of their conservation are widely discussed. According to the „Principles for the preservation of historic timber structures” (ICOMOS, 1999), timber of the same species, quality and size should be used to replace historic elements during restoration. That is why
the quality of timber becomes a key question in the restoration.
The search for and logging of timber for building purposes has always been based on deep knowledge and traditions. In our region, nearly all wooden structures (houses, churches, chapels) were
built of pine logs. Spruce was used rarely, mainly for roof details and small house-holding structures. The reason was better strength properties and decay resistance of pine wood. Birch bark is
still the best isolation material for wooden roofs. Aspen was used for wooden shingles.
Finding identical timber has become a problem nowadays. At first sight, the main challenge is to
find a 200-300 year old tree with a certain (sometimes quite big) diameter and length. One should
remember however that due to intensive forest management the structure of forests and the quality
of timber have changed greatly. Unfortunately, no database of information about the location, volume and quality of such timber has yet been compiled. The aim of the research was to evaluate the
possibility of finding identical material for restoration of wooden monuments in modern forests.
461
Theme 9. CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
2. Objects and methods
The quality of historic timber was investigated in the following architectural monuments: the
Church of Transfiguration in Kizhi; the Church of Assumption in Kondopoga, the Assumption
Cathedral in Kem’. Location of the churches is presented in Fig. 1. All the structures were built of
pine timber with 200-300 annual rings. The diameter of the logs ranges from 20 to 45 cm.
Figure 1.
Location of sites and monuments:
1. The Church of Transfiguration in Kizhi
2. The Church of Assumption in Kondopoga
3. The Assumption Cathedral in Kem’
4.-5. sample plots in Prionezhsky and Prjazha regions
Two of the churches – the 22-domed Church of Transfiguration (1714) and the Church of Intercession (1764) form the Kizhi Pogost architectural ensemble – are gems of the Kizhi Open Air Museum, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (Fig. 2a.).
The Church of Transfiguration is 37 m high, 29 m long from east to west and 26.6 m wide. The
structure incorporates three octahedrons set one on the top of another with transitional quatrahedrons. More than 2000 logs with an average diameter of 30.1 cm and 3-5 m in length were used in
the structure.
The Church of Assumption in Kondopoga was built in 1774. The Church is 42 m high, 24.2 m long
and 14.8 m wide. Logs with a very large diameter (40-45 cm) were used for the lower timber sets.
The main characteristics of the timber were very narrow tree rings (less than 1 mm) and high resin
content (Fig. 2b.).
The Assumption Cathedral in Kem’ was built in 1714. It is 35.5 m high, 33.47 m long from north
to south, 24.25 m wide, (Fig. 2c.).
Old-age pine forests were searched for in different locations. The quality of wood of 200-300 year old
pine trees growing on sandy soils was investigated in Prionezhsky and Prjazha districts (see Fig. 1.).
462
Russian wooden architectural heritage: century-old traditions to use forest products
A.
B.
C.
Figure 2. A: The churches of Intercession (left) and Transfiguration (right), Kizhi pogost
B: The Church of Assumption in Kondopoga
C: The Assumption Cathedral in Kem’
Core samples (5 mm in diameter and up to 300 mm long) were extracted with an increment borer
from the above-mentioned monuments and from living trees in selected sample plots. In each
stand, 15-25 trees were sampled at breast height (1.3 m) along random diameters. At least 20 samples were taken from each monument.
The cores were measured with a direct scanning X-ray densitometer and density profiles were obtained (Kozlov, 1991). The data obtained were computer processed to determine wood density and
annual ring characteristics: tree ring width, latewood/early wood ratio.
Resin content was determined after alcohol extraction by gravimetric method (Obolenskaya et al.,
1961). Chemical analyses were performed by the analytical laboratory of the Forest Research Institute, Karelian Research Centre of RAS.
3. Results and discussion
The quality of timber used in the monuments is still questionable. On the one hand, there is a commonly held opinion that the monuments have survived because of the high quality of the timber
used. On the other hand, the hypothesis is not corroborated by research data (Larsen,. Marstein,
2000). Our results support this idea − monuments in Republic of Karelia were built of pine (Pinus
sylvestris L.) logs with different density (400-600 m3), annual increment (0.08-0.20 cm) and chemical composition (Table 1.). Late wood content ranges from 22 to 30%, resin content is 5-10%.
Table 1. Physical properties of historic timber
Average tree rings width, cm
Density, kg/m3
Late wood content, %
The Assumption Cathedral
in Kem’
0.07-0.10
500-600
24-30
The Church of Transfiguration
on Kizhi
0.06-0.20
400-525
20-25
The Church of Assumption in
Kondopoga
0.06-0.10
450-600
22-30
Monument
Our investigations show that ancient carpenters used 200-300 year old pine trees for the structures.
Unfortunately, mainly only small sites (1 ha) with old-age trees (stock of 100-150 cub. m) have
survived in our intensive forest management region.
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Theme 9. CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
If we consider the wood of living 200-300 year old pine trees, the density varies from 470-550 kg/
cub. m, average tree rings width − from 0.08 to 0.11 cm, late wood content − from 29 to 32%, resin
content is 5-16% (Table 2.). Thus, it is noted for high density, high late wood proportion and low
increment. The main problem however is that the wood is as a rule damaged by wood-destroying
fungi. Some of the trees bear traces of forest fires.
Table 2. Properties of 200-300 year old pine timber
Average tree ring
width, cm
Average density,
kg/m3
Av. late wood
content, %
Av. resin content, %
Prionezhsky
0.11
515
31.9
7.4
Prjazha (site 1)
0.08
492
29.2
5.2
Prjazha (site 2)
0.08
474
29.0
16.5
Region
Traditionally, carpenters used constructional methods to extend the service life of structures. As
mentioned above, logs of different density were used in structures. E.g., pine logs with a density
of 400-525 kg/cub.m were used for the 37-m high 22-domed Church of Transfiguration on Kizhi
island. Yet, narrow-ringed wood was used for lower timber sets. The upper octahedrons were mostly
built of wide-ringed wood with lower density. The regularities revealed indicate that ancient carpenters tried to use timber in the most efficient way, used stronger logs in the load-carrying parts of the
structure and decreased the structure weight using looser timber for the upper part (Fig. 3.).
4. Conclusions
We can conclude that when selecting timber, restaurateurs should mind not only the tree species
and the size of the element, but also the following set of parameters: age, density, tree ring width,
late wood content and resin content. Thus, the preservation of historic wooden architectural monuments would be ensured.
Nowadays, finding timber suitable for restoration of wooden monuments has become a key problem. Although the quality of timber of 200-300 year old pine trees is very close to that of historic
ones, it is extremely difficult to find trees not damaged by biological agents. Given that only small
sites with old-age trees have survived to our days, compilation of the database of old-growth forest is of great importance. This kind of research would no doubt give rise to new approaches and
requirements to timber selection and help preserve our cultural heritage.
600
0,25
Av. tree ring width
Density
0,20
400
0,15
300
0,10
200
0,05
100
0
0,00
0,2
3,1
6,1
8,8
11,6
14,9
18,6
19,8
height of the structure, m
Figure 3. Properties of timber used for the building of the Church of the Transfiguration
464
22,4
cm
kg/cub.m.
500
Russian wooden architectural heritage: century-old traditions to use forest products
5. Acknowledgements
The research is supported by Russian Foundation for Basic Research. Grants No 03-06-88025, 0606-80076
6. References
Kozlov V.A., 1991. Rentgenoplotnometria – put’ k avtomatizatsii dendrochronologicheskih issledovanij. / Problemy issledovanija, restavratsii I ispol’zovanija architekturnogo nasledia Larsen K.
Marstein N. 2000. Conservation of historic timber structures. An ecological approach. Butterworth-Heinemann Series in Conservation and Museology. 141 p.
Obolenskaya A.et.al., 1965. Prackticheskie raboty po chimii drevesiny I tsellulozy. Moscow. 412 p.
Principles for the preservation of historic timber structures. Accepted by ICOMOS General Assembly. Guadalajara, Mexico. October 1999. 4 p.
Rossijskogo Severa. Mezhvuz. Sbornik. PetrGU. Petrozavodsk. p.168.
465
Cultural indigenous management systems as a basis for traditional community
forestry in Cameroon: a case of the Ijim mountain forest area
Njuakom Nchii Francis
Ijim Mountain Conservation Cultural Committee, Cameroon
Abstract
This paper presents an analysis of the nature of various cultural indigenous forest management
systems in the Ijim forest areas of the North west province of the Republic of Cameroon. The papers describes various internally culturally and indigenous generated forest and tree management
systems in the ijom montane forest areas.. It demonstrates that a gap exists between culturally
indigenous and externally sponsored management systems. In the externally sponsored projects,
the concept of participation is used in the sense that rural people should participate in the professionals’ project rather than that professionals should participate in the livelihood projects of rural
people. The cultural indigenous interventions in this area generated confrontations as well as degrees of collaboration and participation between local people, local leaders, traditional councils and
authorities as well as opinion leaders and the projects. On the basis of these synthetic findings, the
paper identifies several actor categories to be considered in community indigenous cultural forestry
project management in the Ijim area, i.e. local formers, local councils, traditional authorities, king
makers, opinion leaders, village extension workers and supervisors. The relationship between these
actor categories constitutes the middle ground of community cultural indigenous forestry development. This concept refers to the totality of cultural and various anthropological as well as social
processes and fields, within which the actors attempt to establish common ground for their negotiations over resources and development alternatives. The paper continues to bring to the common
understanding of how strategic actions and interactions of different actor categories have shapes
the outcome of community cultural forestry projects have been executed on the Ijim montane forest as well as how to the interventions bridged the gap between internally generated activities and
externally sponsored interventions in the area.
466
Humanity and Bestiality in forests, with reference to the topic
“Forests, Cultures and Religions”
Paolo Vicentini
Ministry of Agricultural, Food and Forest Policies
Forest Service – Division V Rome, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Words, fundamental instruments for communicating, can also lend themselves to false intepretations and misunderstandings which are capable of seriously upsetting the normality of personal and
social relationships in general, causing even effects of incalculable proportions. Forest etymology
is the preferred instrument for entering into the controversial humanity/bestiality and for understanding the importance of historical and cultural references which hand down the values of life
in the prospective of the “beyond” and the “after.” Added to the text is a brief study highlighting
how pertinent, in this regard, is the representation, in a mystic-religious key, that Dante Alighieri
proposes in “The Divine Comedy”, in which the “wild woodland” and “divine forest” metaphors
constitutes the point of departure and that of arrival in the voyage that calls all of creation to a song
of praise and joy for the reconciliation of heaven with earth effected by the Paschal event.
1. The premise
This paper is directly related to the follow-up of the “European Forests on Ethical Discourse” Symposium held in Berlin, January 18-20, 2005 (Vincentini 2005a, 2005b). My paper entitled “Forests
and forestry, night and day: learning to communicate” highlights, as the title indicates, the need to
grasp the importance of words in reference to their etymological roots and the problem of correctly
translating them in and from other languages.
2. Recalling from the former intervention
The origin of the word “parola”, which derives from “parabola”, was the starting point – taking inspiration from an illuminating poem in Spanish by Miguel Angel Asturias, several striking verses of
which were quoted – for delving into the sense of the nothingness that envelops life in the passing
of time, with the birth and death of things created, and for entering, therefore, into the heart of medieval tradition that had, borrowing from the Latin foris (outside), transformed the concept of selva
(wood) into that of “forest”. “Forest”, in fact, was the term used in the decree issued by a king of the
Franks, a successor of Charlemagne, which established that the people were prohibited from hunting high-value game – especially dear – which was instead reserved to the sovereign and his court.
The use of the word “forest” therefore became the expression of a despotic system that excluded
the people from partaking of natural resources, along the lines of the expulsion from Paradise narrated in Genesis, which, in time, would bring, to the maturation of systems of government towards
democracies in the modern era.
The paper thus highlights the masterly contribution of Dante Alighieri, champion of laicité in the
authentic meaning of the term, who, in the face of the despotism of the rulers of his time, offers in
the allegory of his “Comedy” an enthralling interpretation of the “selva-foresta” dualism, in a Christian interpretive key. The classic antitheses of prey-hunter, servant-master, host-visitor, son-father
are overturned in the eschatological depths of the Kingdom of God and the Trinitarian glory that,
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Theme 9. CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
in the immense gratuity of Eucharistic sacrifice, redeems humanity from the oppression of death,
annihilating its effects in the reconciliation mediated by the Paschal event.
After having recalled the crucial definition of “development, the new name of peace,” quoting Pope
Paul VI from his historic speech to the United Nations General Assembly, in New York on October
4, 1965, and connecting it to the encyclical Pacem in terris by Pope John XXIII, the paper proposed
the interesting comparison, in a metaphysical key, between normality and circularity, as a continuous renewing of Being in the events of every day.
On the basis of a choice made by the organizers of the Berlin Symposium, my paper was the subject
of a reciprocal review with the work of Professor Promode Kant of the Indian Council of Forestry
Research and Education. His work looked at the ethical aspects of the relationships between indigenous populations of the mountain forests of north east India – among the world’s richest in
terms of biodiversity – and plainsmen, jeopardized by the rash growth of commercial logging in the
overlying areas (Vincentini 2005a, pp. 203-214).
The close analogy of my text with the positions, in a pagan setting, proper to oriental philosophies
and, in particular, with Indian philosophy – of which I have, however, only limited knowledge – was
linked to the conception of annulment-renewal, which is inherent to natural processes, with the
continual regenerating of life from decomposed material constantly at work in ecosystems.
3. Forestry etymology, an instrument for linking humanity and development
On the basis of suggestions from Professor Kant, changes were made to the set-up and style of the
text which I had presented at the Berlin Symposium, in order to streamline it, also on the basis of
the effective advice of “technical editor” Mark Richman, and the revised text was then published in
Silva Carelica 49, with its new form and the title changed to “Sustainable forestry: an etymological
search for equitable development” (Vincentini 2005a, pp. 177-184).
Revisions to the final text, with respect to the original version discussed in Berlin, appear to be
in full accord with the opening paragraph of the illustrative page of this Conference: “modern approaches to Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) cannot be developed without understanding
the significance and the role of traditional cultures in shaping today’s forests.”
This sentence suggests various considerations at the philological level, starting with the word “approaches”, the Italian translation of which, “approccio”, hides the French derivation “approche”
(approximate)(IEI 1994), which renders well the idea of getting close to something that can be
glimpsed on the background. Then, there is the term “sustainable”, which, in the usual Italian
translation of “sostenibile”, distances itself from the original ontological meaning, inverting the
roles of object that receives and the subject that determines, as I had the chance to demonstrate
in the above mentioned texts (Vincentini 2005a, p. 180 and Vincentini 2005b, p. 9). It is also interesting to delve into the term “management”, because it shares its etymological root with the
Italian term “maneggio” (“manège” in French) (OED 1989a), which is the place in which horses are
trained, held on a lead, as they move in a circle, the lead marking the rays of the circle; thus, this
consideration reproposes forestry management as an encounter between normality and circularity,
mentioned above in relation to Pacem in terris.
I would also like to underscore the etymological strength of the term “understanding” which is
composed of the present participle “standing” which follows the proposition “under” and contains
in itself the tension of seeing things from underneath – with humility – and not from above, as if
placing oneself on a high horse!
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Humanity and Bestiality in forests, with reference to the topic “Forests, Cultures and Religions”
Another reason for interest in the suggestions received from Professor Kant was the connection between the word humus (material fundamental to forest ecosystems) – which is the Latin root of the
word “humility” (humilitas)(Cortellazzi-Zolli 1988, p. 1395), as well as humidity (humiditas) – and
the word “humanity” (humanitas)( Cortellazzi-Zolli 1988, p. 1399).
Besides facilitating, in Silva Carelica 49, the understanding of the text I presented at Berlin, Professor
Kant felt it worthwhile to make reference to my text in the 7th chapter of his presentation offering
the unique and enthralling interpretation of “sustainability” as the return to the original harmony
founded on relationships of “humanity”(Vincentini 2005a, p. 208). Relationships of “humanity”,
contrasted to “dishumanity”, would appear, in effect, to be undividable from the historical, political
and social contexts to which the characteristics of sustainable development find themselves related
over time.
Humus, humility and humanity: words that weave together, in various ways, to give shape and substance to the two polarities highlighted at the beginning of the illustrative page of this Conference:
development and traditional knowledge. We can turn the consideration around and provocatively
ask ourselves: how is life possible without history, and development without continuity in time, the
sharing of experiences and messages, the participation and the memory that connects the past to
the present and gives it vitality, as does the substratum for forests, and as happens in every moment
of our existence?
4. Culture and Philosophy on woods and Man
At this point, it would be useful to take a few cues from the final documents of the conference on
“Woods and Man”, held here in Florence, in May 1995, at the initiative of the Italian Academy of
Forestry Sciences.The final documents of the above-mentioned Conference of 1996 include papers
by various authors, from which useful suggestions and precious indications emerge for reflecting on
the connection between humanity and woods (Ciancio 1996).
The starting point remains, as always, the interpretation of words, the means by which languages
and the expressions of the world’s peoples are articulated, with the forestry world tapping mainly
into the Germanic tradition. It is enough to think of term forst itself and the concept of nachaltingkeit, which corresponds to the English “sustainable development”, the French durabilité and, in
current Italian usage, sostenibilità. Germanic populations also had a great influence on the spread of
philosophic thought in relation to woods and to Man, as emerges right from the preface of the final
documents of the above-mentioned Conference, with reference to Weltanshauung, worldview. That
same preface highlights the ineluctability of ethical discourse in relation to nature, as has already
been sensed from the remotest of times, even if it does not make any reference to the serious problems that are connected to the distorted interpretations of concepts of Man and of nature that led
to the delirious ideologies of Nazi-Fascism, to the terrifying utopias of Communist materialism,
and to the blossoming of so many antagonisms detrimental to the balance of ecosystems.
For these particular aspects, useful in-depth considerations are available in the final documents
of the International Conference “Woods in European Culture, between Reality and Imagination,”
held in Rome, November 24 and 25, 1999, at the Department of Comparative Literature of Rome-3
University (Liebman Parrinello 1999).
In the text presented at the Berlin Symposium, I referred several times to references to German culture which had emerged in the 1999 Conference and these references were put into relation with the
teachings of Roman Guardini, an illustrious professor who held the chair of “Religionsphilosophie
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Theme 9. CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
und christliche Weltanshauung” (Christian worldview and Philosophy of Religions) at the Humbold University of Berlin, from 1923 until he was removed by the Nazi regime (Guardini 1971).
To speak in Berlin, the heart of Protestant Germany, of Guardini, who, in that prestigious university, had tackled, as a priest of an ecclesial community that was distant from that cultural climate
and in a very particular historical moment, a subject so demanding in terms of educational processes and reverberations on social and political fabrics, was experienced by me as a natural urge to
revitalize the thought of him in the memory also of those close to me who held him in very high
consideration.
Guardini’s work, which shone not only for its religious interest, but also for the vastness of its literary interest, proved to be a head start on many aspects of renewal that issued from the Vatican II
Ecumenical Council, which I remember from the years of my university studies here in Florence
and about which I will speak further ahead in reference to Dante Aligheri and the “Comedy.”
5. Spirituality as the breath of life
The problem of differing interpretation of worldview, within Christianity, is a subject of great interest that shows the particular influence on them, as far back as ancient times, of the Germanic
peoples, already converted in the 4th century to the Arian heresy by Bishop Wulfila, founder of the
Gothic alphabet and author of the German translation of various parts of Sacred Scriptures. In line
with the Arian heresy and its aversion to the Trinitarian vision, Wulfila moulded to his own thesis
the original sense of the Latin world spiritus, which corresponds to the Greek pneuma, breath, which
recalls the fundamental inspiration of life, translating it into geist, idea, thought, which did not implicate a direct contact with matter (Rizzoli Larousse 1964). Recognizing it only in human nature,
Christ’s conception would have occurred in the normal way, reinforced by a particular thought or
idea of the one creator. From the Germanic language, the term geist, having become “ghost” in English (OED 1989b), lead to confusion also in Italian between spirit and ghost, which did not exist in
the Latin root. As far as I know, it was only following the indications of the Vatican II Council that
liturgy in English-speaking countries returned to the term “Holy Spirit”, etymologically correct,
and abandoned the expression “Holy Ghost” previously in use.
Reference to the translation in French is also significant, where the word esprit, while maintaining
the tie with the Latin origin of “source of life” and “vitality”, widens its meaning to intelligence,
adapting it, as in Italian, to the meaning of humour and to particular qualitative distinctions, such
as esprit de geometrie and esprit de finesse (Le Grand Robert 1985), which are also accepted in dealings
on selviculture topics.
It would seem important to recall at this point, among the various papers of the Convention “Woods
and Man,” the following quotation from Rosario Assunto which my colleague Paola Porcinai used
as subtitle for the text “The forestry profession” (Ciancio 1996, p. 175): “Hostility to beauty, as
a consequence of the adoration of the useful, is the characteristic of our times, in which we produce to destroy and we destroy to produce again, refusing the pleasure of contemplation that does
not destroy to produce but creates.” And to clarify the profoundness of this thought, it is worth
referring to an article by Paolo Miccoli, entitled “Vertical aesthetics and transcendence in Rosario
Assunto”, published in edition no. 2/2003 of Studium (Miccoli 2003), where he affirms, in the conclusion, that the more mature position of Assunto in matters on metaphysical aesthetics is found
in the book Ontology and the Theology of Gardens (1988), the character of which he sketches in the
following paragraphs: “Just as the metaphor of voyage, in Rousseau, indicates the return of man
to the paternal home of complete happiness, so must the nostalgia of Paradise lost set off in the
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Humanity and Bestiality in forests, with reference to the topic “Forests, Cultures and Religions”
children of Adam, according to Vico and Assunto, the desire to “repatriate” towards a horizon of
meaning and of values, once the boredom of living in the city of Prometheus has been tasted. Garden as ontological condition and as teleological orientation, in the nostalgia of a lost Eden and in
the intentional commitment oriented to reliving it in the present in a hopeful perspective directed
toward the future.”
The references in Vincentini (2005b) also pointed various times to the need to find anew the horizon of sense and of qualitatively consistent values, in view of an outlook which is sustainable over
time, but attention was then concentrated on the importance of a correct use of words to arrive at
understanding problems in their correct dimension, without excluding the prospect of “beyond”
and of “after.”
Chapter 5 of this last text, entitled “Forest Development and Ethical Values” is particularly significant in this regard (Vincentini 2005a, pp. 180-181). Considerations, beginning with the tendency
of the word “forestry” to be identified with “sustainable”, dwelled on the definition of “forestry”
formulated by the group of experts in preparation of the new Action Plan for Forests of the European Union, as “a challenge for balancing forest functions in accordance with various needs”. The
sense of this challenge brings us to orient “sustainable development” into the channel of “equitable
development” and therefore into that of the balance in nature, gaining awareness of the important
relationship between development and peace, in accordance with the four foundations indicated in
Pacem in terris, which include freedom in its true and full meaning.
6. Total Economic Evaluation of forests and benefits which are difficult to quantify
Interesting here is the reference to studies on the “Total Economic Value” (TEV) of Mediterannean
forests conducted by various experts published in the volume entitled “Valuing Mediterranean forests – Towards Total Economic Value” (Merlo and Croitoru 2005).
The concept of the total economic value of forests, dealt with in particular in Chapter 3 of the book
(Mongillo 2000), distinguishes the benefits which derive from effective use, which are more or less
easily quantifiable, from those not related to use, such as the value of passing forests onto future
generations and to the conservation of forest habitats, defined as “bequest values” and “existence
values”, for which any quantification is truly difficult. The text then dwells on clarifying that the
TEV is just a part of the total value of an ecosystem, because we must recognize the intrinsic value
of forests and ecosystems, independently of human preferences and of the fact that they contribute
to the well-being of humanity.
In fact, here we enter into ontological considerations, which I had the occasion to refer to earlier
(Vincentini 2005b), in relation to the presentation by Dalmazio Mongillo at the Conference on
“Corporeity and Thought” (Rome, October 21-23, 1999), on the topic “The original Logos-Verbum”.
The presentation in question dwells in particular on the ontological character as referred to the
body-thought person, to which it refers in the following terms: “Greek tradition, passed on by Gregory Damasceno and recalled by Saint Thomas at the beginning of the Moral section of his Summa,
attests to the rich and beautiful intuition according to which the body-thought person is “principle”
which is intelligent, free, and endowed with autoexousia” (Mongillo 2000).
The extension of the ontological concept (autoexousia) to forests and ecosystems, which underpins
the text by Maurizio Merlo and Lelia Croitoru and which is also represented by Orazio Ciancio
and Susanna Nocentini in their authoritative interventions referred in the notes (22 and 23), shows
itself in effect to be an opening to metaphysical aspects and therefore to implications of a religious
471
Theme 9. CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
nature represented in Thomism, which give surprising élan to the concept of autopoiesi, used with
limits substantially anchored to naturalistic physiology.
7. The value of humanism in relationship to the Italian cultural tradition in the wake
of the fabulous and metaphysical adventure narrated by Dante Alighieri
Even in relation to this research, it appears evident how attention to values of humanism has significant implications on the vitality of the cultural heritage of all countries, on their potentiality and
originality in elaborating projects and activities appropriate to situations as they evolve.
Notable is the contribution of the cultural heritage of the various Italian schools and in particular, the Tuscan and Florentine schools which, starting from the Latin world, crossed the Middle
Ages, humanism, the Renaissance, the baroque period of the 1600s, neo-classicisim of the 1700s,
romanticism of the 1800s, to arrive at the various ramifications of the cultural movements of the
last century. If it is possible to draw from all these schools enormous amounts of material of every
kind that is useful to studying traditional knowledge on forests, by following the extreme synthesis
of Eugenio Montale in the speech he gave in 1965 at Palazzo Vecchio, on the occasion of the 700th
anniversary of the birth of Dante Alighieri (Zampa 1997), it can be said that the reference he made
to the “Comedy”, in the fullness of its content of mystic-religious poetry and exemplary witness of
civil coherence and authentic laicité, can represent them all1.
8. Conclusions
“O fortunatos nimium, sua si bona norint,/Agricolas! Quibus ipsa procul discordibus armis/ fundit
humo facilem victum iustissima tellus.”
These verses, written in hexameter, from Book II of Virgil’s Georgics, are carved around the frescoes of the upper vault of the conference room of the building which houses the Italian Ministry of
Agricultural, Food and Forestry Policies.
They are verses from 2000 years ago which celebrate life with an incisiveness that was grasped well
by the person who chose them, among the many, to celebrate the “divini gloria ruris (the glory of
the divine farmer)”, as an inscription reads on the front of the Ministry itself, on Via XX Settembre
in Rome.
I draw your attention to the attached note that I prepared for an encounter on a topic indicated in the notes: these can help to understand
the reasons for the judgement expressed so succinctly by Montale.
It would not seem unfitting to begin this note by recalling that the “Comedy” was conceived by Dante in the mystic-religious vision, proper to the Canticle of Canticles, of the conjugal theme, which he himself had already dealt with, in a goliardic key, in his early work “The
Flower”. In the “Comedy”, work of his maturity and conceived to celebrate the first Jubilee of the modern age, the metaphors of “wild
woodland” and “divine forest” would appear in effect determining for indicating, respectively, the departure point and the arrival point in
the voyage towards joy. From the state of confusion (the wild woodland in which we find the one who has lost the straight path and looks
for the way to find it again) to the state of grace (divine forest) of he who has purified himself and freed himself of the sense of sin and can
finally partake in the encounter with the infinite.
In “Paradise”, the metaphor of the “divine forest” is therefore fundamental for understanding the immense scope of the Trinitarian mystery
which reserves to the king-hunter (lover, the Father) rights over the prey (the highly-valued deer prey, the Son), in the push toward the
sacrificial target (love, Holy Spirit). Paradise thus presupposes openness to the mystery of the Most Holy Trinity, and communicating with the
divine is the inherent process, through Faith, in the immense gratuity of the Eucharistic sacrifice, as Dante has Virgil say in verses 114-117
of Canto XXVII of Purgatory (Mandelbaum translation): „Today your hungerings will find their peace through that sweet fruit the care of
mortals seeks among so many branches”, in which “today” is the time that transforms itself into eternity, as also appears therefore in the
triumphant exclamation of the last Canto of the Comedy, used by Pope Benedict XVI in his presentation speech for his encyclical “Deus
caritas est”: “Eternal Light, You only dwell within Yourself, and only You know You; Self-knowing, Self-known, You love and smile upon Yourself!”
472
Humanity and Bestiality in forests, with reference to the topic “Forests, Cultures and Religions”
“The fortune of he who cultivates natural resources in the awareness of the good that he administrates, to whom the Earth, on her own, far from fratricidal battles, pours forth from the soil easy
sustenance.”
But the link between the word humo, which gives “humility”, and victum, which means sustanence
but also “to be won” (passive past participle of “to win”), calls for a comparison with verses 94-99
of the 20th canto of Paradise: (from to the Mandelbaum translation) Regnum celorum suffers violence
from ardent love and living hope, for these can be the conquerors of Heaven’s will; yet not as man defeats another
man: the will of God is won because It would be won, and, won, wins through benevolence.
Returning therefore to the encounter between normality and circularity in relation to the Word,
and to humility in which there is the re-creation of the bridge with Life that is born and unfolds
from germinal energy, in silence, like a child in its mother’s womb, it is interesting to read the following passage of Juan de la Cruz (Ravasi 2006b): “Silence is mildness when you do not respond to
offences and leave to God your defence. Silence is patience, when you suffer without complaining,
you look not for human consolation, you wait for the seed to sprout. Silence is humility, when you
keep silent to let the brothers emerge and leave to others the glory of the task. Silence is faith when
you do not seek comprehension and renounce to personal glory because it is enough for you to be
known by God!”
To conclude: a simple reference to an elementary rule of universal value, suggested by Fr Carlo
Gnocchi, in the book Dio è tutto qui (“God is all here”, Mondadori Publishing, 2005) (Ravasi 2006a):
“Many worry about being well, much more than living well. For this reason they end up even being
very unwell. Seek to do a lot of good in life and you will end up being very well.” This is in homage
to the best tradition and a wish to all those present, with my most sincere thanks for the kind and
patient attention.
9. References
Ciancio O. (ed.). 1996. Il bosco e l’Uomo (Forest and Man). Accademia Italiana di Scienze Forestali, Florence. (In Italian).
Ciancio O. (ed)., 1999. Nuove Frontiere nella Gestione Forestale (New frontiers in Forest Management). Accademia Italiana di Scienze Forestali, Florence. pp. 9-45 (In Italian).
Cortellazzi-Zolli, 1988a. Dizionario Etimologico della Lingua Italiana, Volume 5: S-Z (Etymological
Dictionary of Italian Language). Zanichelli, Bologna.
Guardini R., 1971. Linguaggio, Poesia, Interpretazione, by Morcelliana. Brescia. (In Italian).
IEI, 1994. Vocabolario della Lingua Italiana, I (A-C). Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, Rome, p.
244. (In Italian).
Le Grand Robert, 1985. Le Grand Robert: Dictionnaire alphabétique et analogique de la langue
française II ed. IV (4). Entre-Gril, Paris, pp. 131-136. (In French)
Liebman Parrinello, G. (ed.), 1999. Il bosco nella cultura europea tra realtà e immaginario: atti del
Convegno internazionale, Roma 24-25 novembre 1999 (The forest in European culture between
reality and imagery: Proceedings of the international convention, Rome, November 24-25, 1999).
Bulzoni Editore, Rome. pp. 41-54. (In Italian).
Merlo M. and Croitoru L., 2005. Valuing Mediterranean Forests – Towards Total Economic Value”.
CABI Publishing, Oxfordshire (UK), pp. 17-18.
Miccoli P., 2003. Estetica verticale e trascendenza in Rosario Assunto. STUDIUM: rivista bimestrale di cultura 99 (2) : p. 202. (In Italian).
473
Theme 9. CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
Mongillo D., 2000. Il Logos Verbum originario (The original Logos-Verbum). STUDIUM: Rivista
Bimestrale di Cultura 96 (3/4): 351. (In Italian).
OED, 1989a. The Oxford English Dictionary, IX (9); Look-Mouke, Oxford, p. 293.
OED, 1989b. The Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition, VI (6): Follow-Haswed, Oxford,
pp.492-494.
Ravasi, G., 2006b. Avvenire, daily newspaper, column “ Il Mattutino ” 13 May 2006 (In Italian).
Ravasi, G., 2006a. Avvenire, daily newspaper, column “ Il Mattutino ” 5 May 2006 (In Italian).
Rizzoli Larousse, 1964. Rizzoli Larousse: Enciclopedia Universale XV (15): Terrad-Z, Milan,
p. 350. (In Italian).
Vincentini, P., 2005a. European forests and beyond , an ethical discourse. Silva Carelica (Joensuu
University, Finland) 49, 175-214.
Vincentini, P., 2005b. “Foreste e forestalità, notte e giorno: imparando a comunicare”, L’Italia Forestale e Montana 1 (January-February), 5-14. (In Italian).
Zampa G. (ed.), 1997. (“Dante yesterday and today”, Speech by E. Montale for the 7th centenary of
Dante’s birth) in Sulla Poesia, Milan, Mondadori, pp. 31 and 17. (In Italian).
474
POSTER
SESSION
Tree carvings as witnesses of traditional forest use in central Sweden
Rikard Andersson
Department of Forest Vegetation Ecology
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Culturally modified trees (CMTs) provide unique insights into traditional knowledge and uses of
the forest ecosystems. In close relation to pre-industrial livestock herding in central Sweden, there
was a custom to carve text and symbols on trees and use them as “notice boards” in the forest. The
main aim of this paper is to highlight the importance of carved trees in studies on traditional forest
use by describing the documentation and analyse of carved trees in a managed forest landscape of
160 km2 in south-central Sweden. The same area was surveyed twice in 1986 and in 2003. A number
of 488 carved trees were documented and classified into legible themes that were interpreted with
past herding practices. Name was the most common theme, found in 85% of the carvings. Most of
the carvings were made in the 1750s until the early 1900s. The custom to carve in trees was closely
related to important grazing areas and the needs for claiming the right to it.
1. Introduction
Past uses of land leave typical traces in ecosystems. Under current conditions, in which traditionally used forests are being transformed into high-yielding silvicultures, culturally modified trees
(CMTs) represent important artefacts, providing unique insights into traditional knowledge, perceptions and uses of the forest ecosystems (Andersson 2005). A modification to a long-living tree,
e.g. a man-made scar, blaze or carving in the bark or wood, can be preserved for centuries, as
discussed by various authors from the early 19th century (Liljevalch 1829) onwards. In this way
CMTs can transmit information with high temporal and spatial resolution from the past about
specific events in the forest (Mobley and Eldridge 1992; Östlund et al. 2002). Such knowledge of
indigenous and other long-resident peoples have importance for husbanding biodiversity and the
long-term management of local resources.
The boreal forests in central and northern Sweden have played a central role in the subsistence of
their native people by providing important biological resources for them and their livestock (Frödin
1952). The forests offered less scope for traditional agricultural activities due to the harsh climate,
topography and soil conditions. Instead, the farming was based on raising livestock and the forests
were used as grazing and hay-making areas. This use was intensified by the development of summer farming systems, a sustainable adaptation to the climate that was practised since at least the
Middle Ages (Segerström and Emanuelsson 2002). The systems included seasonal movement of
livestock between permanent settlements close to large lakes and summer farm settlements in the
vast forests (Veirulf 1937; Frödin 1952). The livestock (cattle, goats and horses) grazed the forests
in joint flocks and were often herded. There was great regional diversity in the organisation of land
use within this general system (see Olsson et al. 2000).
After an intensification of summer farming, leading to possibly the most intensive period of traditional forest use ever in central Sweden, in the middle of the 19th century, this practice declined
in importance (Montelius 1977). With increasing access to fertiliser and the introduction of a new
form of land use, industrial forestry, farmers were advised or forced to stop using the forests in their
477
POSTER SESSION
traditional way. The more or less sparsely-wooded forests and grassland areas were fragmented,
most of the old trees were cut and the forest stands were transformed into high-yielding forests
with even-aged stands (Ericsson et al. 2000, Andersson and Östlund 2004). Since most of the summer farms have been abandoned for almost a hundred years few people living today can bear witness to the traditional forest uses, with summer farming and herding, which is unfortunate given
the increasing interest in traditional ecological knowledge (cf. Turner et al. 2000).
1.1. Aims
This paper highlights the importance of carved trees in studies on traditional forest use by describing the documentation and analyse of carved trees remaining in a forest landscape in the
south-central part of boreal Sweden. The carved trees were interpreted in the context of traditional land use practices from the 18th to the 20th century.
Specific aims were:
To analyse spatial patterns of the remaining carved trees on a landscape scale
To characterise themes in the carvings and to establish their meaning and significance in traditional land use practices
To analyse temporal patterns in the practice of carving trees in the 18th and 19th centuries based
on inscribed years
2. Methods
2.1. The study area
The study area (Fig. 1.), approximately 160 km2 in area, lies mostly in the southern part of Ore
parish, within the main boreal zone in south-central Sweden (Ahti et al. 1968). The area mainly
is surrounded by large lakes. Mires are frequent. Only about 1 % of Ore parish consists of cultivated land, which is associated with glaciofluvial sediments surrounding Lake Ore. Most of
the area is forested (>80 %) and the dominant tree species are Scots pine Pinus sylvestris L. and
Norway spruce Picea abies (L.) Karst. The most common deciduous tree species are hairy birch
Betula pubescens Ehrh. and silver birch, B. pendula Roth. Species diagnostic of pasturage are the
herb common cow-wheat Melampyrum pratense L. and sedges, Carex spp. L. (Frödin 1952).
On a specific day in early June, the herders moved with the livestock (cattle, goats and sometimes
sheep) from the village to a summer farm located up to several tens of kilometres away. Here, the
livestock were taken daily via trails and cow tracks to suitable grazing areas in the forests. The
most attractive pasture was found on previously burned areas due to the long-lasting beneficial
effects of fire on the growth of grasses and herbs (Frödin 1952). Other types of land used for
pasture were the swamp-forests and bush-covered mires in the transitional zone between forest
and wetland. Tree carvings were preferably made in pine trees close to resting places and along
forest paths (Lundqvist 1994). Bark was partly removed from the stem and eventually the wood
surface was smoothed. Notches in the form of letters or signs were then carved into the wood.
478
Tree carvings as witnesses of traditional forest use in central Sweden
o
65 N
o
60 N
o
15 E
o
25 E
Figure 1. The study area in the county of Dalarna, Sweden (left) and a Scots pine with a complex carving containing the word “SI”, three female names, the comment “bad” (“LETT”), the year 1905, seven crosses
indicating length of stay in weeks and the message “we have lost three cows!” –“VI HAR TRE KOR
BORTA” (right). Tree carvings were often made by using a small herding-axe to hammer on the back
of a knife (Kronestedt 1965)
2.2. Documentation of carved trees in the field
All known remnants of old growth tree stands were systematically inventoried. The first inventory was carried out in the years 1985 to 1986 and the second re-inventory in 2002 to 2003. The same area was studied
in both inventories. When a tree with an inscription was found, the stand was carefully surveyed for further
carved trees. Every carved tree was documented and the following data were recorded:
The location of the tree, measured with a GPS-receiver
The number of carvings
The appearance of the carving (documented by drawings and photographs)
The status of the tree
Additional notes about the carving, the tree and the environment, as appropriate
2.3. Analyses
The co-ordinates of the carved trees were entered in a GIS and their distribution in the landscape was analysed both for individual trees on a local topographical scale and for the study
area as a whole. Legible information provided by the carvings was classified into themes. Then
a count was made of how many carvings provided information related to each of these themes.
Some of the themes were further analysed to extract more information about herding practices
and organisation. The years in which the carvings were made, and variations in the intensity of
the carving practice over time were interpreted.
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POSTER SESSION
3. Results
In total, we located and documented 488 unique carved trees during the two inventories. Since
some of the trees had two or more carvings on them, the total number of carvings documented
was 681. Up to eight carvings could be discerned on a single tree. It was possible to read 523 of the
documented carvings, the rest being problematic because of encroachment by further growth, erosion or the cutting away of some of the carving.
During the interpretation, it was possible to classify information provided by 403 carvings into
legible themes as follows: Name (initials and indication of gender), Year, Id-sign (associated with
name), “SI” (a word for “attention!”), Stay (cross-characters indicating length of stay in weeks),
End of stay (indicating the last day of the season) and Evaluation (words such as “good”, “bad”,
“true”).
3.1. Spatial patterns of the carved trees
The documented carved trees were concentrated in the centre-southeastern part of the study
area, close to the summer farms and the parish border (Fig. 2.). In this “core” area the trees were
aggregated as groups of up to 82 trees with an approximate spacing of 1.5 kilometres
Figure 2.
Spatial distribution of
carved trees.
Summer farms and
parish border based
on the ordnance
survey map of 19101911, Lantmäteriet.
Wetland, lakes and
streams based on
Geographic Data
for Sweden (GSD),
Lantmäteriet
3.2. Contents of tree carvings
Name was the most common theme. Of all interpretable carvings, 342 or 85% included name
initials (Fig. 3.). After the name initials there was a statement of the person’s gender (D for
female, S for male). Of the 632 names with an interpretable gender, 97% were women and only
3% men.
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Tree carvings as witnesses of traditional forest use in central Sweden
Name
Year
Id-sign
"SI"
Stay
End of stay
Evaluation
%
0
20
40
60
80
100
Figure 3. Percentage abundances of tree carvings related to legible themes
A third of the carvings included characters indicating a year. Of these, 49% could not be determined due to encroachment, erosion or simply because the century was never carved. The series
of specified years ranged from 1708 to 1905 (Fig. 4.).
1700
1750
1800
1850
1900
Year
th
th
Figure 4. Time distribution of trees with interpretable carved years in the period from 18 to 20 centuries
Many carvings included simply crosses or strokes. Some of these were interpreted as the number
of weeks (crosses) and number of days (strokes) that the herders stayed at the summer farms.
This periodic stay was generally for two to four weeks, according to 80% of the carvings. The
longest documented stay was seven weeks.
4. Discussion
4.1. The meaning of tree carvings in the traditional landscape
We can consider the distribution of carved trees documented in this study on two different
scales. On a regional scale, considering the whole study area (160 km2), the trees are highly
aggregated within the area of the summer farms. On a local scale, the carved trees were found
between the farms along small streams and in wetlands (Fig. 2.). This pattern of carved trees on
former pastures and resting places is a remnant of the originally more extensive network aimed
at communication between the herders.
Considering the tree carvings as closely related to a valuable biological resource they can be
interpreted as demarcations between different herding groups. The forest grazing areas had no
continuous boundaries delimiting areas of farmland. However, there was no doubt which herder
group had the right to use the pasture (Levander 1943). The marking of paths to, and places
next to pasture were enough to claim rights to the area, even for the year to come (Campbell
1982; Bradley et al. 1994). A tree carving was a personal mark, connected to a specific herder.
The custom of carving trees was a way of maintaining the right to pasture.
The people in Ore parish were particularly zealous about carving trees (Forsslund 1920), in
accordance with the relatively high number of findings in this area compared to surrounding
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POSTER SESSION
parishes (Rolf Lundqvist, personal comm.). Ore parish was threatened by (and in conflict with)
neighbouring parishes several times over the centuries and, consequently, the border also shifted
(Veirulf 1975). This pressure on territory increased the need for demarcations and tree carvings,
particularly close to the parish border.
4.2. Temporal changes in traditional practices
The practice of carving trees in the studied area increased in the late 1800s, peaking in the 1860s
and 1870s (Fig. 4.). This may indicate a general increase in the population and pasture requirements at these times. However, the remaining trees were found in association with only a few of
the original grazing areas because of the loss of carved trees during the 20th century. Therefore,
the variation in carving intensity may reflect variations in local conditions and changes in herding routes rather than general trends for the whole parish.
Very few trees were found that were carved later than the 1870s, the last inscribed year being
1905 (Fig. 4.). Because of the strong relationship with herders and pastures, the loss of this practice was a direct result of the abandonment of summer farms due to increased fodder production
at the homesteads. The traditional herding routes were abandoned and there was no longer competition for pasture. Consequently, there was no longer a need to demarcate the forest resources
with tree carvings. Carving associated with traditional herding practices ceased in the early 20th
century, the number of carved trees decreasing since that time.
4.3. Details of herders and herding
The primary and most obvious piece of information for a herder to carve was his or her name,
the next most important being the year (Fig. 3.). However, there are other ways to indicate one’s
identity than by name and, together with almost a third of the names, a personal sign was carved
(Fig. 3.). In a few carvings, the origins of the herder were added (e.g. “from Dalbyn village,
from Sörboda village”). All of this information; the name, gender, year, personal sign and origin;
helped to identify the carver.
Special attention was paid to the carvings made on the last visit, which tended to be more than
usually complex (Fig. 1.). In these carvings, the season often was stated (e.g. “spring” or “autumn”). This indicates a shift between two different summer farms, a tradition possibly related
to increased competition for pasture (Montelius 1977). The complex carvings could also include
expressions of sadness, a longing for home, or indications of pasture conditions.
5. Conclusions
Carved trees have the potential to make significant contributions to our understanding of traditional
forest use. They can document similarities and differences in traditional herding practices, as well
as personal statements from the herders, both through time and across geographic space. Carved
tree studies can be combined with archaeological investigations and historical records to document
changes in forest use and herding practices over time. This paper demonstrates this potential and
illustrates the importance of treating the remaining relicts of carved trees as a cultural heritage.
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Tree carvings as witnesses of traditional forest use in central Sweden
6. Acknowledgements
The author wants especially to thank an important link to traditional knowledge, Knuts-Hans Hansson from Lenåsen, for directing the initial attention to trees carved by herders. I also want to thank
my co-workers Rolf Lundqvist and Lars Östlund, the co-authors of the original publication from
which this material was extracted (Andersson et al. 2005), with kind permission of Springer Science
and Business Media.
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Östlund, L., Zackrisson, O., Hörnberg, G., 2002. Trees on the border between nature and culture:
Culturally modified trees in boreal Scandinavia. Environmental History 1, 48-68.
Segerström, U., Emanuelsson, M., 2002. Extensive forest grazing, and hay-making on mires: vegetation changes in south-central Sweden due to land use since the Medieval Times. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 11, 181-190.
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Turner, N.J., Ignace, M.B., Ignace R., 2000. Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Wisdom of aboriginal peoples in British Columbia. Ecological Applications 10, 1275-1287.
Veirulf, O., 1937. Skogarnas utnyttjande i Älvdalen före storskiftet: med särskild hänsyn till
Älvdalens kronopark nr 1. Geographica, Uppsala.
Veirulf, O., 1975. Gränser och gränstvister. In: Landberg, G. (Eds.), Ore, del 1: Socknen och kommunen. Rättviks kommun, Malung, pp 385-413.
484
Le pratiche agro-selvicolturali e le strutture per la caccia di selezione agli Ungulati
come elementi caratterizzanti il paesaggio forestale
Paolo Casanova1, Lorenzo Pini2 & Francesco Sorbetti Guerri3
1
Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali Forestali, Università degli Studi di Firenze
via San Bonaventura 13, 50145, Firenze, Italy, e-mail paolo.casanova@unifi.it
2
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Agraria e Forestale, Università degli Studi di Firenze
via San Bonaventura 13, 50145, Firenze, Italy, e-mail lorenzo.pini@unifi.it
3
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Agraria e Forestale, Università degli Studi di Firenze
via San Bonaventura 13, 50145, Firenze, Italy, e-mail francesco.sorbettiguerri@unifi.it
Abstract
Ungulates hunting represents one of the fundamental elements of faunal-environmental management of landscape. This technique is becoming very common not only in the Alps, but also in the
northern Apennines mountains, because of the demographic increase of ungulates populations
(Roe deer, Red deer, Fallow deer, etc) in this areas. For this reason, agronomic and sylvicultural
practices, but also traditional structures aimed to the management of ungulates populations are
spreading in several parts of the Italian territory. These management forms are also directed to the
conservation and the restoration of open areas like clearings, meadows and pastures whose presence
allows easier monitoring of animals and more efficient interventions for managing populations.
“Altane” are traditional specific emplacements for ungulates hunting; they accomplish the function
to raise hunter position in order to consent more precise shootings and more accurate observations
of animals during monitoring and rating phases. The proposal of different patterns and structural
arrangements meets the need to define new constructive schemes, characterized by operative efficiency, use safety and low landscape impact.
1. Introduzione
L’esercizio dell’attività venatoria ha accompagnato l’Uomo nel corso dei millenni. Innumerevoli
sono le testimonianze dell’antico legame uomo-caccia tra cui si ricordano le famose immagini rupestri delle grotte di Lascaux, Rufignac e Altamira o i racconti di caccia riportati in opere come l’Odissea e l’Eneide. In un primo momento l’attività venatoria era mirata alla difesa dalle belve feroci e
all’approvvigionamento di beni necessari come il cibo e le pellicce mentre, in seguito, è divenuta
sempre più un esercizio ricreativo e, in alcuni casi, una vera e propria professione.
A tal proposito Di Berenger nel suo testo “Studii di archeologia forestale” (1859-1863) riporta: “…l’uomo, dapprima costretto a muoverla (la caccia n.d.a.) contro animali feroci, che gli contrastavano l’esistenza,
ed il tranquillo possesso della terra, si trovò spinto dappoi a rinnovarla pel bisogno di cibarne le carni, e valersi
delle spoglie loro per ricoprirsi”.
Lo stesso autore parla di una caccia che da “devastatrice”, allorché indirizzata alla difesa dalle fiere,
diviene “conservatrice” al fine di utilizzare la selvaggina quale bene primario di sussistenza. Infine,
parla di un’attività venatoria “riproduttrice” con riferimento alla caccia per diletto esercitata dai ricchi
per i quali “…essendo divenuta passione dominante,…., fece che si moltiplicassero i boschi per soddisfarla; ciò
che avvenne per certo di già ai tempi dell’impero romano, e non soltanto nell’età di mezzo, come opinerebbero
alcuni storici”.
In pratica, fino agli anni ’70 del secolo scorso, al fine di conservare la fauna selvatica si mirava soprattutto alla protezione delle superfici forestali che svolgevano il ruolo di “serbatoi” per molte po485
POSTER SESSION
polazioni animali selvatiche; queste venivano sospinte a cercare rifugio in tali aree soprattutto per la
forte pressione delle attività antropiche sul territorio, prime fra tutte, l’agricoltura e l’allevamento.
Oggi, il problema appare completamente diverso; i profondi cambiamenti dell’economia e della società rurale hanno modificato il paesaggio montano e collinare soprattutto a causa dell’abbandono
delle pratiche agricole e selvicolturali tradizionali. La situazione attuale si configura quindi con una
forte espansione delle aree boscate e della fauna legata ad esse, e quei paesaggi, una volta caratterizzati da elevata eterogeneità di utilizzazione e frammentazione degli habitat, stanno subendo un
processo di “semplificazione”.
Oggi, tra le priorità di intervento si deve inserire il recupero degli ambienti aperti come i pascoli e
i prati falciabili così da favorire la conservazione di habitat idonei a molte specie animali selvatiche
e, al contempo, incrementare la biodiversità e ridurre l’impatto della fauna sulla vegetazione forestale attraverso l’incremento dell’offerta pabulare fornita da tali ecosistemi. In questo modo, infine,
si possono riproporre modelli di assetto del territorio e caratteri paesaggistici un tempo legati a pratiche agricole tradizionali e oggi in disuso.
In questo contesto di gestione ambientale sostenibile, si inserisce anche la caccia di selezione agli
Ungulati: tecnica venatoria, di recente introduzione in Italia, basata su razionali piani di assestamento faunistico attuati mediante prelievi programmati e il monitoraggio delle popolazioni gestite.
Per la corretta esecuzione di tali piani, tra gli altri, risultano necessari due elementi:
La presenza di ambienti aperti al margine dei boschi dove gli animali possono essere osservati,
censiti, abbattuti e recuperati.
La presenza di strutture chiamate “altane” che hanno la funzione di consentire una più attenta e
accurata osservazione degli animali nelle fasi di stima e monitoraggio delle popolazioni e di permettere prelievi effettuati con maggior precisione.
Il presente lavoro ha lo scopo di illustrare, attraverso alcuni esempi, le opportunità di valorizzazione dell’ambiente forestale che possono derivare dalle esigenze di una corretta e razionale gestione
delle popolazioni animali selvatiche, in particolare in quelle zone ove la generalizzata ricostituzione
di fitocenosi forestali in ambienti aperti ormai abbandonati dalle attività agricole e zootecniche può
essere causa di riduzione della biodiversità e di eccessiva uniformità paesaggistica.
2. Materiali e metodi
Al fine di valutare il ruolo svolto dalle aree aperte sulla gestione della fauna selvatica ad Ungulati, è
stato realizzato uno studio in un’area dell’Appennino centro-settentrionale dove viene esercitata la
caccia di selezione al Capriolo (Capreolus capreolus, L., 1758) che, insieme al cinghiale, rappresenta
uno degli Ungulati più diffusi nell’Italia centrale (Pedrotti et al., 2001). Tale area è rappresentata da
un distretto di caccia, denominato “La Bastia”, che si estende su circa 2750 ettari e si colloca nell’alta valle del fiume Senio, sull’Appennino Tosco-Romagnolo, tra le province di Firenze e Ravenna.
I territori del distretto si trovano ad un’altitudine compresa tra i 400 e 1100 m s.l.m. e sono per la
maggior parte occupati da formazioni forestali costituite principalmente da boschi cedui di Roverella (Quercus pubescens) e di Carpino nero (Ostrya carpinifolia); sopra i 900 m di quota si ritrovano
cedui di Faggio (Fagus sylvatica) avviati all’alto fusto mentre, nelle zone di media e bassa montagna
si rinvengono ancora discrete superfici a castagneto da frutto.
In questa area è stata analizzata l’influenza dei tipi di uso del suolo sull’esercizio della caccia a carico del Capriolo e, in particolare, sulla possibilità di effettuare gli abbattimenti previsti dai piani di
prelievo annuali. A tal fine, ci si è basati su due elementi fondamentali:
486
Le pratiche agro-selvicolturali e le strutture per la caccia di selezione agli Ungulati
come elementi caratterizzanti il paesaggio forestale
Una carta digitale di uso del suolo del Distretto, realizzata in ambiente GIS con il software ArcView GIS a partire da rilievi effettuati in campo
La posizione degli abbattimenti a carico degli individui di Capriolo all’interno del Distretto nelle
stagioni venatorie 2003 e 2004
Questi due tematismi, una volta sovrapposti ed intersecati, hanno restituito come risultato il valore
delle frequenze degli animali abbattuti all’interno di tre diverse classi di uso del suolo ottenute per
accorpamento di più tipologie di copertura del suolo. Queste classi sono costituite da:
Zone boscate (boschi cedui, fustaie, boschi ripariali, castagneti da frutto).
Arbusteti e cespuglieti (prati cespugliati e cespugliati alberati, cespuglieti su roccia ecc.)
Zone aperte (prati polifiti, pascoli, erbai di erba medica e varie colture agrarie)
In seguito, mediante un estensione del software chiamata Random point, sono stati generati dei
punti random in ugual numero rispetto ai punti di abbattimento dei caprioli, per la precisione 144,
in modo da valutare eventuali differenze tra un modello di prelievi distribuiti casualmente sul territorio e la distribuzione reale (Figura 1.). Le frequenze attese (punti random) e quelle osservate
(posizione degli abbattimenti) sono state confrontate tra loro mediante il test statistico del χ².
In un secondo momento, sono state prese in analisi alcune soluzioni costruttive per la realizzazione
delle altane, al fine di proporre modelli e schemi costruttivi che possano contribuire a definire nuove
forme strutturali caratterizzate da efficacia operativa, sicurezza di uso e ridotto impatto paesaggistico.
Infatti, queste strutture vengono spesso realizzate con i materiali più disparati e con tecniche
costruttive che non rispondono a pieno alle funzioni che tali appostamenti devono adempiere. In
primo luogo, le altane devono rispondere a precisi criteri di sicurezza nell’uso che derivano dalla
solidità e dalla stabilità della struttura anche in presenza di forti venti o di carichi da neve.
Inoltre, queste strutture dovrebbero consentire un’elevata visibilità dell’area di caccia per rendere
più efficaci i prelievi, limitando al massimo le possibilità di ferimento degli individui, e per semplificare le operazioni di censimento e monitoraggio degli animali; sarà quindi opportuno realizzare tali
strutture in punti strategici del territorio e con un’altezza idonea alle caratteristiche morfologiche e
vegetazionali dell’ambiente in cui devono adempiere alle proprie funzioni.
Figura 1.
Posizione dei punti di abbattimento e dei punti
random nell’area di studio
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POSTER SESSION
3. Risultati e discussione
Come messo in evidenza dalla Figura 2., gran parte degli abbattimenti a carico del Capriolo vengono effettuati all’interno di zone aperte. Infatti, più della metà dei 144 individui abbattuti, sono
stati prelevati in questi ambienti che rappresentano nel complesso solo il 6% circa dell’Superficie
Agricola e Forestale (SAF) del Distretto.
Figura 2.
Posizione dei punti di abbattimento e dei
punti random rispetto alle aree aperte
Al contrario, il numero dei capi uccisi nelle aree boscate, che occupano gran parte del territorio
agro-forestale (72%), appare di gran lunga inferiore di quello atteso (Figura 3.). Evidentemente,
in tali ambienti, le attività di monitoraggio e di gestione delle popolazioni presentano non poche
difficoltà. Il test statistico del χ² conferma la notevole differenza tra le frequenze attese e quelle
osservate in quanto ha fatto registrare un valore altamente significativo (χ² = 345,75, p < 0,001).
Quindi, in ambienti con elevata copertura forestale come quello in analisi, la presenza di zone
a prato, a pascolo o a colture agricole rappresenta un fattore di primaria importanza per la corretta
gestione delle popolazioni di Capriolo. Inoltre, in precedenti studi, è stato notato come nei territori in cui si alternano di frequente ambienti forestali e zone aperte, caratterizzati da elevati valori
degli indici di diversità ambientale come l’indice di Shannon e di Edge Density, risultano di molto
migliorate le condizioni di vita degli animali (Casanova et al., 2005a).
Un’importante conseguenza di quanto sopra illustrato è che, data la spiccata territorialità del Capriolo, i prelievi si concentrano sempre sugli stessi gruppi familiari che vengono così fortemente
limitati: così come il loro patrimonio genetico. Si assiste quindi ad una grave perdita di variabilità
genetica che, soprattutto per specie ad elevato livello di imbreeding come il capriolo, produce conseguenze estremamente negative sulle popolazioni.
Al contrario, i gruppi presenti nelle aree boscate non vengono in pratica gestiti (selezionati) in quanto
le possibilità di abbattimento degli animali sono ridotte a sporadiche occasioni di incontro durante la
caccia alla “cerca”: attività venatoria eseguita vagando per il territorio e non da appostamento fisso.
Si vuole comunque ricordare che gli ambienti forestali rappresentano habitat indispensabili per lo
sviluppo delle popolazioni di capriolo, come di altri ungulati selvatici, i quali svolgono molte fasi
del ciclo biologico all’interno di tali ecosistemi. Per questo motivo, anche allo scopo di ampliare le
potenzialità gestionali dell’attività venatoria sulla fauna selvatica ungulata, si dovrebbe favorire la
conservazione o il ripristino di aree forestali che offrono una buona visibilità al loro interno e che, al
contempo, presentano caratteristiche ecologiche idonee alla sussistenza delle popolazioni animali.
488
Numero di individui di Capriolo
Le pratiche agro-selvicolturali e le strutture per la caccia di selezione agli Ungulati
come elementi caratterizzanti il paesaggio forestale
120
100
80
Frequenze
osservate
60
100
Frequenze
ottese
40
58
63
20
35
23
9
0
Zone boscate
Zone operte
Arbusteti e cespuglieti
Tipologie di uso del suolo
Figura 3. Confronto tra frequenze osservate e frequenze attese degli abbattimenti nelle diverse tipologie
di uso del suolo
Tra queste si ricordano i castagneti da frutto i quali, data la grande distanza tra pianta e pianta,
consentono una buona visibilità al loro interno e costituiscono aree di pascolo preferenziale per gli
ungulati che possono usufruire delle castagne e di un ricco strato erbaceo.
Allo stesso modo, le tagliate dei cedui si configurano come aree idonee all’avvistamento e all’abbattimento dei capi in quanto all’interno delle stesse spesso si concentra l’attività di pascolo degli ungulati
che si rivolgono sia alla vegetazione erbacea sia ai ricacci delle ceppaie (Casanova et al., 2005b).
Nei boschi di alto fusto, oltre alla creazione di radure dislocate a macchia di leopardo, sarebbe utile
apportare interventi di diradamento piuttosto forti che riducano la densità del soprassuolo, così da
favorire un migliore sviluppo del sottobosco (strato arbustivo ed erbaceo) e permettere una maggiore visibilità all’interno del bosco.
Per quanto riguarda la realizzazione delle altane, appare opportuno scegliere materiali di costruzione che bene si inseriscano nel paesaggio agro-forestale come il legno. Questo materiale risulta molto
idoneo per la costruzione di tali appostamenti, come di numerose altre strutture rurali, in quanto
può essere facilmente lavorato e assemblato mediante elementi di collegamento molto semplici;
inoltre, presenta costi contenuti, è diffuso e reperibile in vari assortimenti e può essere smaltito e
riciclato in modo ecologico (ARSIA, 1998).
Un primo elemento da considerare in fase di realizzazione è fare in modo di non vincolare la struttura
agli alberi poiché questi, muovendosi sotto l’azione del vento, influiscono in maniera negativa e determinante sulla precisione nel momento dello sparo. Proprio per garantire una maggiore immobilità della struttura, risulta indispensabile quindi far poggiare l’appostamento direttamente in terra mediante
dei pali di legno, conficcati nel terreno in profondità o immersi in piccole gettate di calcestruzzo.
Un altro aspetto fondamentale è costituito dalla controventatura degli stessi pali per mantenere solida,
e quindi anche sicura, la struttura anche quando sollecitata dai venti o dai carichi di neve. Il capanno
vero e proprio dove opera il cacciatore viene posto in cima alla struttura e dovrebbe essere costruito in
tavole di legno, utilizzate sia per le pareti che per il pavimento; queste contribuiscono alla solidità e al
corretto inserimento nel paesaggio di questa parte della struttura la quale, data la sua posizione molto
sollevata da terra, contribuisce in maniera determinante al grado di impatto visivo di tutta l’altana.
489
POSTER SESSION
Per lo stesso motivo, anche la copertura dell’appostamento deve essere realizzata con materiali naturali come ad esempio le canne e le frasche poste sopra ad ondulati inclinati verso il lato posteriore
del capanno che assolvono alla funzione di garantire riparo al cacciatore in caso di pioggia o neve.
4. Conclusioni
Le conoscenze che derivano dall’antica pratica dell’arte venatoria risultano oggi trasferibili alla moderna tecnica della caccia di selezione agli Ungulati. In particolare, il recupero di aree abbandonate
dalle attività agricole tradizionali e dal pascolo consente di aumentare la capacità portante dell’ambiente nei confronti di questi grandi erbivori e, al contempo, di consentire una migliore esecuzione
dei piani di assestamento faunistico (monitoraggio e prelievi).
Nelle aree boscate, un’utile pratica di gestione delle popolazioni animali consiste nell’apertura di
radure da destinare al pascolo degli Ungulati in modo da diminuire l’impatto di quest’ultimi sulla
rinnovazione forestale. Anche il recupero dei castagneti da frutto e il taglio dei boschi cedui ampliano le possibilità di intervento sulla fauna selvatica rappresentando aree idonee per il pascolo e gli
abbattimenti dei capi.
Un concetto moderno di appostamento fisso è rappresentato dalle altane che prendono origine,
con opportune modifiche, dai tradizionali appostamenti per l’avifauna migratoria (colombaccio,
tordi ecc.). Queste, per la sempre maggior diffusione della caccia di selezione, stanno diventando
elementi caratterizzanti del paesaggio non solo sulle Alpi, zona in cui questa tecnica venatoria è
presente da molto tempo, ma anche nei territori appenninici dove è di più recente introduzione. Per
questo motivo è necessario che tali strutture rispondano in modo adeguato, oltre che alle esigenze
tecniche e strutturali, anche a quelle di un corretto inserimento nel contesto paesaggistico.
5. Bibliografia
ARSIA Regione Toscana, 1998. Costruire in legno. Progetti tipo di fabbricati ed annessi agricoli.
ARSIA – Agenzia Regionale per lo Sviluppo e l’Innovazione nel Settore Agricolo-Forestale, Firenze.
Casanova P., Pini L., Memoli A., 2005a. Effetti della diversità ambientale sul peso dei maschi adulti
di capriolo. Annali dell’Accademia Italiana di Scienze Forestali, vol. LIV, 2005, Accademia Italiana
di Scienze Forestali, Firenze, pp. 25-36.
Casanova P., Pini L., Memoli A., 2005b. Osservazioni sull’impatto del morso del capriolo nelle
tagliate di alcuni boschi cedui. In: Corona P. et al. 2005, Foreste, Ricerca, Cultura. Accademia
Italiana di Scienze Forestali, Firenze, pp. 85-97.
Di Berenger A., 1859-1863 – Studii di archeologia forestale. Tipo-litografia G. Longo, Treviso
e Venezia.
Pedrotti L., Duprè E., Preatoni D., Toso S., 2001. Banca Dati Ungulati: status, distribuzione, consistenza, gestione, prelievo venatorio e potenzialità delle popolazioni di Ungulati in Italia. Biol. Cons.
Fauna, 109, pp. 48-53.
490
Sugumagi – The Korean traditional forest planted near Sugu
by the backgrounds of Fengshui
Jang Dongsu
Department of Landscape Architecture, Hankyong National University
Ansung, Korea 456-749
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Sugmagi is an unique Korean traditional forest by the backgrounds of Fengshui and it is located
near Sugu (a city entrance) like the main door of a house. And various facilities (Jangseung, Sosdae, CheongJa, etc.) are located inside of Sugumagi. The goal of this study is to find out historical
meanings and roles of Sugumagi planted around Sugu and to offer some ideas and techniques by
Fengshui. By written documents, actual cases, and visual maps and pictures, this study probably
can provide you with a more understanding of Sugumagi meanings and roles.
1. Introduction
Fengshui is an ancient method of approaching a property that maintains balance and harmony for
those who hold the land and for the earth. Until the present, Fengshui has been a powerful paradigm which has affected the formation of the spatial structure of cities in Korea. We can define
Fengshui as the theory of spatial formation and suitability analysis based on the concept of oriental
natural animism.
Fengshui’s main goal is to make and search for the best site (Myungdang) surrounded by mountains or hills which moderate the wind (Feng) and gathers the water(Shui). The climate being ruled
by the winds, the winds become the cause of all things. Too much wind is malicious. In short,
Fengshui theory related to the management of wind shall complete an urban topography encircled
on all sides without opening in order to moderate the winds.
One of the most important observation objects is Sugu (a floodgate, the exit of the river from the
site on the narrow throat of it) in Korea. But Sugu area in the traditional city is usually open, most
of Fengshui complementary methods (mounds, ponds, monuments, and plantings) were built near
Sugu. So the forest planted near Sugu or a gorge in which wind blows is called Sugumagi.
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. Some examples of Sugumagi
2.1.1. The Sugumagi of Seoul(the Capital of Korea)
The Sugumagi of Seoul does not exist now. It was located around the east gate of Seoul’s
citadel.
2.1.2. The Sugumagi of Haenam city
2.1.3. The Sugumagi of Kyungju City
491
POSTER SESSION
Figure 2. The Sugumagi of Haenam City
in an Old Map(1872)
Figure 1. Old map of Seoul City(1780)
Figure 4. The Sugumagi of Haenam City(2004)
Figure 3. Aerial photo of Haenam’s Sugumaki (2004)
Figure 6. Aerial photo of Kyungju’s Sugumaki(2003)
Figure 5. The Sugumagi of Kyungju Cityin an Old Map
Figure 7. The Sugumagi of Kyungju City (2000)
492
Sugumagi –The Korean traditional forest planted near Sugu by the backgrounds of Fengshui
2.2. Roles of Sugumagi
Sugumagi serves as a conspicuous visual element that enhances the sense of place in a city, because it locates in a Sugu (the only open area of the city) and makes a totally enclosed landscape.
And various facilities (Jangseung, Sosdae, CheongJa, etc.) are located inside of Sugumagi. It
looks like a city entrance as the main door of a house.
Sugumagi framework that embraces surrounding mountains and ridges is able to play a role in
forming and maintaining ecological networks and can create ecological corridors conditioning
the city and its water balance.
Sugumagi usually played an important part in protection against cold wind in winter and the
storm in summer saving heating and cooling energy. Sugumagi controlled internal temperature
and humidity of the city. The application of ecological corridors by the construction of Sugumagi
can greatly enhance the bird and animal habitat of the city. Sugumagi is one of the best ecological
methods to construct a friendly environment.
People’s anxieties are related to natural fears of floods and storms which are unpredictable and
uncontrollable. Sugumagi is a way to alleviate these anxieties. A safe urban topography encircled
on all sides without an opening is completed by constructing Sugumagi.
This presentation briefly summarizes Sugumagi meanings and the role on the urban edge. In
addition, some cities in Korea were selected as examples of case studies. By written documents,
actual cases, and visual maps and pictures, this poster probably can provide you with a more
comprehensive understanding of Fengshui meanings and roles of Korean Sugumagi.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by a research grant from Hankyong National University in the year of
2006.
References
Choi Changjo, 1984. Korea’s Feng Shui. Seoul. Mineum Press.
J. Appleton, 1977. The Experience of Landscape. John Wiley & Sons.
Jang Dongsu, 1995. A Study on the Place-Identity of Planted Forest in Korean Traditional City.
Seoul City University Press phd thesis.
Jang Dongsu, 2003. Fengshui Meanings and Roles of Korean Traditional Urban Forests. the Journal
of Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture, International Edition 1, 43-50.
Jang Dongsu, 2005. A Study on BiBo Fengshui techniques of Traditional Urban Landscape, the
Journal of Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture, International Edition 3, 41-49.
Ke-Tsung Han, 1998. A Case-Study of Feng Shui in Twiwan. Annual Meeting Proceedings of ASLA,
133-137.
Kim Sungkyun, 1988. Winding River Village. Univ. of Pennsylvania Press phd thesis.
Shelley Sparks, 1998. Designing with Feng Shui Principles. Annual Meeting Proceedings of ASLA,
130-132.
493
Assessment of traditional cultural landscape visual quality loss
by spontaneous afforestation of abandoned lands
Andrej Kobler
Slovenian Forestry Institute, Slovenia
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Due to depopulation of rural areas during last half-century the cultural landscape in Slovenia has
been affected by a widespread process of spontaneous afforestation of abandoned agricultural
lands. Although this process has also positive aspects, the traditional cultural landscape is thus
losing its outstanding aesthetic beauty. In order to assess where the spontaneous afforestation will
be aesthetically most damaging, and to assist the sustainable management of forested landscape,
we developed a quantitative spatial model for the assessment of cultural landscape visual quality
for a region in western part of Slovenia. The input variables of the model were the mapped physical
features of the landscape, including the spatial pattern of forest edge, relief, landscape composition
and anthropogenic degradation (quarries and industrial sites). Based on the model the aesthetically
most valuable areas of landscape were identified. Finally, the current spatial trend of spontaneous
afforestation was extrapolated into the next 20 years, and intersected with the modeled map of aesthetically valuable areas, in order to assess the areas needing special protection against spontaneous
afforestation.
494
Rimboschimento ed incendi: un problema antico con un nuovo approccio
Raffaella Lovreglio, Vittorio Leone, Rossella Salvatore & Valentina Urbano
Università degli Studi della Basilicata
Dipartimento dei Sistemi Forestali, Colturali e dell’Ambiente
via dell’Ateneo Lucano, 10; 85100 Potenza, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
The report of the European parliament on the implementation of European Union Forestry Strategy clearly calls for a recommendation aimed at suggesting an integrated approach to protecting
forests against fires, with measures such as the harvesting and utilisation of residual forest biomass,
a temporary ban on changes in the use of burnt land to prevent speculation following fires, and the
creation of special prosecution services for environmental offences. The recommendation is particularly important for Italy, where more than 1.000.000 hectares were reforested from 1867 onward,
of which 420.000 from 1925 to 1945 and more than 120.0000 only in Calabria. In these even-aged
forests, quite often abandoned after the early phase of planting, trees increased resulting in dense,
multi-storied conditions. This condition, in heliophilous (light-loving or shade-intolerant) pioneer
species, such as Pinus, results in the abundance of necromasse, represented by shaded dead branches, forming a very dangerous fuel ladder. A possible solution, which perfectly complies with EP
recommendation, is the implementation of prevention sylviculture, i.e. stand tending aimed to modify and reinforce stand structure and at reducing fire effects through the reduction of fuel load.
1. Introduzione
Nell’ultimo decennio si è assistito ad una crescente rivalutazione del ruolo delle foreste nei dibattiti e nelle iniziative politiche internazionali: l’allargamento dell’UE ha comportato una notevole
espansione del settore forestale europeo, non solo in termini di superfici, ma anche di potenziale
produttivo ed ecologico. Rapporti recentemente pubblicati indicano un progressivo aumento della
copertura forestale totale in Europa durante il periodo 2000-2005, stimando che la superficie boscata è incrementata di circa 2,3 milioni di ha, sia per un processo di naturale espansione che per
attività di imboschimento. A queste considerazioni si affianca la presa di coscienza che le foreste, e
una loro gestione sostenibile, possono contribuire a fornire benefici multipli alla società, assumendo un ruolo cruciale per l’adempimento degli impegni assunti dalla Comunità relativamente alla
perdita di biodiversità e all’attenuazione dei cambiamenti climatici.
È pertanto divenuta sempre più pressante la necessità di coerenza fra le politiche forestali degli stati membri e le relative attività forestali, necessità che ha incentivato, il 15 dicembre 1998, l’approvazione di una Strategia Europea di Protezione delle Foreste da parte del Consiglio d’Europa, che
ha inoltre invitato la Commissione a relazionare sulla sua esecuzione, relativamente al quinquennio
1999-2004.
In risposta la Commissione ha inviato una comunicazione al Consiglio ed al Parlamento Europeo
contenente una revisione dettagliata delle attività effettuate nel contesto della strategia, le conclusioni sui principali successi e le possibili azioni per il futuro e ha inoltre concretizzato l’impegno ad
aumentare la conduzione sostenibile delle foreste proponendo l’adozione di un Piano d’Azione delle Foreste Europee da realizzare entro il 2006. L’esecuzione di tale piano rientra nelle competenze
di ciascuno Stato membro, che, attraverso programmi nazionali e mediante l’attuazione di politiche
comuni, supportate dell’UE, ha il compito di perseguire gli obiettivi previsti.
495
POSTER SESSION
La European Union Forestry Strategy (2005/2054 (INI)) affronta numerose tematiche inerenti la gestione sostenibile delle foreste soffermandosi sull’importanza del ruolo multifunzionale da esse
svolto e ribadendo la necessità di misure di tutela e di recupero, mette a fuoco gli obiettivi prioritari
che mirano a migliorare, compatibilmente con la protezione dell’ambiente, la competitività a lungo
termine dei prodotti forestali, promuove le attività di ricerca e di innovazione e incentiva azioni
mirate ad incrementare l’uso delle risorse della foresta per la produzione di energia.
Riconoscendo la vasta gamma di risorse naturali, le differenze sociali, economiche e culturali, l’ampia varietà di regimi di proprietà all’interno della comunità europea, la gestione del patrimonio
boschivo, attraverso la selvicoltura sostenibile, mira a ridurre le importazioni delle materie prime
legnose, a promuovere il valore dei prodotti forestali secondari quali sughero, resine, piante medicinali, funghi e bacche, a tutelare le funzioni ambientali, sociali e turistiche che il bosco svolge, per
garantire la fornitura continua di merci ed i servizi ai cittadini.
Lo sviluppo del piano d’azione potrebbe dare risposta alle numerose problematiche ambientali,
prima fra tutte gli incendi, che costituiscono il fattore offensivo più importante nei paesi mediterranei: basti pensare che nel 2000 in Italia sono stati percorsi dal fuoco 59.957 ha di foreste (ISTAT,
2002) (Tab. 1.); l’intensificarsi di condizioni molto calde ed asciutte, verificatesi in conseguenza ai
cambiamenti climatici, favoriscono senza dubbio il pericolo degli eventi e ne aggravano gli effetti.
La stessa strategia, al punto 5, espone esplicitamente suggerimenti mirati ad un approccio integrato per la protezione delle foreste dagli incendi, da realizzare con misure di prelievo e di riutilizzo
della biomassa forestale residua, con la temporanea proibizione del cambio di uso del suolo nei
territori percorsi, per prevenire successive speculazioni, e con la creazione di specifiche accuse e
pene per i reati ambientali.
Tabella 1. Incendi forestali e superficie forestale percorsa dal fuoco per tipo di bosco e zona geografica
nell’anno 2000
Superficie forestale percorsa da incendi (ettari)
Numero
di
incendi
Fustaie
Cedui
Conifere
Latifoglie
Miste
Semplici
Composti
Totale
Macchia
mediterr.
Degradati
ha
% della
sup. for.
Nord
1.384
828
160
542
2.198
342
208
2.080
6.358
0,2
Centro
1.172
965
631
427
2.058
189
2.132
948
7.350
0,4
Sud
5.971
7.336
7.330
6.296
11.350
1.003
9.328
3.606
46.249
2,2
TOTALE
8.527
9.129
8.121
7.265
15.606
1.534
11.668
6.634
59.957
0,9
(Fonte: ISTAT, 2002)
2. I rimboschimenti in Italia
Quanto raccomandato dal Parlamento Europeo in tema di protezione dal fuoco suscita la necessità
di una concreta risposta, soprattutto in Italia, dove fin dagli anni ‘20, si è assistito ad un progressivo aumento delle superfici rimboschite, incentivato dall’emanazione di una serie di leggi. Si può
stimare, infatti, che, dall’Unità d’Italia (1861) in avanti, siano stati rimboschiti più di 106 ha di
terreno (Schirone,1998) con l’obiettivo di incrementare la scarsa produzione legnosa e di migliorare
l’azione di protezione del suolo, utilizzando prevalentemente conifere quali Pinus halepensis Mill.
e Cupressus sempervirens L.
A partire dal 1923, è operante il Regio Decreto Legge n. 3267, „Riordinamento e riforma della legislazione in materia di boschi e di terreni montani”, noto anche come “Legge Serpieri”, che rappre-
496
Rimboschimento ed incendi: un problema antico con un nuovo approccio
senta a livello nazionale il testo fondamentale, ancora vigente, nel settore forestale. La legge, nata
da esigenze prevalentemente protezionistiche di conservazione dei suoli e delle acque e di difesa
delle pendici montane, non solo ebbe l’effetto di preservare le foreste dalla distruzione, attraverso
l’imposizione di una serie di vincoli, ma favorì le opere di rimboschimento, prevedendo l’esenzione
dell’imposta fondiaria, la direzione tecnica gratuita, contributi e la fornitura gratuita delle piantine.
Tra il 1925 e il 1945 vennero rimboschiti circa 420 000 ha di terreno.
In fase successiva, dopo un’interruzione forzata delle opere in seguito allo scoppio della Seconda
Guerra Mondiale, la legge sui cantieri di rimboschimento, nel 1949, ebbe lo scopo di prevenire i fenomeni di erosione e garantire l’occupazione, mentre il progetto speciale PS 24 della Cassa per il
Mezzogiorno, nel 1975, si prefiggeva un’integrazione tra il settore della produzione legnosa e la sua
utilizzazione industriale, conferendo agli interventi un’impronta prevalentemente produttivistica.
Alla legislazione nazionale si affianca oggi quella comunitaria, che, attraverso i Regolamenti CEE
2080/92 e 1257/99, emanati nell’ambito della Politica Agricola Comunitaria, ha inciso sulla politica
forestale italiana. Il primo regolamento, diretto a incentivare e a migliorare la superficie boscata,
prevedeva l’istituzione di un regime comunitario di aiuti alle misure forestali nel settore agricolo,
quali contributi alle spese di imboschimento, premi annuali per ettari rimboschiti, incentivi alle
sistemazioni per il miglioramento delle superfici boschive (frangivento, fasce tagliafuoco, strade
forestali). Promuovendo un’utilizzazione alternativa delle terre agricole mediante l’imboschimento
il Regolamento ha contribuito allo sviluppo dell’arboricoltura da legno e ha determinato una ripresa
delle piantagioni forestali, che tra il 1998 e il 2002 hanno interessato oltre 54.000 ha (Schirone,
1998). Tra gli obiettivi perseguiti dal Regolamento era inoltre citata la lotta all’effetto serra e l’assorbimento di anidride carbonica: non va dimenticato il ruolo che i rimboschimenti e la corretta gestione di quelli già esistenti potrebbero assumere in questo senso. Successivamente, il Reg.
1257/99 ha abrogato il Reg. CEE 2080/92 e ha rifinanziato il sostegno comunitario alle misure
forestali nel settore agricolo.
3. I rimboschimenti in Puglia
La Puglia fu interessata, alla fine degli anni Trenta (1937-1940), da un vasto e capillare programma di rimboschimenti, che, pensato ed attuato per soddisfare esigenze di diversa natura coinvolse
i terreni improduttivi, nudi, pascolivi e pietrosi, situati sulla Murgia, in provincia di Bari, con la
realizzazione di circa 20.500 ettari di rimboschimento (Fig. 1.).
Di tale iniziativa, peraltro poco nota anche agli addetti ai lavori, abbiamo fortuitamente trovato documentazione nell’Archivio di Stato di Bari (Buste Titolo 7, rimboschimenti ), che conserva tutto
il carteggio tra Comuni e Comando Legione della Milizia Forestale Nazionale.
Quest’opera di recupero forestale fu propagandata dal regime fascista come intervento di sicuro
giovamento in una provincia poverissima di boschi, sia per gli interessi nazionali che per quelli della
provincia di Bari e per gli interessi di privati che avrebbero avuto l’opportunità di valorizzare terreni
nudi a bassissimo reddito. Alla valenza idrogeologica, che i nuovi boschi avrebbero assunto, contenendo i danni causati dalle alluvioni, si aggiungevano e si enfatizzavano la possibilità di produrre
legname, alleviando le condizioni di penuria legata all’autarchia, finalità paesaggistiche e turistiche,
ed un importante ruolo di contenimento della disoccupazione.
Data la natura del lavoro, detti rimboschimenti non furono inclusi nel programma quindicennale
della Bonifica Integrale; si pensò, pertanto, per il carattere di assoluta urgenza e di interesse generale che rivestivano, di iniziare i lavori con parte dei fondi che l’Ente Comunale Assistenziale (E.C.A.)
di ogni Comune aveva a sua disposizione per l’assistenza alla disoccupazione invernale: l’Ente assi497
POSTER SESSION
stenziale interessato nel rimboschimento, avrebbe fatto affluire sul luogo del lavoro gli operai validi
disoccupati che doveva assistere, affinché scavassero un certo numero di buche, proporzionato alla
quota di assistenza che l’operaio stesso doveva percepire.
Figura 1. Mappa dei rimboschimenti nel territorio della Murgia Alta, in Puglia
(il tratteggio indica il confine del Parco Nazionale dell’Alta Murgia, istituito nel 2006)
I lavori di rimboschimento furono materialmente seguiti dalla Milizia Forestale Nazionale, che aveva il compito di organizzare, dirigere il lavoro e fornire le piantine necessarie, con i predetti fondi,
sostituendo il sussidio per la forzata inattività con un compenso per lo scavo di un certo numero
di buche.
In questo modo si riuscì a non far gravare la spesa sulle casse dello Stato che, tuttavia, poteva intervenire o con contributi diretti all’E.C.A. che finanziava i lavori, o con finanziamenti, a norma degli
Articoli 90 e 91 della Legge 30 Dicembre 1923 n. 3267, ai proprietari privati che, dietro versamento
di un contributo di circa L. 200 ad ettaro e impegnandosi a versare nella Cassa Comunale l’eventuale contributo dello Stato, concesso per rimboschimento volontario e ad utilizzare le proprietà
secondo le norme stabilite dalle leggi forestali, potevano rimboschire i propri terreni.
Prima che iniziassero i lavori, l’E.C.A. si occupò di stabilire il costo delle buche, caso per caso, e, in
base a questo, il numero di buche che ogni operaio avrebbe dovuto scavare durante il suo turno di
lavoro. La Milizia, invece, doveva controllare giornalmente la qualità e la quantità del lavoro svolto
da ogni operaio e settimanalmente inviare un resoconto all’E.C.A.
Le modalità di esecuzione, relativamente semplici, prevedevano lo scavo di circa 400 buche per ettaro,
alla distanza di 5 m l’una dall’altra, lunghe 1 m, larghe 0,50 e profonde 0,50, ubicate non necessariamente in modo simmetrico, nei punti in cui fosse più facile lo scavo stesso. In ogni buca erano poste
2 piantine e lo scavo fu eseguito a mano. Laddove la roccia era estremamente compatta, si sarebbe
potuto ricorrere all’uso di esplosivi, come per esempio la geoclastite, per frantumare le rocce e aprire la
strada alle radici, aumentando la percentuale di attecchimento; tuttavia questo tipo di soluzione non
fu mai attuata e si preferì ricorrere al lavoro umano di scavo, per ridurre la disoccupazione.
498
Rimboschimento ed incendi: un problema antico con un nuovo approccio
L’impianto fu eseguito, prima nei demani comunali e successivamente nei terreni privati, con il cipresso come essenza principale, dal quale poter ricavare legname di alto valore commerciale, e con
il pino domestico ed il carrubo, come essenze secondarie da utilizzare in zone limitate, più adatte
ed a reddito elevato.
Si riporta di seguito una tabella riassuntiva dei Comuni interessati dal progetto e dell’entità degli
interventi (Tab. 2.).
Nonostante l’importanza assunta in passato, la quasi totalità di questi rimboschimenti sono stati abbandonati, spesso anche subito dopo la fase di impianto; solo raramente sono stati eseguiti i necessari interventi di sfollo e di diradamento, negli anni successivi, per mancanza di finanziamenti specifici;
gli interventi talvolta sono stati effettuati in modo irregolare o con modalità non adeguate.
In mancanza di cure colturali le caratteristiche strutturali dei superstiti soprassuoli monospecifici,
ormai adulti, sono irregolari e instabili: essi conservano spesso la densità iniziale, con conseguente
presenza di numerose piante morte o deperienti e abbondanza di necromassa presente al suolo,
come risultato dell’autopotatura, tipica delle specie eliofile quali i Pini. L’accumulo di necromassa
e l’abbandono colturale costituiscono una condizione predisponente di pericolo per gli incendi,
rappresentata dall’accumulo di materiale potenzialmente infiammabile e dall’elevata continuità
verticale dello stesso: non a caso una percentuale considerevole di incendi interessa formazioni
classificate dall’ISTAT come “fortemente degradate” (Brun e Magnani 2003) fenomeno che induce
a riflettere sulle conseguenze che la mancata gestione dei boschi può avere.
Una possibile soluzione, in linea con le raccomandazioni del Parlamento Europeo, consiste nell’applicazione della selvicoltura preventiva, mirata a ridurre la potenzialità di diffusione dell’incendio,
attraverso la modifica della distribuzione e quantità del combustibile e della struttura dei popolamenti, da attuarsi mediante la creazione di discontinuità orizzontali e verticali capaci di limitare la
propagazione del fuoco, nel caso in cui l’incendio si verifichi.
Il diradamento è la misura elettiva di selvicoltura di prevenzione; in particolare, il diradamento dal
basso appare come un efficace strumento di prevenzione nei riguardi degli incendi di chioma.
Oltre a migliorare la stabilità e funzionalità complessiva dei soprassuoli, il diradamento dal basso
aumenta, infatti, la distanza media tra terreno e chiome e nel caso del diradamento “dal basso di
grado forte” (Wiedemann, 1935), eliminando quasi del tutto lo strato dei soggetti dominati e rilasciando soggetti con diametri più elevati, a maggior resistenza specifica legata allo spessore della
corteccia (Lovreglio et al., 1998) (Fig. 2.-3.).
Figura 2.
Soprassuolo di
conifere di origine
artificiale prima del
diradamento
(Foto Leone)
Figura 3.
Id. dopo un
diradamento dal
basso di grado
medio basso
(Foto Leone)
499
POSTER SESSION
Tabella 2. Rimboschimenti in Puglia in attuazione degli interventi con fondi ECA (1937-40)
Comune
Operai
impiegati
Giornate
lavorative
Spesa
sostenuta
(n.)
(n.)
(n.)
(Lire)
Contrada “Torre
di Nebbia”
2432
25
197
Contrada “Piano
Maugeri”
2880
19
210
Contrada
“Svignano”
1249
14
109
Contrada “Piano
la Monica”
1934
13
91
Contrada
“Foresta”
1566
15
383
3197,1
10
36
3600
1026
6797,1
Bosco/Contrada
Comunali
(ha)
Corato
Monopoli
Anno
Buche
aperte
Private
(ha)
dei lavori
560
1938
Proprietà
Bosco “S. Nicola”
19,72
1938
4500
1937-1938
Specie utilizzate
Bosco
“Mammutte”
Gravina
2040
Contrada
“Fornognola”,
bosco
“Difesa Grande”
Contrada
“Finocchio”,
bosco
“Difesa Grande”
Cupressus arizonica
Greene
20
1938
9747
Cedrus deodara
Loudon
Cupressus arizonica
Greene
18
Bosco dell’
“Impero”,
località La
Gravina
Località
“Campanale”,
bosco “Difesa
Grande”
1938
8250
Cedrus deodara
Loudon
1938
4676
Cupressus arizonica
Greene
1938
1346
Gioia del
Colle
località
“Montursi”
5
Cupressus arizonica
Greene
1939-1940
Pinus halepensis
Miller
Spinazzola
90
3000
Altamura
216
10000
Contrada
“S. Chiara – Ovile
Penzola”.
Cassano
Murge
Bosco
“Mercadante”
Toritto
“Bosco del
Littorio”.
1938
1938
1937-1938
12
80
Pinus pinea L.
15
Cupressus spp.
Tot.
10
2356,00
1937-1938
18079,72
34160
123
Figura 4.
Altezza media della base della chioma
(SCOTT, 2001)
500
Rimboschimento ed incendi: un problema antico con un nuovo approccio
L’aumento della distanza media tra chioma e terreno è il parametro cruciale nel definire il passaggio
da incendio di superficie ad incendio di chioma, come teorizzato da Van Wagner (1977), che identifica l’intensità critica (CFI) in kWm-1 capace di avviare un fuoco di chioma, in funzione dell’altezza
media della base della chioma (CBH) (Fig. 4.) e dell’umidità del fogliame (FMC), considerata una
costante pari a 100:
CFI = .001* (CBH)1.5 * (460+25.9* FMC)1.5
Un intervento di diradamento forte dal basso, nei soprassuoli di origine artificiale descritti, seppur
tardivo e da realizzarsi con cauta gradualità, con la finalità di regolare la distribuzione spaziale delle
piante, assicurerebbe una riduzione della competizione fra gli elementi arborei, limitando il pericolo di incendio e contribuirebbe ad elevare la diversità e la complessità floristica, attivando processi
di rinaturalizzazione oltre che a fornire biomassa combustibile dai residui di utilizzazione.
L’utilizzo di tecniche selvicolturali tradizionali, quali i diradamenti, teorizzati a partire dal XIX
secolo e largamente eseguiti per finalità strettamente funzionali alla produzione legnosa, potrebbe,
oggi, assumere una nuova e diversa connotazione ecologica, se rivisto nell’ottica di miglioramento
della stabilità e della funzionalità complessiva dei soprassuoli, oltre che della loro difesa dagli incendi, di cui rappresenta l’unico intervento possibile di tipo preventivo (Leone e Lovreglio, 2005)
4. Conclusioni
Quanto sopra esposto evidenzia la necessità di una diversa gestione di tutti i rimboschimenti in
abbandono colturale, soprattutto alla luce della crescente attenzione che viene oggi rivolta al ruolo
che essi possono svolgere sul controllo dell’erosione e principalmente sul contributo che possono
apportare per mantenere gli impegni di riduzione delle emissioni dei gas clima-alteranti, secondo
quanto previsto dal Protocollo di Kyoto: si è calcolato che, per compensare le emissioni di CO2, in
Italia sarebbe necessario rimboschire circa 35 000 ha l’anno (Schirone,1998); un valore enorme, se
rapportato alle iniziative finora svolte, di cui quella illustrata, benché poco nota, è sicuramente tra
le più ampie mai realizzate.
Benché realizzati con tecniche e modalità superate, i rimboschimenti monospecifici di conifere
della Murgia Alta da noi descritti fanno ormai parte del paesaggio anche culturale, rappresentando
spesso le uniche interruzioni in una monotonia di land-use accentuata dalle recenti operazioni di
eliminazione dei muri a secco e di spietratura che hanno modificato radicalmente l’ambito, storicamente deprivato quasi del tutto della originaria copertura boschiva.
Tecniche selvicolturali tradizionali, quali i diradamenti, rivisitate sulla base delle esigenze di tutela
e dei molteplici ruoli che il patrimonio boschivo può svolgere, in aggiunta a quello economico, da
sempre riconosciuto, diventano oggi strumento per l’attuazione della Strategia Europea di Protezione delle Foreste e per una più efficace tutela del paesaggio e delle sue risorse, di cui i rimboschimenti sono una componente non trascurabile.
5. Bibliografia
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http://www.deiafa.unito.it/pdf/P344.pdf
ISTAT 2002, Annuario Statistico Italiano.
501
POSTER SESSION
Lovreglio R., Moretti N., Leone V. 1998 Spessore della corteccia in Pinus halepensis Mill e resistenza passiva al fuoco. Legno, Cellulosa e Carta 2:32-41.
Leone V., Lovreglio R. 2005 Pre and post-fire treatments in Aleppo pine stands: prevention sylviculture and restoration. Proceedings II International Conference on prevention strategies of
fires in Southern Europe, Barcelona, May 9-11 [online] URL: www.ctfc.es/confeinfor/articles/
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Schirone B. 1998 Le attività di rimboschimento in Italia: situazione attuale e prospettive. Atti del
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Scott, J. H. 1998. Sensitivity analysis of a method for assessing crown fire hazard in the Northern
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Scott J. 2001 NEXUS user’s guide;www.fire.org/nexus/nexus.html
Van Wagner C.E. 1977 Conditions for the start and spread of crown fire. Can. J. For. Res.7,
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Wiedemann E. 1935 Zur Klärung der Durchforstungsbegriffe. Z. Forst-u. Jagdws. 67: 55-64.
502
Temporal pattern over the last 200 years in the SCI Mt. Vigese (IT4050013)
Northern Apennines (Italy)
G. Pezzi
1,2
, S. Masi & C. Ferrari
2
1
CIRSA, University of Bologna, via S. Alberto 163, 48100 Ravenna, Italy
2
Dept. of Evolutionary Biology, University of Bologna, via Irnerio 42, 40126 Bologna, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The landscape – a geographical and ecological space where interaction between its elements creates a unique pattern – is transformed by spatial reorganization of its elements due to interaction
between human impact and natural processes. Comparing land use/land cover maps of different
years highlights the main trends in vegetation types. The Mt. Vigese SCI (Site of Community Importance) is an excellent example of a mosaic where coltural systems dating from different periods
are found together with highly natural systems. The changes of the last 200 years (1807-2005) were
assessed on the basis of cadastral maps (1807, 1924) and aerial photographs. A geographical database from these different sources was created. Despite the difficulty of standardization, the historical cadastral data was found to be invaluable and is still very relevant if we consider that the well
delineation of chestnut orchards is the real starting point for any study of community dynamics.
1. Introduction
The landscape is not simply a collection of diverse elements combined into a complex systems and
subject to constant change; it is a continuum of traces, layered one upon the other, which natural
processes and human activity have left over the time (Antrop, 2005; Farina 1998; Skånes e Bunce
(1997).
Historic maps and associated documents provide the raw material for landscape analyses. From the
17th century onwards these start to be topographically consistent and by the 19th century can be
considered scientifically precise documents. They can be put together with modern aerial and satellite images, to create an enormous archive using Geographical Information System (GIS), which
makes it possible to compare quite different documents by georeferencing and associating qualitative data. A scientific basis for this approach comes from Landscape Ecology (Forman & Godron,
1986; Farina, 1998). Here a landscape is described as a mosaic made up of discrete patches each
with own spatial features. A “landscape-system” analysis can be made by classifying these patches
according to habitat type (which frequently means vegetation types).
The analysis of “Mt. Vigese” SCI (Northern Apennines, Italy) uses data gathered over the last two
centuries as the first professionally drawn up cadastral map for this area which provide a fairly
dependable picture of land use was made in 1807. This together with subsequent documentary
evidence make it possibile to trace how the distribution and extent of various sorts of vegetation
of varying degrees of naturalness have changed. Five land use/land cover maps in a GIS environment using cadastral maps from 1807 and 1924 and by interpreting aerial photographs from 1954,
1971 and 2000 were produced. The up-to-date interpretation was supported by releves (Pezzi et al.,
2005).
Creating a single geographical database to include this data with very different origins, scales and
purposes was a demanding task. The 19th century cadastre was interested in land potential, more
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POSTER SESSION
than in current use. By contrast, other data were created in order to describe the terrain as they
really was. These two different aims created different types of classification. Comparing such different sources required a common classification system although at a cost of losing some precious
information from the terms used in the oldest survey. We have therefore included separate tables of
these terms. Moreover overlaying the maps based on interpretation of cadastral maps and of aerial
photographs is made more difficult because the patches in the former are largely geometrical as
they relate mainly to ownership and the prevailing use and tend not to show internal environmental
heterogeneity.
Nevertheless the historical data is indispensable especially concernig chestnut orchards which were
the main resource right up the mid 20th century in southern and central Europe. An accurate picture of this vegetation type provide a starting point for more detailed studies of landscape change
and of the species composition of the woods which have gradually taken over.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
The “Mt. Vigese” SCI (IT4050013, Bologna Province) covers an area of 617 ha. Altitudinal range
is between 495 and 1089 m a.s.l. The geology consists largely of sandstone and marl (Antognola
and Bismantova) which “float” on a vast clay base (Regione Emilia-Romagna, 1994a e b). The
area, in general, is subject to landslides, notably in 1852, 1903, 1950 (eg. Mazzuoli, 1903; Biagetti, 1997).
1
The present vegetation is largely woodland and reflects the past chestnut based economy (Gabbrielli 1994; Pezzi et al, 2005). In the last few decades commercial chesnut growing has declined
and most orchards have been coppiced. Chestnut coppices (altitude: 495-990 m), have largely
acidophylic undergrowth with Luzula pedemontana, Luzula sylvatica, L. forsteri on damper aspects
with Geranium nodosum. Generally herbaceous layer includes Pteridium aquilinum and Salvia glutinosa. Castanea sativa is still dominant but in some areas suffers competition from Ostrya carpinifolia and Fagus sylvatica at higher altitudes.
On western and warmer slopes there are thermophilous woods with Quercus pubescens, Ostrya
carpinifolia and Fraxinus ornus. The undergrowth is characterized by Cytisus sessilifolius, Chamaecytisus hirsutus, Teucrium chamaedrys, Carex hallerana, Juniperus communis and Brachypodium pinnatum
subsp. rupestre.
On cooler slopes there are Ostrya carpinifolia-Acer opulifolium woods. They have a high woody species diversy (Fraxinus ornus, Laburnum anagyroides, Castanea sativa, Quercus pubescens, Acer pseudoplatanus, A. campestre, Fagus sylvatica; Crataegus monogyna, Lonicera xylosteum e L. caprifolium, Daphne
laureola, Cornus mas and C. sanguinea). In the herbaceous layer Hepatica nobilis, Melica uniflora, Carex
digitata, Primula vulgaris, Dryopteris filixmas, Geranium nodosum are frequent.
Near the top of Mt. Vigese there is a small beech wood. On clays Quercus cerris woods with Fraxinus ornus and Quercus pubescens very often derive from recolonization processes of abandoned
pastureland.
There are also herbaceous communities in recently abandoned agricultural areas and pastures.
1 Nomenclature of Pignatti (1982) used for higher plants.
504
Temporal pattern over the last 200 years in the SCI Mt. Vigese (IT4050013). Northern Apennines (Italy)
The most extensive Habitat in the area is Castanea sativa woods (9260). Other extensive Habitats
are: 6210 Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (FestucoBrometalia); 6110 Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the Alysso-Sedion albi;
5130 Juniperus communis formations on heaths or calcareous grasslands. From the conservation
point of view, the Quercus ilex population on arenaceous outcrops, cited by Cocconi (1883), is
of particular interest.
2.2. Data treatment
We produced and analyzed 5 land use/land cover maps in a GIS environment using ArcGIS
8.3. Data sources were cadastral maps and aerial photographs. The first document we used was
the “Boncompagni” cadastre (Salterini & Tura 1995; Giacomelli 1987). Named after the person
who planned it, it started in 1780 and was the first one professionally drawn up for the Bologna
area, in order to tax landowners, including the previously exempt nobility and the church. A new
survey was made between 1801 and 1819 in order to revise the cadastre. All parcel information
was collected in land registers (brogliardi). For every parcel the following data were collected most
notably including actual land use and land potential. The maps we used derive from Marchignoli’s revised versions (1807). We also interpreted the 1924 cadastral maps and aerial photographs
from: 1954-1955 (fligth G.A.I.); 1971-73 (flight R.E.R.); ortophoto TerraItalyTM 98/99. The
up-to-date interpretation was supported by phytosociological releves (Pezzi et al., 2005).
For purposes of comparison we used a common nomenclature system (Skånes & Bunce, 1997).
However, so as not to lose precious historical information, cadastral data (1807; 1924) are separately commented on. It should be noted that cadastral maps include a wide variety of buildings
(public, privat, agricultural, churches), which here are included under the term artificial surfaces
as they not relevant to this study.
3. Results
The five land use/land cover maps are shown in Figure 1.
Table 1. lists the 38 different types of land use as described in the cadastral register in terms of our
classification system. Although there are many categories, 9 of them make up 92%. These are chestnut orchards (24%): pastonesi (10%) is a variety which still today is considered excellent especially
for drying and for flour production, and selvano is another variety still found in Garfagnana (Maltoni
personal observation); 11% of them are on unstable areas (lavinosi or calancosi terrains) Due to their
economic importance chestnut orchards are listed in extremely small parcels in this map compared
the other type of equal extensive vegetation.
Forests (boschi and boschivi) cover about 30% (boschivi di cerri = 11%, di quercioni = 10% e boschi di
quercioni e cerri = 8%). Other extensive types are: pastureland (20%; pascolivo), various types of
spontaneous herbaceous communities particularly on clay soils; agricultural areas (arativo and lavorativo; 12%) mainly cropland.
In the 1924 landscape (Table 2.) chestnut orchard cover remains almost unaltered in extent (24%),
but is only partially stable in spatial localization. The same is from for cropland (11%). We also find
uncultivated areas which may be: a) fertile (incolto produttivo = 8%) or b) infertile (incolto improduttivo). The former are in areas registered as chestnut orchards in 1807 which had suffered landslides,
especially in 1852 and 1903 (Mazzuoli, 1903) or forests which also suffered landslides; Infertile
uncultivated areas consist largely of rocky outcrops or badland. Forests especially coppices (43%),
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POSTER SESSION
dominated the SCI area in the 1924. However, the dominant woodland species are not specified,
as these were listed on separate forms (Gabbrielli personal observation) which have unfortunately
been lost. The information would have been particular interesting for this study.
The land use/land cover map from 1971 and 2005 indicates the decline of the chestnut based
economy already damaged by the 1950 landslide (Biagetti, 1997). In 2005 chestnut coppices cover
21% of the whole area of the SCI.
1807
1924
1971
2005
1954
Figure 1. “Mt. Vigese” landscape in (a) 1807, (b) 1924, (c) 1954-55, (d) 1971-73, (e) 2005.
* indicates Quercus cerris woods.
Today landscape is dominated by forests which increased in extent particularly between 1954 and
2005, partly as a result of the coppicing of orchards and also due to the decline of agriculture and
pastoralism. The 1954-2005 analysis also shows that woodland has tended to increase in surface
area and spatial continuity. Of particular note is the steady recolonization of clays by Quercus cerris
on 19th pastures (Figure 1c,d,e. indicated by *).
4. Conclusions
Changes in the “Mt. Vigese” SCI cultural landscape (Antrop, 2000; Antrop, 2005) were recorded
using data that varied in origin, scale, periods and purposes which had to be carefully normalized.
Of crucial importance were the old cadastral maps as they detail the major changes in land management and the decline of the old chestnut based economy (“chestnut civilization”, sensu Gabbrielli,
1994).
An interesting feature of the temporal vegetation pattern is also the topological shift of Quercus
cerris woods. The 19th century document describe these woods has being largely on sandstone, but
from 1954 they have mostly found on clay which is what Quercus cerris usually prefers. The 19th
century banishment to sandstone which is unfavourable for agriculture was probably a result of
deforestation to make way for agricultural land and pasture on clay.
506
Temporal pattern over the last 200 years in the SCI Mt. Vigese (IT4050013). Northern Apennines (Italy)
The “Mt. Vigese” case study is representative of the whole northern Apennines: land uses deriving
from pre-industrial revolution systems still co-exists side by side with much more natural systems
(mixed oak woods). The reconstruction of the recent history provides a knowledge base for predict
modification in short term and for conservative management in long term.
5. Acknowledgments
The study was promoted and financed by the Province of Bologna Servizio Pianificazione Paesistica
(Dir. Arch. Paola Altobelli) through an agreement with the Experimental Evolutionary Biology Department (ref. Prof. Carlo Ferrari) in order to create a census of protected Habitats in SCIs in the
Province of Bologna. Many thanks to the management of the Montovolo Provincial Park and the
Comune of Grizzana Morandi.
6. References
Antrop, M., 2000. Background concepts for integrated landscape analysis. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ.
77, 17–28.
Antrop, M., 2005. Why landscapes of the past are important for the future. Landscape and Urban
Planning 70, 21-34.
Biagetti, M., 1997. Evoluzione dei movimenti franosi nell’area di M. Vigese e M. Ovolo. Università
di Bologna, Tesi di laurea in Scienze Geologiche, A.A. 1996/1997.
Cocconi, G., 1883. Flora della provincia di Bologna: vademecum per una facile determinazione delle
piante incontrate. Zanichelli, Bologna.
Farina, A., 1998. Principles and methods in landscape ecology. Chapman & Hall.
Forman, R.T., Godron, M., 1986. Landscape ecology. Whiley & Sons, New York.
Gabbrielli, A., 1994. La civiltà del castagno. Monti e Boschi 1, 3.
Giacomelli, A., 1987. Carta delle vocazioni agrarie della pianura bolognese desunta dal catasto Boncompagni (1780-86), Università, Dipartimento. di discipline storiche, Bologna. 24 pp.
Mazzuoli, L., 1903. La relazione ufficiale sulla frana di Vigo. L’Alpe 11-12, 136-138.
Pezzi, G., Bordò, L., Ferrari, C., 2005. Carta della vegetazione del SIC “Monte Vigese” (IT4050013,
Appennino settentrionale, Bologna). Braun-Blanquetia 40, 1-24.
Pignatti, S., 1982. Flora d’Italia. 3 vols. Edagricole, Bologna.
Regione Emilia-Romagna, 1994a. Carta geologica dell’Appennino Emiliano-Romagnolo: 1: 10 000.
Riola sez. 237130. Bologna
Regione Emilia-Romagna, 1994b. Carta geologica dell’Appennino Emiliano-Romagnolo: 1: 10 000.
Monteacuto Ragazza sez. 237140. Bologna.
Salterini, C., Tura, D., 1995. Catasto Boncompagni – Libri censuari, Archivio di Stato di Bologna.
Skånes, H.M., Bunce, R.G.H., 1997. Direction of landscape change (1741-1993) in Virestad,
Sweden – characterised by multivariate analysis. Landscape and Urban Planning 38, 61-75.
507
Elementi della dendroflora sarda impiegati nella tradizione popolare di
Putifigari e Villanova Monteleone (Sardegna Nord-Occidentale)
Giovanni Piras
Department of Botany and Plant Ecology, University of Sassari
via Muroni, 25, 07100 Sassari, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Nell’ambito di una ricerca etnobotanica, condotta in alcuni paesi del Nord-Ovest della Sardegna (Putifigari, Villanova Monteleone), sono emerse interessanti informazioni relative al ruolo svolto dalla
dendroflora locale nel contesto delle tradizionali attività agricole, pastorali e silvane. Alberi, arbusti,
liane e suffrutici, così come numerose piante erbacee, svolgono un importante ruolo non solo a livello
ecosistemico, ecologico, ambientale e paesaggistico, ma anche storico, culturale ed economico, garantendo alle popolazioni locali la fornitura di materie prime da impiegare in ambito alimentare, fitoterapico, cosmetico, veterinario, antiparassitario, artigianale (intreccio, intarsio, ebanisteria), tintorio, ornamentale, foraggero, mellifero, combustibile e dei materiali da opera, ittiotossico e velenoso,
magico e religioso. Tra le numerose specie vegetali raccolte in campo, 208 sono state riconosciute
dagli interlocutori locali quali piante impiegate tradizionalmente in differenti ambiti. Tali specie
sono ripartite nel modo seguente: 30 arboree (14,5%), 41 arbustive (19,7%) e 137 erbacee (65,8%).
Nel presente lavoro, tra le entità arboree, viene dato particolare risalto al genere Quercus, le cui
specie entrano a far parte delle principali formazioni forestali del Nord-Ovest della Sardegna. Nello
specifico, verranno illustrate le principali conoscenze locali, riportando le utilizzazioni del legno,
della corteccia, del sughero, delle ghiande e delle foglie. Dalla ricerca emerge come alcuni impieghi,
oggi relegati alla sola memoria degli anziani, siano particolarmente importanti in ambito economico,
fornendo spunti utili per pianificare e promuovere iniziative nei settori della ricerca applicata.
Keywords: etnobotanica, Putifigari, Villanova Monteleone, Sardegna, Quercus L.
Keywords
1. Introduzione
Nell’ambito di una più vasta ricerca etnobotanica, condotta in alcuni paesi del Nord-Ovest della
Sardegna (Putifigari, Villanova Monteleone), il ruolo svolto dalla dendroflora locale assume una grande
rilevanza nel contesto delle tradizionali attività agricole, pastorali e silvane.
Le piante di un determinato territorio rappresentano una importante fonte economica, garantendo
la fornitura di materie prime impiegabili in ambito alimentare, fitoterapico, cosmetico, veterinario,
antiparassitario, artigianale (intreccio, intarsio, ebanisteria), tintorio, ornamentale, foraggero, mellifero, combustibile e dei materiali da opera, ittiotossico e velenoso, magico e religioso (Atzei, 1980,
2003; Atzei, Camarda, Piras, Satta, 2004; Ballero, Poli, 1998; Camarda, 1990; Camarda, Valsecchi,
1982, 1992; Camarda, Satta, 1996; Piras, 2005, 2006; Viegi, Camarda, Piras, 2006).
2. Materiali e metodi
La ricerca si è basata sul censimento delle specie della dendroflora dell’area d’indagine, erborizzate
durante le ricerche floristiche.
Gli exsiccata sono custoditi presso l’Erbario SS (Dipartimento di Botanica ed Ecologia Vegetale,
Università di Sassari). Il materiale vegetale è stato mostrato agli interlocutori (persone ultra ses508
Elementi della dendroflora sarda impiegati nella tradizione popolare di Putifigari e Villanova Monteleone
(Sardegna Nord-Occidentale)
santenni, residenti da sempre nel territorio). Con alcuni di loro, sono state effettuate escursioni,
avendo modo di identificare direttamente le specie in campo.
Le informazioni etnobotaniche raccolte, relative alla nomenclatura, agli usi delle piante e alle conoscenze legate al mondo agro-silvo-pastorale, sono state raccolte in un data base e successivamente
verificate attraverso una analisi comparativa.
Figura 1.
Inquadramento geografico dell’area di ricerca. Limiti
amministrativi dei Comuni di Putifigari e Villanova
Monteleone
3.
Risultati
Tra le numerose specie vegetali raccolte in campo, oltre 220 sono state riconosciute dagli interlocutori locali quali piante tradizionalmente impiegate in differenti ambiti applicativi.
Tali specie sono ripartite nel modo seguente: 38 arboree (17,3%), 27 arbustive (12,3%), 13 suffruticose (5,9%), 9 lianose (4,1%) e 133 erbacee (60,4%). Nei successivi prospetti si riportano le principali specie legnose (alberi, arbusti, suffrutici, liane) tradizionalmente impiegate nell’area di studio,
indicando la forma biologica, la nomenclatura locale, le categorie d’impiego e le parti anatomiche
principalmente utilizzate. Nel presente lavoro, tra le entità arboree, viene dato risalto al genere
Quercus, le cui specie entrano a far parte delle principali formazioni forestali dell’area d’indagine,
riportando le conoscenze locali legate alle utilizzazioni del legno, della corteccia, del sughero, delle
ghiande e delle foglie.
3.1. Quercus ilex L. (Leccio
(Leccio – Elighe)
Il legname stagionato presenta un colore rossiccio, è particolarmente duro, difficile da lavorare,
tradizionalmente impiegato per produrre carbone e legna da ardere. Grazie all’elevata resistenza
e tenacità, veniva impiegato come materiale da opera per la costruzione di carri (es. la noce delle
ruote, i raggi, il giogo), aratri (es. il timone), utensili vari (manici di mazze, zappe) e altri arnesi
da lavoro (es. torchi, presse). Il legname è stato utilizzato per armare gallerie e costruire traversine, per realizzare steccati, orditure di tetti, stipiti di porte e finestre.
La corteccia (colzòlu), grigio-chiara lucente, contiene tannini, è stata utilizzata per conciare le
pelli. Le ghiande (landes d’elighe), pur essendo amarognole, venivano torrefatte, macinate e consumate in infusione come surrogato del caffé. I frutti venivano raccolti per alimentare i maiali
tenuti all’ingrasso. L’acqua piovana, ristagnante nei fusti cavi (tuvas), veniva utilizzata per colorare il formaggio fresco, conferendo la parvenza di quello stagionato.
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POSTER SESSION
Tabella 1. Elenco delle specie ad habitus arboreo ed arbustivo tradizionalmente impiegate nell’area di studio
Specie
510
F. biologica
Nome Locale
Categoria Impiego
Parte imp.
1.
Alnus glutinosa (L.)
Gaertner
P scap/caesp
Alinu
Me; Ut; Ti; Or.
Fu, Ra, Co
2.
Anagyris foetida L
P caesp
Fae giolva
Me; Intr; Inta; Ti; Ven.
Fu, Ra, Fr, Co
3.
Arbutus unedo L.
P caesp
Mela Lidone
Al; Lq; Me; Ve; Fo; Ut; Intr; Inta; Eb; Ti; Co;
Mel; Or; Rit.
Rd, Fu, Ra, Fg, Fi, Inf,
Fr, L, Co, Su, Ga.
4.
Calycotome spinosa (L.)
LInk
NP, P caesp
Tiria
Intr.
Ra.
5.
Calycotome villosa (Poiret)
Link
NP, P caesp
Tiria
Intr.
Ra.
6.
Castanea sativa L.
P scap
Castanza
Al; Me; Ut; Intr; Inta; Eb; Ti; Co; Or.
Rd, Fu, Ra, Fg, Fr, L,
Co.
7.
Celtis australis L.
P scap
Sulzaga
Ut; Intr; Inta; Eb; Ti; Co; Or.
Rd, Fu, Ra, L, Co.
8.
Chamaerops humilis L.
NP caesp
Pramma
Al; Ut; Intr; Or; Rit.
Fg, Ge, Fr.
9.
Cistus incanus L.
NP caesp
Mudeju rosa
Ut; Intr; Co.
Rd, Fu, Ra.
10.
Cistus monspeliensis L.
NP caesp
Mudeju
Ut; Intr; Co.
Rd, Fu, Ra.
11.
Cistus salvifolius L.
NP caesp
Mudeju biancu
Ut; Intr; Co.
Rd, Fu, Ra.
12.
Crataegus monogyna
Jacq.
NP, P caesp
Calarěghe
Al; Fo; Me; Ut; Inta; Co; Mel; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fg, Fi, Fr, L.
13.
Cydonia oblonga Miller
NP, P scap
Mela ghidonza
Al; Me; Ut; Mel; Or; Rit.
Ra, Fi, Fr.
14.
Cytisus villosus Pourret
NP, P caesp
Mattigusa
Me; Fo; Ut; Intr; Or.
Ra, Fg, Fi.
15.
Daphne gnidium L.
NP caesp
Trivusciu,
Incanta padeddas
Me; Ti; Ven.
Rd, Ra.
16.
Erica arborea L.
NP, P caesp
Tuvara,
Kantentalzu
Me; Ut; Intr; Inta; Eb; Ti; Co; Mel; Or.
Rd, Fu, Ra, Fi.
17.
Erica scoparia L.
NP, P caesp
Tuvara,
Kantentalzu
Me; Ut; Intr; Inta; Eb; Ti; Co; Mel; Or.
Rd, Fu, Ra, Fi.
18.
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Dehnh
P scap
Eucalittu
Me; Ut; Co; Mel; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fi.
19.
Eucalyptus globulosus
Labill.
P scap
Eucalittu
Me; Ut; Co; Mel; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fi.
20.
Euphorbia dendroides L.
NP, P scap
Lůa
Me; Ven.
Rd, Ra.
21.
Ficus carica L. var.
caprificus
NP, P caesp
Figu era
Al; Me.
Fg Fr.
22.
Ficus carica L. var. sativus
Fior.
NP, P caesp
Crabu vigu
Al; Me.
Fg Fr.
23.
Fraxinus oxycarpa Bieb.
P scap
(Frassinu)
Ut; Inta; Eb; Ti; Co.
Fu, Ra, Co.
24.
Genista corsica (Loisel.) DC.
NP
Tirěa
Intr; Or.
Ra.
25.
Ilex aquifolium L.
P scap
(Agrifozzu)
Me; Ut; Inta; Eb; Ti; Co; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fi, Fr..
26.
Laurus nobilis L.
NP, P scap/
caesp
Laru
Al; Ar; Lq; Me; Fo; Ut; Intr; Ti; Co; Mel; Or;
Rit.
Fu, Ra, Fg, Fi, Fr, Co.
27.
Lycium europaeum L.
NP
Ippina Santa
Ut; Intr; Rit..
Ra.
28.
Morus alba L.
P scap
Murighessa bianca
Al; Me; Ut; Ti; Co; Mel; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fr, Co.
29.
Morus nigra L.
P scap
Murighessa niedda
Al; Me; Ut; Ti; Co; Mel; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fr, Co.
30.
Myrtus communis L.
NP, P scap
Murta
Al; Ar; Lq; Fo; Ut; Intr; Ti; Co; Mel; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fg, Fi, Fr.
31.
Nerium oleander L.
P caesp
Oleandru
Me; Ven; Or.
Fg, Fi.
32.
Olea europea L., var.
sylvestris Brot.
P scap/caesp
Ozzastru
Al; Me; Fo; Ut; Intr; Inta; Eb; Ti; Co; Il; Or; Rit.
Fu, Ra, Fg, Fr, L, Co.
33.
Olea europea L., var.
europaea
P scap/caesp
Olěa
Al; Me; Fo; Ut; Intr; Inta; Eb; Ti; Co; Il; Or; Rit.
Fu, Ra, Fg, Fr, L, Co.
34.
Osiris alba L.
NP
Iscoběle
Intr; Ti.
Ra, Fr.
35.
Phillyrea angustifolia L.
P scap/caesp
Aladérru
Me; Fo; Ut; Intr; Inta; Ti; Co; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fr.
36.
Phillyrea latifoglia L.
P scap/caesp
Aladérru
Me; Fo; Ut; Intr; Inta; Ti; Co; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fr.
37.
Pinus halepensis Miller
P scap
Pinu
Eb; Or.
Fu.
38.
Pinus pinea L.
P scap
Pinu
Al; Eb; Or.
Fr, Fu.
39.
Pistacea lentiscus L.
P scap/caesp
Chessa
Al; Me; Fo; Ut; Intr; Ti; Co; Il; Or.
Rd, Fu, Ra, Fg, Fr.
40.
Populus alba L
P scap
Colstěavu,
Polstěavu
Ut; Inta; Eb; Co; Or.
Fu, Ra.
Elementi della dendroflora sarda impiegati nella tradizione popolare di Putifigari e Villanova Monteleone
(Sardegna Nord-Occidentale)
Specie
F. biologica
Nome Locale
Categoria Impiego
Parte imp.
41.
Populus nigra L.
P scap
Colstěavu,
Polstěavu
Ut; Inta; Eb; Ti; Co; Or.
Fu, Ra, Co.
42.
Prunus dulcis (Miller)
D.A. Webb
P scap
Mendula
Al; Lq; Me; Ut; Inta; Ti; Co; Mel; Or.
Fu, Fi, Fr.
43.
Prunus spinosa L.
P caesp
Prunizza
Al; Me; Inta; Ti; Co; Mel.
Fu, Fi, Fr, Co.
44.
Punica granatum L.
P scap/caesp
Melagrenŕda
Al; Me; Intr; Inta; Ti; Co; Mel, Rit.
Fu, Ra, Fi, Fr, Co.
45.
Pyrus amygdaliformis
Vill.
P caesp/scap
Pirŕstru
Al; Me; Fo; Ut; Inta; Ti; Co; Mel, Or.
Fu, Ra, Fi, Fr, Co.
46.
Pyrus communis L.
P scap
Pěra
Al; Me; Fo; Ut; Inta; Ti; Co; Mel, Or.
Fu, Ra, Fi, Fr, Co.
47.
Pyrus pyraster Burgsd.
P scap
Pirŕstru
Al; Me; Fo; Ut; Inta; Ti; Co; Mel, Or.
Fu, Ra, Fi, Fr, Co.
48.
Quercus congesta C.
Presl
P scap
Kercu
Al; Me; Fo; Ut; Inta; Ti; Co; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fg, Fr, Co, Ga.
49.
Quercus ilex L.
P scap
Člighe
Al; Me; Fo; Ut; Inta; Ti; Co; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fg, Fr, Co.
50.
Quercus pubescens
Willd.
P scap
Kercu
Al; Me; Fo; Ut; Inta; Ti; Co; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fg, Fr, Co, Ga.
51.
Quercus suber L.
P scap
Sučlzu
Al; Me; Fo; Ut; Inta; Ti; Co; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fg, Fr, Co, Su,
Ga.
52.
Rhamnus alaternus L.
P scap/caesp
Laru maschiu
Me; Fo; Ut; Inta; Ti; Co.
Fu, Ra, Fg, Fr, Co.
53.
Rosa canina L. sensu
Bouleng.
NP
Ru cadděnu
Al; Me; Cs; Or; Rit.
Ra, Fi, Fr.
54.
Rosa sempervirens L.
NP
Ru cadděnu
Al; Me; Cs; Or; Rit.
Ra, Fi, Fr.
55.
Rosmarinus officinalis L.
NP
Romasěnu
Al; Ar; Pr; Me; Mel; Or; Rit.
Ra, Fg, Fi.
56.
Salix alba L.
P scap
(Salighe)
Me; Ut; Intr; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fg, Co.
57.
Salix atrocinerea Brot.
P caesp/scap
Toa
Me; Ut; Intr; Ti; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fg, Co.
58.
Salix fragilis L.
P caesp/scap
(Salighe)
Me; Ut; Intr; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fg, Co.
59.
Sambucus nigra L.
P caesp
Sauccu
Al; Lq; Me; Ut; Intr; Inta; Ti; Mel; Or.
Fu, Ra, Inf, Fr.
60.
Sorbus domestica L.
P scap
Suppeva
Al; Me; Fo; Ut; Inta; Ti; Co; Or.
Fu, Ra, Fg, Fi, Fr.
61.
Spartium junceum L.
P caesp
Nistra, Inistra
Intr; Or.
Ra, Fi.
62.
Tamarix africa Poiret
P caesp/scap
Tramarittu
Ut; Intr; Ti; Or.
Fu, Ra, Co.
63.
Teline monspessulana
(L.) Koch
P caesp
Mattigůsa
Me; Fo; Ut; Intr; Or.
Ra, Fg, Fi.
64.
Ulmus minor Miller
P scap/caesp
Umulu, Ulumu
Ut; Intr; Inta; Ti; Or.
Fu, Ra, Co.
65.
Viburnum tinus L.
P caesp
Laru masciu
Me; Ut; Inta; Ti; Co; Or.
Fu, Ra, Inf, Fr.
Tabella 2. Elenco delle liane e suffrutici tradizionalmente impiegati nell’area di studio
Specie
F. biologica
Nome Locale
Categoria Impiego
Parte imp.
1.
Artemisia arborescens
L.
NP, P caesp
Attentu
Al; Me; Ve; Or.
Fg, Inf.
2.
Arundo donax L.
G rhiz
Canna
Me; Ut; Intr; Or.
Culmo, setto
internodo.
3.
Asparagus acutifolius L.
G rhiz
Iparalu
Al; Me; Intr; Or.
Turione, P.I.
4.
Asparagus albus L.
G rhiz
Iparalu biancu
Al; Me; Intr; Or.
Turione, P.I.
5.
Clematis cirrhosa L.
P lian
Ligadolza
Ut; Intr.
Fu.
6.
Clematis flammula L.
P lian
Ligadolza
Ut; Intr.
Fu.
7.
Clematis vitalba L.
P lian
Teti
Ut; Intr; Co.
Fu.
8.
Hedera elix L.
P lian
Edera, Ligadolza
Intr; Or; Rit.
Fu, Fg.
9.
Helichrysum italicum
(Roth) Don.
Ch suffr
Usciadina, Fiore’e
santa Maria
Me; Co; Or; Rit.
Ra, Inf.
10.
Hypericum hircinum L.
NP suffr
Murta crabina
Me; Ut; Intr; Ti, Or.
Ra, Inf, Fr, Co.
11.
Lavandula stoechas L.
NP
Archimissa
Pr; Me; Ve; Fo; Ut; Mel; Or; Rit.
Ra, Fg, Inf.
12.
Lavatera arborea L.
NP, Ch suffr
Nalva
Me; Ut; Mel; Or.
Ra, Fg, Fi.
13.
Lavatera olbia L.
NP, Ch suffr
Nalva
Me; Ut; Mel; Or.
Ra, Fg, Fi.
14.
Lonicera implexa Aiton
P lian/caesp
Ide bianca
Ut; Intr.
Ra.
15.
Rubia peregrina L.
P lian
Pigulňsu, Marrůbiu
Me; Intr; Ti.
Fu, Fr.
511
POSTER SESSION
Specie
F. biologica
Nome Locale
Categoria Impiego
Parte imp.
16.
Rubus ulmifolius Schott.
Ch, NP, P suffr
Růu
Al; Me; Fo; Intr; Ti.
Fu, Fi, Fr.
17.
Ruta calepensis L.
NP, Ch suffr
Ruda
Me; Ve; Ut; Ven.
Ra, Fg, Fi.
18.
Smilax aspera L.
NP lian, G rhiz
Tittěone, Teti
Al; Me; Intr.
Fu, Fr.
19.
Stachys glutinosa L.
NP/Ch suffr
Issopo
Me; Ut; Co; Or.
Ra, Fi.
20.
Thymus capitatus (L.)
Hofmgg. et Link
Ch suffr
Timu
Me; Mel; Or.
Ra, Fi.
21.
Vitis vinifera L.
P lian
Ide
Al; Me; Fo; Intr; Inta; Co; Or; Rit.
Rd, Fu, Ra, Fg, Fr.
Legenda:
Forma biologica:
Nanofanerofita (NP); Fanerofita cespugliosa (P caesp); Fanerofita arborea (P scap); Fanerofita lianosa (P lian);
Fanerofita succulenta (P succ); Fanerofita epifita (P ep); Fanerofita strisciante (P rept); Camefita suffruticosa
(Ch suffr); Camefita scaposa (Ch scap); Camefita succulenta (Ch succ); Camefita reptante (Ch rept); Camefita pulvinata (Ch pulv); Camefita tallofitica (Ch thall); Camefita fruticosa (Ch frut).
Categorie d’Impiego:
Alimentare (Al); Aromatizzante (Ar); Liquoristica (Lq); Profumeria (Pr); Medicinale (Me); Cosmesi e saponeria
(Cs); Veterinario (Ve); Foraggero (Fo); Utensileria, (Ut); Intreccio (Intr); Intarsio (Inta); Ebanisteria (Eb), Tintorio e
conceria (Ti); Combustibile (Co); Illuminazione (Il); Venefico (Ven); Mellifero (Mel); Ornamentale (Or); Ritualemagico (Rit).
Parte impiegata:
Pianta Intera (P.I.), Radice (Rd), Fusto (Fu), Ramo (Ra), Foglia (Fg), Fiore (Fi), Infiorescenza (Inf), Frutto (Fr), Germoglio (Ge), Legno (L), Corteccia (Co), Sughero (Su), Galle (Ga).
Figura 2.
Ruota di carro a buoi, con
12 raggi. (Piras)
Figura 3.
Giogo, impiegato per accoppiare
i buoi. (Piras)
Figura 4.
Carretto (tumbarella), trainato
da cavallo. (Piras)
3.2. Quercus pubescens Willd. (Roverella – Chescu)
Il legno è tenace, pesante, resistente all’umidità, apprezzato principalmente come materiale da
opera per realizzare montanti, travi e correnti per solai e ballatoi. Essendo abbastanza impermeabile, è stato impiegato per realizzare botti (cubas), tinozze (tinas) e contenitori vari.
Gli anziani distinguono due tipi di Roverella:
“su Chescu masciu”, considerata “maschio” perché “produce poche ghiande”; fornisce legname
resistente, utilizzato per realizzare aratri in legno, impalcature per ferrare i buoi ed alcune parti
dei carri;
“su Chescu femina”, considerata “femmina” perchè “più produttiva”, fornisce un legname meno
resistente, più contorto e nodoso, utilizzato per la costruzione di arnesi da lavoro. Tale entità
sarebbe da associare, molto probabilmente, a Quercus congesta C. Presl.
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Elementi della dendroflora sarda impiegati nella tradizione popolare di Putifigari e Villanova Monteleone
(Sardegna Nord-Occidentale)
Il legname è considerato ottimo combustibile, impiegato sia come legna da ardere, sia per produrre carbone. I pastori utilizzavano la corteccia per colorare il formaggio cotto: durante il riscaldamento del latte si inseriva la scorza nel pentolone, conferendo un colore rossastro al coagulo. Il prodotto assumeva velocemente un aspetto stagionato, conservandosi più a lungo grazie
alla funzione antisettica dei tannini. Esso veniva venduto allo stesso prezzo di quello stagionato,
ottenendo così migliori rese economiche.
Le galle (ballarittones), di forma sferoidale e consistenza legnosa, venivano utilizzate dai ragazzi
per giocare a biglie. Le galle rosse, che si formano sui piccioli delle foglie e sui giovani rami a seguito di punture di insetti imenotteri del genere Cynips, venivano utilizzate per ottenere inchiostri
ed estrarre coloranti impiegati nella concia delle pelli. Le foglie e le ghiande, di sapore dolciastro,
venivano impiegati nella alimentazione del bestiame. La scorza dei rami giovani veniva usata in
infuso come febbrifugo ed astringente.
Figura 5. Contenitori vari (cuba, portadora, tina), impiegati durante le operazioni di vendemmia e vinificazione, realizzati con legno di roverella. (Piras)
3.3. Quercus suber L. (Sughera – Suelzu
Suelzu)
La Sughera è apprezzata come legna da opera, da ardere e per la produzione di carbone. Il legno
risulta tenace, relativamente facile da spaccare, utilizzato per realizzare il telaio (iscala) del carro
a buoi e i versoi laterali (orijas) dell’aratro a chiodo. L’importanza economica di questa specie
deriva essenzialmente dall’estrazione del sughero: quello di prima estrazione è chiamato “erdone”,
il sughero gentile “ortiju”, il fellogeno rossastro “rusca”. Le infiorescenze maschili sono chiamate
“ramas”. Il sughero gentile veniva usato per realizzare tappi (tappos) per damigiane e bottiglie,
contenitori e manufatti vari. Le porzioni concave della corteccia venivano impiegate come recipienti (trovieddas), usati sia come piatti fondi, sia per attingere l’acqua dalle fonti. Era usanza
servire gli arrosti di agnello, capretto e maialetto, sopra i vassoi (trovias) in sughero. Per la realizzazione degli sgabelli (banchittos) si preparavano lastre parallelepipede di sughero, spesse 1-2 dita,
impilate e fissate con chiodi di legno (obilos) stagionato di olivastro. Il sughero, tagliato sottile,
veniva usato come suola (impianteglias) delle scarpe, in grado di assorbire il sudore. Particolari
erano i cappelli di sughero, apprezzati perché in grado di riparare il capo dalla calura estiva.
I pastori impiegavano una sorta di grembiule in sughero (falda ‘e ortiju), legato nel sottopancia
degli arieti per impedire gli accoppiamenti. I primi secchi con i quali i pastori mungevano erano
realizzati in sughero, così come il contenitore (moiteddu) in cui avveniva la coagulazione dello
yogurt (gioddu) e l’acidificazione del latte (jagadu). Per chiudere l’ingresso delle capanne (pinnetas)
e per realizzare il sottotetto delle case, venivano impiegati pannelli di sughero. Durante la lessatura della carne di pecora, si inseriva un pezzo di sughero nel pentolone per assorbire gli ioni
513
POSTER SESSION
di rame, ceduti dai punti di saldatura non stagnati, evitando che la carne assumesse un cattivo
sapore. Il fellogeno, ricco di tannini, veniva impiegata per la concia delle pelli. Normalmente
veniva estratta dagli alberi che non producevano sughero di qualità e da quelli destinati a produrre carbone. In seguito all’estrazione della pellicola, la pianta non era più in grado di produrre
sughero, poiché veniva intaccato il tessuto meristematico secondario.
All’inizio del XX secolo, la commercializzazione del fellogeno aveva assunto un ruolo importante
per l’economia dell’area, grazie alla crescente richiesta di coloranti naturali per le fabbriche tessili e le concerie, determinando l’abbattimento di numerosi alberi da cui estrarre la materia prima.
Le ghiande (landes suerinas) erano considerate più pregiate delle altre querce per l’alimentazione
umana: esse venivano, tostate sulla brace, sbucciate e consumate come fossero castagne. Alcuni
macinavano le ghiande tostate, impiegandole come surrogato del caffé. Per gli animali tenuti
a pascolo brado, le ghiande forniscono un importante fonte di alimentazione e nutrizione.
Il sughero di prima estrazione veniva bruciato e usato come antisettico e cicatrizzante per gli
animali, durante la tosatura degli ovini. Il sugherone veniva utilizzato per realizzare contenitori
rustici impiegati come vasi (pasteras). In passato, i pastori erano soliti colorare il formaggio tipo
“fiore sardo” con l’acqua che stagnava negli incavi (tuvas) e nei nodi delle querce da sughero,
conferendo al formaggio un aspetto stagionato. Oggi, il sughero è impiegato in ambiente edile
come materiale isolante termico e acustico, come galleggiante per attrezzi da pesca, come materia prima di tessuti e indumenti, o diversi manufatti artigianali.
4. Conclusioni
La ricerca contribuisce al recupero di saperi tradizionali, spesso tramandati oralmente e relegati alla
sola memoria degli anziani a causa delle mutate condizioni economiche e sociali avvenute negli ultimi decenni. Tali informazioni forniscono utili suggerimenti per pianificare e promuovere iniziative
nei settori della ricerca applicata.
Il complesso delle conoscenze tradizionali rischia di affievolirsi inesorabilmente: ad ogni cambio
generazionale si ha una naturale perdita delle conoscenze legate al mando agro-silvo-pastorale.
Pertanto, si auspica una maggiore presa di coscienza ed un tempestivo intervento finalizzato ad
incentivare e promuovere progetti di ricerca su scala locale, regionale e nazionale, con la consapevolezza che le conoscenze tradizionali legate ad un territorio costituiscono oggi un importante strumento di sviluppo economico, soprattutto di quelle aree definite marginali o svantaggiate.
a)
b)
Figura 6. Manufatti artigianali, realizzati in sughero. (Piras)
– (a,b,c) Moiteddos – contenitori impiegati per i processi di fermentazione e acidificazione del latte;
514
c)
Elementi della dendroflora sarda impiegati nella tradizione popolare di Putifigari e Villanova Monteleone
(Sardegna Nord-Occidentale)
d)
g)
e)
h)
m)
f)
i)
n)
l)
o)
p)
Figura 6. Manufatti artigianali, realizzati in sughero. (Piras)
– (d) Moiteddu – utilizzato per il trasporto di acqua e vino.
– (e) Concu – vassoio in sughero impiegato come piatto fondo;
– (f) Trovia – vassoio in sughero gentile utilizzato come piatto di portata;
– (g) Pastera – contenitore in sugherone, utilizzato come vaso;
– (h,i) Banchittu – banchetti, con elementi parallelepipedi in sughero gentile;
– (l) Tina – vasca in sughero, rinforzata con stringhe di legno;
– (m) Falda – grembiule in sughero, utilizzato per impedire gli accoppiamenti degli arieti;
– (n) Casiddu – arnia cilindrica, realizzata in sughero;
– (o) Trovieddas – tegami, ottenuti sagomando ad arte le porzioni concave del sughero;
– (p) Impianteglia – suola in sughero.
5. Bibliografia
Atzei A.D., 1980. Appunti di flora ed erboristeria della Sardegna. Ciclostilato, Libreria Scientifica
Internazionale, Sassari.
Atzei A.D., 2003. Le piante nella tradizione popolare della Sardegna. Carlo Delfino Editore, Sassari.
Pagg. 594.
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POSTER SESSION
Atzei A.D., Camarda I., Piras G., Satta V., 2004. Usi tradizionali e prospettive future delle specie
della macchia mediterranea in Sardegna. Atti del Convegno Nazionale “Piante della macchia mediterranea: dagli usi tradizionali alle nuove opportunità agro-industriali” – 2, 3 Ottobre 2003. Italus
Hortus – Vol. 11, n. 4, Luglio-Agosto 2004, Sesto Fiorentino (FI). Pagg. 50-60.
Ballero M., Poli F., 1998. Plants used in folk medicine of Monteleone (Northern Sardinia). Fitoterapia, Volume LXIX, N° 1: 52-64.
Camarda I., 1990. Ricerche etnobotaniche nel Comune di Dorgali. Boll. Soc. Sarda Sci. Nat., 27:
147-204.
Camarda I., Valsecchi F., 1982. Alberi e Arbusti spontanei della Sardegna. Gallizzi, Sassari. Camarda
I., Valsecchi F.,1992. Piccoli Arbusti, liane e suffrutici della Sardegna. Carlo Delfino Ed., Sassari.
Camarda I., Satta V., 1996. Piante officinali di interesse economico nella comunità della Baronie.
GAL Barbagia-Baronie – Dip. di Botanica ed Ecol. Veg., Università di Sassari. Camarda I., Piras
G., 2003. Ethnobotanical knowledge in the agropastoral World of Putifigari village (Sardinia, Italy).
Proceedings of Int. Congress of Ethnobothany, Naples, 2001. Delpinoa 45: Pagg. 213-220.
Piras G., 2005. “Un caso di studio sull’uso tradizionale delle piante” (pagg. 380-389). In “La Biologia Vegetale per i Beni Culturali”, Vol. II, Conoscenza e Valorizzazione, a Cura di Caneva G.,
patrocinio S.B.I., Nardini Editore, Firenze 2005.
Piras G., 2006. Plant-derived utensils employed in traditional agro-pastoral activities in northwest
sardinia – italy. In press. Proceedings ICEB 2005, Istanbul, Turkey.
Viegi L., Camarda I., Piras G., 2006. Some aspects of ethnoveterinary medicine in Sardinia (italy).
In press. Proceedings ICEB 2005, Istanbul, Turkey.
516
On the environmental history in Molise:
an approach to the sources of the 19th century
Emilia Sarno
Faculty of Human and Social Studies, University of Molise
via De Sanctis I-86100, Campobasso, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
Abstract
The paper describes how the documents and the institutions influenced forms of utilizations and
managements of forestal patrimonies in the 1800’s. Particularly analysed is a specific Italian territorial area, called “The Molise region”. The paper illustrates the importance of the Agricultural Society
founded in 1820, and the Economic rural Journal of Molise, edited between years 1820-1824. The
“society” and the “journal” were the place and instrument for discussions about some environmental problems like the reforestation, the relationship between the woodland areas and agricultural areas, the soil exploitation and the utilization of novice techniques. The journal documents landscape
transformations, in Molise, and assumed the important function to inform farmers.
1. Introduction
The contribution focus the importance of the documents in the regional approach of the environmental history to know how an area changes in that time. The sources consent to reconstruct the
conditions of a specific territory. Therefore, they are a testimony that, together with maps and
iconographic descriptions, demonstrate human decisions, mentality or political realities of social
group. The documents allow a complete geographic reconstruction with analysing a territory from
natural to human aspects.
2. Methods
As a case study, it is proposed an Italian region: “Molise”(Figure 1.). The documents show the
phenomenon of the deforestation, the relationship between woodland and agricultural areas in the
1800. Such sources indicate the transformations, techniques utilised, the productivity, the difficulties that were also due to the illiteracy of the workers. These documents furnish suggestions on the
mentality of that time, useful for reconstructing a spatial unity with its identity through the interaction between man and environment. The documents, presented in this paper, are the orations held
at the Society of Agriculture and the articles published in The Economics Newspaper of Rural Molise.
3. Discussion
The Agricultural Society was founded in Campobasso in 1810, the main city of Molise, after a few years re-de-
fined as “The Economics Society” leaded by the most important political men of the region. Raffaele
Pepe was nominated to be Memorial Secretary, because he was a scholar of Agricultural Economics. The secretary along with other politicians illustrated considerable relationships to members,
to inform them of the conditions in “Molise” and to further its change. In particular findings, for
example, the relationship presented by Nicola De Luca to the Society in 1844, in which it placed in
evidence a few characteristics of the agricultural area in Molise:
517
POSTER SESSION
the nature of the fields and the antique methods of work,
the fields are not adequately fertilized,
woodland areas are destroyed without reason,
the field workers are illiterate.
After examing the problems, De Luca proposes the necessary changes: the rotation of crops, the
utilization of animal and plant fertilizers, the correct equilibrium between agriculture and pasture.
The element that is specifically evidenced is the forest resource, in fact it’s written: “ the woodland
areas could and must be the third element of resource in the region of Molise. A major part of the uncultivated
land should be reafforested” (De Luca, 1978).
This is similar to the articles presented in the “The Economics Newspaper of Rural Molise”, published between 1820 and 1832. It was founded by Raffaele Pepe, Memorial Secretary of the Agricultural Society, which thought it was opportune that the society had an extension with the newspaper.
The articles describe the desolate condition of “Molise” and underlines the illiteracy of the field
workers. The local authorities and the intellectuals reviewed the articles and tried to transfer to the
population a new mentality, the utilization of new and up-to-date techniques (Figure 2.).
Here is an example of an article in 1832 of which Pepe illustrates: “ Eager Farmer of Molise, in this
bimestrial, listen to the old expert “Farmer” what must be done in the fields (…): now I recommend to the
meteorological observations written, you add yours, and it will or should be the same in every year: because you
must know that the first expert in the fields is your own experience” (Pepe,1978).
Therefore, the Society and the newspaper were the places and the instruments to discuss the environmental problems, such as, deforestation or reafforestation, the realization of the areas between
the farmlands and the pasture, the utilization of new techniques. Furthermore, these different
contributions were idealised to create the conditions for a new mentality, to change their way of
thinking and to inform the farmers.
Figure 2. Economic rural Journal of Molise consultable
in Albino Library of Campobasso
518
Figure 1. Regione Molise
On the environmental history in Molise: an approach to the sources of the 19th century
4. Conclusions
In synthesis, both the “Society” and the “Newspaper” were busy relating the problems of Molise and problem-solving as is evidently clear in the following graphics:
Problems
Solutions
Old techniques for tilling
Novel techniques, rotation’s utilization
A few livestock for grazing
Numerous livestock for grazing
Absence of animals for manure
Increase of animals for manure
Deforestation
Reforest the highland areas
Illiteracy of farmers
Institutions for teaching
Although the role of these institutions and documents were in fact limited, nevertheless, it’s very
important for the documentation proposed, that consents the knowledge of Molise’s landscape in
the 1800’s and to reconstruct on the whole, such a phenomenon of the reafforestation. The articles
and the reports were proposed in a referential descriptive outlook approach, which relate opportune
resources to understand the characteristics of the area; to put in action the importance of the erosion due to the deforestation and on the whole the types of environmental impacts that are still of
great importance in the region of “Molise” today.
5. References
Agnoletti, M.,( ed.), 2001, Storia e risorse forestali, Accademia Italiana di Scienze Forestali,
Firenze.
Armiero, M., Barca, S., 2004, Storia dell’ambiente. Una introduzione, Carocci, Bari.
Cuoco, V., 1992, Viaggio in Molise. In Il Mezzogiorno agli inizi dell’Ottocento, D’Elia C.(Ed.),
Laterza, Bari, pp. 166-185.
Delort, R., Walter, F., 2001, Histoire de l’environnement europeen, Presses Universitaires de
France.
Faggi, P., 2002, Il ruolo dei quadri ambientali nella comprensione del sottosviluppo. In Geografia
dello sviluppo, Boggio,F., Dematteis,G.(eds.), Utet,Torino, pp. 75-88.
Longano, F., 1988, Viaggio per lo contado di Molise, Riccia.
Mc Neill, J.R., 2000, Something New Under the Sun, Cambridge.
Pepe, G.,1978, Giornale Economico Rustico di Molise. In Storici e Economisti Molisani, a cura di
Lalli, R.,Sardelli, T.(eds), Marinelli,Isernia, pp. 156-158.
De Luca, N., 1978, Risorse che possono ottenersi da qualche miglioramento agricolo e industriale.
In Storici e Economisti Molisani, Lalli, R., Sardelli,T. (eds), Marinelli, Isernia, pp.159-164.
Rombai, L.,2002, Geografia storica dell’Italia, Le Monnier, Firenze.
Sarno, E.,2005, Vedute in prospettiva. In Sapere, vol.4, pp. 62-69.
Sereno, P., 1997, Ambiente e storia. In Incontri con Lucio Gambi, Cazzola, F.(ed.), Clueb,Bologna,
pp. 33-56.
519
Charcoal production in Sunart (Scotland) and Vavestino (Italy)
– the legacy of traditional crafts and silvicultural systems
Gary Servant, Ken Henesy, Jake Willis,
Michele Capretti, Elisa Carturan & Nicola Gallinaro
Sunart Oakwoods Initiative – Sgilean na Coille Project
Arainn Shuaineirt Strontian PH36 4JA, Scotland, United Kingdom
e-mail: [email protected]
GAL Garda Valsabbia – Consorzio Forestale della Valvestino
Loc. Cluse Turano di Valvestino (BS), Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The production of charcoal by rotational coppice of broadleaved woodland is a tradition shared by
the study areas in Valvestino (N. Italy) and Sunart (W. Scotland). In the paper we compare two
different experiences: the Italian one based on the knowledge of two old people and a low market
interest on the product, and the Scottish one with a strong tradition, higher market interest and the
development of new production techniques.
1. Introduction to the study areas
1.1. The Sunart Oakwoods Initiative
The Sunart Oakwoods Initiative (SOI) covers the peninsulas of Morvern and Ardnamurchan
in a relatively remote area of the west coast of Scotland. It began to take shape in 1996 and is
an active partnership between local communities and local agencies (namely Forestry Commission Scotland, Scottish Natural Heritage, Highland Council, and Lochaber Enterprise). From
the beginnings of the project, a key aim has been to maximise the contribution that sustainable
management of woodlands can make to the local economy, by helping to provide jobs directly
through forestry and environmental management, and via enhanced tourism facilities.
1.2. Il Consorzio Forestale della Valvestino
During recent decades, the Lombardy Region has promoted and supported the creation of forestry consortiums based upon partnership between public and private woodland owners. These
forestry consortiums are legally recognised bodies and they play an active role in the management
of publicly-owned woodlands. In this context, in December 2000, the Consorzio Forestale della
Valvestino (CFV) was set up as an association between private woodland owners, local agencies
(including Comunità Montana Alto Garda Natural Park, Comunità Montana Valle Sabbia, 5 Municipalities) and woodland sector entrepreneurs, in order to develop solutions to local rural land
management needs in one of the most socio-economically challenged areas of the region.
Both areas have their own distinctive local cultures and display a long history of silvicultural
management and use of local timber, which is still kept alive (to varying degrees) by a handful of
small farmers, craftspeople and woodworkers.
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Charcoal production in Sunart (Scotland) and Vavestino (Italy) – the legacy of traditional crafts and silvicultural systems
2. Why was charcoal manufactured in the past?
Some main reasons have confered the success to the charcoal production in Europe in far and recent past:
Availability of low-cost manual labour: Charcoal-making involved the whole family, requiring them to
inhabit temporary woodland sites for the length of the charcoal-making period;
Reduced cost of transport: The charcoal-making process made it possible to reduce the weight and
the volume of raw material, thereby facilitating its transport by pack-animals;
High market demand: Towards the end of the 18th century, the ‘industrial’ demand for charcoal as
a fuel starts increasing, particularly for use in iron smelting, in brick furnaces, and in lime kilns.
Increased calorific value compared with fuelwood:
Kcal/Kg
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Charcoal
Green wood
(40% moisture)
Dry wood
Fuel type
Figure 1. Average calorific value of charcoal – CFV
Access to suitable woodlands for management: In Italy the most suitable tree species are those that
grow from lower altitudes right up to the montane zone: Quercus, Ostrya, Fraxinus, Robinia, Fagus.
The most appropriate woodlands are those with trees of average diametre <10 cm. This small
raw material is typical of short-rotation coppice. In Scotland the major charcoal species was Oak
(Quercus petraea) and the main market was for use in iron smelting during the late eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. During this period Oak woodlands throughout the west coast of Scotland
were intensively managed for charcoal and tanbark production, and many of the remaining woodlands in the Sunart area date from this period of ‘industrial’ charcoal production.
3. The present situation: Italian experience
Today, throughout the Leader+ area, the cultural heritage surrounding charcoal production only
survives through two old people. Research was undertaken to assess the economic viability of charcoal production through the traditional “Poiat” technique using present-day conversion ratios and
prices from local markets. The analysis of retail prices demonstrates that the value added to the raw
material clearly makes the coaling process advantageous.
521
POSTER SESSION
Table 1. Comparison of retail prices between different woodland products – CFV
Fuel type
Average retail price
€/100 kg
Average conversion
rate, by weight
Value added through
conversion €/100 kg of
wood
Value added
compared with the
baseline €
5,00
-
-
-
Air-dried split wood for
use in stoves
12,00
0,98
11,76
6,76 (=+35%)
Charcoal
110,00
0,167 (=1/6)
18,34
13,34 (=+167%)
However, calculating the conversion costs of the coaling process shows that, in a modern context,
its small scale of operation (Consorzio Forestale) for a local market, is anachronistic and uneconomic. The whole operation results in a net return, expressed in terms of manual labour rates, of
€5.56/hour.
Table 2. Analysis of conversion costs of the traditional coaling process “Poiat” – CFV
Duration days
Number of workers involved
Man-days
Poiat construction
Type of work
2
2
4
Combustion
7
1
7
Bagging
2
2
4
Total days worked
15
Total hours worked
120 hours
Figure 2. Traditional coaling technique – Poiat
(source: Internet)
Figure 3. Traditional coaling technique – Poiat
(source : Internet)
4. The present situation: Scottish experience
The woods of the Sunart area (Morvern & Ardnamurchan) are now some of the most important
woods in the UK from a biodiversity perspective, and are of European significance as recognised by
the Natura 2000 network. The traditional methods of charcoal production and associated woodland
management techniques are no longer practised in Scotland, but are of great interest to researchers
and forest managers from the Sunart Oakwoods Initiative who are working to restore and expand
these important habitats. An in-depth study of the historical usage and management of the Sunart
woodlands, using only archival and archeaological evidence, has revealed how widespread and important charcoal production has been in shaping these woodlands.
Over recent years members of Morvern Community Woodlands have been developing a modern
small-scale charcoal production technique using a ‘retort kiln’. This insulated metal structure is
522
Charcoal production in Sunart (Scotland) and Vavestino (Italy) – the legacy of traditional crafts and silvicultural systems
designed to produce charcoal more quickly and effectively under the cool wet conditions of the west
coast of Scotland. Wood (currently Fraxinus, Acer, Rhododendron) is sealed into the body of the kiln
and a fire is lit underneath. When a critical temperature is reached within the kiln, the exhaust gases
are expelled through a pipe on the underside of the kiln.
These flammable gases are directed into the fire below the kiln helping to further accelerate the fire
and completing the carbonisation of the wood inside. The whole process of ‘firing’ can take place
over a period of 3-4 hours, rather than the period of around 24 hours for a more traditional burn.
It is hoped that this technique can be further developed to add value to small roundwood and thinnings from silvicultural operations within native woodlands. With each burn producing over 50
kg of charcoal, Morvern Community Woodlands expects to find a niche market for their product
among both local people and tourists visiting the increasingly well-known Sunart Oakwoods.
Figure 4.
Experimenting new charcoal
manfacture – the retort kiln
5. Conclusions
With the assistance of EU Leader + both areas are working in collaboration to share their skills
and knowledge, and to begin to develop possible future markets and modern techniques for coppice fuelwood and charcoal, in the hope of maintaining and reviving a tradition of active sustainable
management of broadleaved woodland, to the benefit of both rural communities and European
biodiversity.
523
Toponimi e distribuzione de Quercus suber L. in Italia
B. Schirone1, F. Spada2, S. Passigli1, E. Agrillo1 & Casella L.2
1
Università della Tuscia(DAF), Viterbo, via di Trasone 22, 00199 Roma, Italia
2
Dipartimento di Biologia vegetale dell’Università degli Studi di Roma, La Sapienza
e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
c/o Orto Botanico di Roma, Largo Cristina di Svezia, 40, 00100 Roma, Italia
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Phytotoponymy is a subject that can give precious information about the fluctuation of the distribution area of wooden species in a historical period. The distribution area of the cork oak in Italy is
compared to the location of places names linked to this species. The research indicates a clear tendency to recent rarefaction of the species placed at the limit of the south-eastern distribution area,
moreover, an over estimation of its frequency and finally the onomastic insertion of the Quercus crenata on the border of the distribution area, on the northern and Adriatic side of the Appenine chain.
1. Generalità
La fitotoponomastica è disciplina che può fornire indicazioni preziose sulle fluttuazioni dell’areale
di distribuzione di specie legnose verificatesi in epoca storica. L’affidabilità di tali indicazioni è
verosimilmente proporzionata alla “utilità” di una determinata specie nell’economia agro-silvopastorale di epoca preindustriale. La fissazione del nome di specie in fitotoponimo è inoltre subordinata verosimilmente alla capacità degli individui o popolazioni di una specie, di identificate
nel paesaggio agrario e naturale particolari siti. Per cui è in genere la rarità della specie stessa o al
contrario la vastissima diffusione in formazioni non frammentate, a determinarne il successo onomastico o meno nel territorio considerato. L’areale di Quercus suber (sughera), per la natura stessa
della specie, ben si presta a una analisi comparata con i dati della ricchissima toponomastica ad essa
inequivocabilmente riferita in territorio italiano. La specie è capace di dar vita nel sistema naturale
a formazioni miste o in consociazione sia con sclerofille sempreverdi mediterranee (Quercus ilex), in
relazione alle quali sembra condividere la maggior parte delle esigenze ambientali, che con legnose
decidue di foreste submediterranee di affinità balcano appenninica (Quercus cerris, Q. petrea, Castanea sativa.), oltre a partecipare con individui isolati o piccoli nuclei, alla componente arborea degli
spazi aperti del paesaggio agrario e dei pascoli arborati di vaste plaghe peninsulari e insulari. Essa
viene pertanto a collocarsi in modo emblematico, come specie utile alla economia tradizionale, in
quella casistica che meglio ricalca il dualismo fra condizione di “rarità” e condizione di vasta formazione estesa su aree continue, così favorevole a una fissazione della sua presenza qual essa sia ,
nella toponomastica di un territorio.
Quercus suber è specie a gravitazione eminentemente tirrenica in Italia. La sua dipendenza da un
clima a termicità mediterranea, subordinato però a discreta disponibilità idrica durante la stagione
più arida, le permette di penetrare nella foresta submediterranea decidua a Q. cerris in zone retrocostiere, soprattutto qualora in contatto catenale con una vegetazione mediterranea sempreverde.
Può esser considerata espressione di vegetazione zonale in Sardegna ma verosimilmente nel continente è quasi solo extrazonale. Lacunosa e rarefatta, la sua distribuzione lungo il versante adriatico
suggerisce qui condizioni di regresso in atto da tempi lunghi sotto controllo climatico, aggravato da
rarefazione antropogena più intensa che altrove.
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Toponimi e distribuzione de Quercus suber L. in Italia
Dà vita a ibridi con cerro (Q.crenata Lam.= Q.adriatica Simonk), diffusi per piccole popolazioni o individui isolati che si spingono entro una fascia di territorio leggermente più interna dell’Appennino.
Q. crenata, entità morfologicamente eterogenea e spesso confusa nella nomenclatura popolare con la
sughera vera e propria, sostituisce quest’ultima nei distretti nordadriatici e prealpini.
Verosimilmente favorita competitivamente rispetto ad altre legnose della fascia climatica della
foresta sempreverde, almeno dall’epoca delle culture umane postglaciali (galleggianti, ricoprimenti), non è efficacemente utilizzabile, come produttrice di sughero, prima del raggiungimento di
dimensioni del fusto corrispondenti a 60 cm di circonferenza. Ciò contribuisce a rendere irrealistica
l’ipotesi di impianti intenzionali ex novo, come prassi corrente in antico, che possano aver ampliato
i confini esterni dell’areale ad oggi conosciuto ad aree di altra connotazione biogeografica.
E’ estesamente registrata nella toponomastica peninsulare.
I toponimi ad essa collegabili sono linguisticamente omogenei nelle varie parlate. Mancano indicazioni dall’area grecanica calabra e dalla Grecìa salentina, ove Q. suber , sulla base di
censimenti in atto da parte degli scriventi, sembra esser più
comune di quanto creduto in precedenza. Nell’area di parlata
albanese in Calabria si registra il termine”zùfer” (sughera) ed
è segnalata una contrada Zùfer in comune di Vaccarizzo (CS),
ove fino alla fine del XX secolo era conservato un popolamento di sughere ora annientato. Con “sugherella” si intende Q.
crenata (cerrosughera) in una parlata della zona di M. Amiata:
verosimilmente toponimi affini della Toscana e Lazio potrebbero far riferimento a popolamenti di quel taxon, anche se
esempi del territorio di M S Biagio (M Aurunci, Terracina)
sembrerebbero non confermare l’assunto.
Figura 1. Distribuzione italiana di Q. suber
e Q. crenata
2. Fonti toponomastiche
La raccolta dei dati relativi alla toponomastica si è basata sulla elencazione e schedatura dei toponimi presenti nelle tavolette IGM in scala 1:25.000, dalla consultazione di repertori bibliografici
regionali italiani contenenti censimenti di toponimi e microtoponimi e da aneddoti raccolti dagli
autori durante campagne di censimento sulla distribuzione di Q. suber e Q crenata nel territorio della
penisola.
3. Criteri per la scelta dei toponimi
In questa fase di disamina delle fonti sono state prese in considerazione solo radici toponomastiche
in Sug-, Sog-, Suv-, Sov-. Sono state escluse radici dubbie di presunta derivazione dal fitonimo ma
verosimilmente a questo attribuiti nei repertori regionali per mera assonanza. E’ il caso dei nomi
prealpini, emblematico fra i quali il valdostano Soverorii sostenuto da autori (Olivieri, 1965) ma qui
escluso sia per motivi linguistici che per uno scenario ambientale improponibile per la specie, oltre
a quelli veneti, per equivoco interpretativo di termini dialettali (Sogàra da soca, ‘legaccio’, ‘correggia’
anche ligneo e/o soca ‘zolla’ o ‘ciocco’).
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POSTER SESSION
Figura 2.
Distribuzione di Q. suber e Q. crenata sovraimposta
alla distribuzione dei fitonimi ad essi correlati
etimologicamente affidabili
4. Considerazioni
Una sovrapposizione dell’areale italiano con la localizzazione di un’aliquota di nomi geografici considerati suoi derivati, mostra la sostanziale coincidenza fra distribuzione della specie e distribuzione dei toponimi.
Si rileva comunque una corona periferica di discordanza soprattutto nel settore adriatico, ove si
evidenzia una sovrastima del popolamento di sughera derivato dal fatto che quasi tutti i toponimi
censiti corrispondono ad altrettante popolazioni presenti, al contrario del resto del territorio nel
quale la frequenza della specie non la rende conoscitiva nei meccanismi di attribuzione toponomastica. Questo documenta una rarità della specie già a partire dall’epoca di fissazione dei toponimi.
Si confronti con la situazione toscana e sarda, ove l’elevata frequenza della specie rende quella
dei toponimi relativamente molto più bassa. Nel Lazio Q. suber ha dato luogo a pochissimi microtoponimi in relazione alla sua frequenza. Il toponimo stesso evidentemente segna la rilevanza ed
eccezionalità della specie nel paesaggio vegetale, sia nel sistema agricolo che nel sistema naturale.
Nel caso di toponimi esterni all’area di massa della specie sono emerse anomalie in vicinanza o coincidenza con stazioni eterotopiche. È infatti possibile rilevare come alla periferia orientale dell’areale
la toponomastica non faccia apparentemente distinzione fra le due entità specifiche, così come invece a volte nella nomenclatura popolare registrata in alcuni distretti (Conti, 1984). Q.crenata viene
apparentemente assimilata a Sughera in Umbria e nel bacino del Bisenzio in Toscana (Prato).
Emblematico è comunque il caso di M.Cucco-M Catria in Umbria ove al toponimo Sugherone corrisponde la presenza di individui di Q. crenata.
La toponomastica contribuisce quindi decisamente a far luce su stazioni disgiunte come evidenza
accessoria di notevole valore esplicativo sui fenomeni di rarefazione di epoca recente, coeva perlomeno a quella di fissazione del toponimo (periodo di affermazione delle parlate neolatine). In questo
senso le stazioni isolate dell’Italia sud orientale possono quindi essere interpretate come resti di
una rarefazione antropica di epoca sub recente impostatasi su un processo di retrazione dell’areale
nella regione transadriatica meridionale protrattosi per tutto il Quaternario superiore fino ad epoca
protostorica. In questo senso sarebbero interpretabili reperti di macrofossili provenienti dall’Eubea
(Grecia Centrale) e l’ esistenza nelle parlate elleniche del termine phellos (sughero).
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Toponimi e distribuzione de Quercus suber L. in Italia
5. Bibliografia ragionata dei toponimi riferibili a quercus suber e voci dei repertori
regionali
OPERE GENERALI
Ambrogio R.(ed). Nomi d’Italia. Ist Geog. de Agostini. Novara 2006.
Pellegrini G. B., Toponomastica italiana. 10.000 nomi di città, paesi, frazioni, regioni, contrade, fiumi,
monti spiegati nella loro origine e storia, Milano 1990.
Sùghera, (vari luoghi in Toscana), Sughereto e Suv– (Seravezza, LU), Sùvera (Maggiano, Càsole
d’Elsa, SI), Sugherello (Monteriggioni, SI), Sùghera (SI), Suveréto (LI), Macchia Sugherana (Manciano,
GR), Sugherino (Massa Marittima, GR), Sugheroni (Guardistallo, PI), Sughereccio (Castagneto, LI),
Sugarèlla (Sorano, GR), Sovera (Carlazzo, CO), Sovere (BG), Zoverello (Verbania, NO), Sovereto
(Terlizzi, BA).
Data-base I.G.M costruito sui toponimi d’Italia ricavati dalle tavolette 1.25.000.
Penzig O., Flora popolare italiana, Genova 1924.
ITALIA MERIDIONALE
Regione Calabria
Rohlfs G., Dizionario toponomastico e onomastico della Calabria. Prontuario filologico-geografico della
Calabria, Ravenna 1974.
Sovarette, contrada nei pressi di Rose, Sovàrico, contrada ad est di Tiriol, Sovarotello, dial. Survatieddu/Suvaratieddu, contrada di Grisolìa (CS), Soverato, dial. Suvaratu, com. in CZ (Castrum
Suberate sec. XII Souberaton (gr.)); Soverato, località presso San Giorgio Morgeto, Soverìa, contrada
di Corigliano (CS): cal. sùveru ‘sughero’ con desinenza greca –ià, cioè ‘sughereto’; Soverìa Mannelli, dial. Suverìa Mannielli, com. in CZ; Soverìa Sìmeri, com. in CZ nei pressi del fiume Sìmeri; v.
Soverìa, Soveritana, coll. a sud di Settignano; Soverito, (Suveritu), contrada nei pressi di Catanzaro,
Cròpani, Crotone, Pianòpoli, Serrastretta, Tropea, Vallefiorita, Zagarise (CZ), contrada a sud di
Rosarno (RC); Sovereto frazione di Gioia Tauro (RC); Suveritu contrada (font.) presso Squillace
(CZ), contrada e torrente a nord di Soverato (CZ), Suvareta, dial. Suvarita, contrada di Santa Domenica Talao (CS); Suvaretto, contrada a nord di Crotone; Suvàricu, contrada di Tiriolo; Sùvaro,
contrada di Caulonia; Sùvari, contrada di Ferruzzano (RC); Sùvero, torrente presso Pallagorio
affluente del fiume Lipuda; Sùviru contrada nei pressi di Santa Maria del Cedro; Sùvari contrada
di Santa Caterina (CZ); Cozzo del Sòvaro, collina presso Paludi; Suverano, Piano di, nella vallata
del fiume Crati a sud di Tarsia, Suverato, contrada nella valle del Crati nei pressi di Bisignano (C
1); Suveritanu, contrada di Montepaone (CZ): cal. suveritanu ‘di Soverato’; Sùvero (Sùvaro), Capo,
promontorio dei pressi di Gizzerìa (CZ), secolo XVI capo di Subero; Capo Suaro cartografia secolo
XVII presso Coccorino
Regione Puglia
Colella G., Toponomastica pugliese dalle origini alla fine del medio evo, Trani 1941 (R. Deputazione di
Storia patria per le Puglie, Documenti e Monografie, vol. XXIII).
Sovereto, presso Terlizzi (Suberitum)
Rohlfs G., Dizionario toponomastico del Salento, Ravenna 1986.
527
POSTER SESSION
Regione Basilicata
Arena G., Territorio e termini geografici dialettali della Basilicata, Roma 1979 (Istituto di geografia
dell’Università, Glossario di termini geografici dialettali della Regione Italiana).
Regione Abruzzo e Molise
De Vecchis G., Territorio e termini geografici dialettali del Molise, Roma 1978 (Istituto di geografia
dell’Università, Glossario di termini geografici dialettali della Regione Italiana, vol. I).
Giammarco E., TAM Toponomastica abruzzese e molisana, vol. VI del DAM Dizionario Abruzzese e
Molisano, Roma 1990.
Sùvaro, nel territorio di Torino di Sangro (CH); dial. séuvere ‘sòvaro’
ITALIA SETTENTRIONALE
Regione Lombardia
Olivieri D., Dizionario di toponomastica lombarda. Nomi di comuni, frazioni, casali, monti, corsi d’acqua, ecc.
della Regione Lombarda, studiati in rapporto alla loro origine, II ed. riveduta e completata, Ceschina, Milano
1961.
L’Autore osserva che i toponimi Sòvera, San Pietro di, fr. Carlazzo (CO), dial. Sùera; Sòvere (BG),
dial. Sùar; = Suberas, curte Sure, Suare, ecc., Sovrino, località presso Castione di Clusone (BG) non
possono essere riferiti alla specie, in quanto “…nei paesi lombardi non alligni né abbia mai allignato (?) il sughero. Se fosse eccezione valida, si potrebbe sostituire l’aggettivo latino Superus.”.
Regione Piemonte
Olivieri D., Dizionario di toponomastica piemontese, Paideia, Brescia 1965.
Irrealistici riferimenti a sughera citati dall’Autore per la località Soverorii (in valle –)
Massia P., Nomi locali Canavesani da nomi di piante, “Rivista Malpighia”, Catania 1915, p. 15.
Irrealistici riferimenti a sughera citati dall’Autore per la località aostana Souhairoux = Pratum
Souveyroux e Zoverallo, frazione di Verbania, Novara.
Regione Veneto
Olivieri D., Toponomastica veneta, San Giorgio Maggiore, Venezia 1961 (Civiltà veneziana,
Dizionari dialettali, 2).
Regione Trentino E Alto Adige
Battisti C., Dizionario toponomastico atesino, vari volumi.
Regione Liguria
Giordano G., Territorio e termini geografici dialettali della Liguria, Roma 1983.
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Toponimi e distribuzione de Quercus suber L. in Italia
ITALIA CENTRALE
Regione Toscana
Pieri S., Toponomastica della Toscana meridionale (valli del Fiora, dell’Ombrone, della Cècina e fiumi minori) e dell’arcipelago toscano, a cura del dott. Gino Garosi, Siena 1969 (Accademia senese degli Intronati, Monografie di storia e letteratura, VIII).
La Sughera (SI), Suvera verso Siena (anno 1216), Sughera, podere Livorno, Sughera, regione Campo
(Elba, LI), Sughera, La, Massa Marittima (GR), Suvera, La, Rosignano (LI), Sughere, Le, poderi,
Guardistallo e Pomarance (PI), Sughereto, botro, Manciano (GR) ed anche Monte –, Sughereto e
Suvereto, Bibbona (LI), Suvereto, com. (LI), Suvereto, Cala di, Porto Azzurro (Elba, LI), Suveretine,
Castelnuovo di Cècina (PI), Suveritu, Roccastrada o presso (GR), Suvaretolo (1187), Macchia Sugherana, Manciano (GR), Sugheretino, fosso, Campagnatico (GR), Sugherino, poggio, Massa Marittima (GR), anche –ina, Sugheroni, Poggio dei, Guardistallo (PI), Sugherone, Argine del, Piombino (LI),
Sughericcio, Massa Marittima (GR), Sughereccio, Castagneto (LI), due luoghi; Sugarella, Sugarelle,
regione, Sovicille (SI), forse = Suvarelle, Pedate de le; Sugherelle, Piacastagnaio (SI) e Massa Marittima (GR), Sugherella (GR), Sugherelle Botro delle, Bibbona (LI), Suverella – arella, Campagnatico
(GR). Sugherellino, di sopra, di sotto, Sugherelli Campo (Elba, LI), Sughera alta, Scansano (GR).
Sughera, La, podere Volterra (PI), casale, Montalcino (SI), regione e Poggio della, Santa Luce (PI),
Pian della, Campagnatico (GR), Poggio alla, Castagneto (LI). Sughere, Le, regione Orbetello (GR),
Podere delle, Cecina (LI), Poggio delle, Monticiano (SI), Poggio alle, Suvereto (LI). Sugherelle, Le,
Pomarance (PI), Poggio delle, Civitella (GR). Sugherello, poggio, Roccastrada (GR). Sugherello,
casale e botro, Manciano (GR). Sugherone, Poggio al, Civitella (GR). Sugherettaio, casale, Magliano
(GR). Sughereto, regione, Montalcino (SI). Altri: Monticiano, Murlo (SI) e casale, Magliano (GR).
Sughereti regione, ivi. Suvera, La, fattoria, Casole (SI). Suveraia, podere, Massa Marittima (GR).
Suverone, casale, Piombino (LI).
Suberanu, Subernanu, Sugherano, San Giovanni d’Asso (SI), forse nomi locali derivanti per –no,
–nano, da nomi etruschi di persona Zupre Supri latino Subrius, Subernius. Suvennano, Suennano,
Chiusdino (SI), per l’assimilazione di rn in nn.
Pieri S., Toponomastica delle Valli del Serchio e della Lima, in “Atti della Reale Accademia Lucchese
di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti”, Nuova Serie, tomo II, n. ed., Stabilimento Tipografico de “l’Italia
Dialettale”, Pisa 1936.
Sùghera (Alla –), più luoghi. Sughereto e Suv– (Al –), frazioni di Cerreta e Ruosina, comune di Seravezza.
Pieri S., Toponomastica della Valle dell’Arno, Roma 1919.
Suvera (La –), frazione di Maggiano, comune di Casole d’Elsa, Sughera (La –), pass. Sugherella,
Monteriggioni; e altrove.
Cassi L., Distribuzione geografica dei toponimi derivati dalla vegetazione in Toscana, in “Rivista geografica italiana”, 80 (1973), pp. 389-431.
Poggio la Sughera (Monti del Chianti), Cima la Sugheretta (Monte Pisano), C. Sughera nelle Cerbaie,
nei dintorni di Firenze: La Sughera (106 III NO), Rio delle Sughere (106 III SO), La Sughera (106
III SE), La Sughera nei pressi del Monte Giovi (106 I SE). C. Cerro Sughero (128 I SO e II NE)
(confrontare Q. crenata).
Marcato C., in Dizionario di Toponomastica. Storia e significato dei nomi geografici italiani, Torino 1990.
529
POSTER SESSION
Suvereto (LI).
Pieri S., Toponomastica della Toscana meridionale e dell’arcipelago toscano, Siena 1969, p. 210.
Regione Marche
Amadio G., Toponomastica marchigiana, vol. I, Montalto Marche 1951 (Collana di Pubblicazioni
storiche ascolane, IV).
Regione Lazio
Toubert P., Les structures du latium médiéval, Roma 1973, vol. I.
Rinvia ai seguenti atti: Regesto Sublacense, pp. 22 (1005), 40 (1015), 57 (1051): località non identificata Cerro qui appellatur subero.
Conti S., Territorio e termini geografici dialettali del Lazio. Glossario di termini geografici dialettali della
regione italiana, V, Roma 1984 (Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche, Comitato per le scienze storiche,
filosofiche e filologiche, Istituto di geografia dell’Università “La Sapienza”).
Sughera, Fara in Sabina, Amaseno, Pofi, Arce e ampiamente diffusa nel resto della regione; Sugherone (Aprilia), Suarete (Formia), Insugherata (Roma), Suvereto (Cisterna).
Sugherete (136 II SE), Le Tre Sughere (136 II SO), Cerro Sughero (136 II NO). Sughereta (136 III SO
e 158 IV NO) e Le Sugarelle (170 I NE), Colle del Sughero (151 III SO).
Catasto Alessandrino, 1660 (mappe delle tenute dell’Agro Romano), in ASR, Presidenza delle Strade
Querce de sughero, mappa 432/28 La Selce, Sughereto delle Monache di Tor de’ Specchi, elemento confinario, mappa 432/34 Santa Broccola e 432/35 Santa Broccola, Quarto del Sughereto, mappa 432/34
Santa Broccola, cinque alberi di Sughero, mappa 432/28 La Selce, Suvareto, mappa 429/27 Castella,
433/52 Inzuccherata (medievale Insugherata, confine di Valca).
De Santis A., Saggi di toponomastica minturnese e della regione aurunca, Minturno 1990 (raccolta
di saggi anni ’30-’60).
Regione Umbria
Melelli A., Sacchi De Angelis M. E., Territorio e termini geografici dialettali nell’Umbria, Roma 1982 (Istituto di geografia dell’Università, Glossario di termini geografici dialettali della Regione Italiana).
Salerno P., Puletti E., La sugherara: singolare quercia del massiccio del Monte Cucco, in “Il Grifo bianco”,
Sigillo 1993, pp. 51-56
Puletti E., Gli alberi ed i loro nomi nel Massiccio di Monte Cucco e dintorni, in “Il Grifo bianco”, Sigillo
1995, pp. 70-77, da Salerno P., La toponomastica, fonte di conoscenza sulla flora e fauna dell’Appennino
Umbro-Marchigiano, in Studi e ricerche sui nomi di luogo, a cura di A. Batinti, A. Melelli,
G. Moretti, Spoleto 1998, pp. 59-91.
Sugherare.
ISOLE
Regione Sardegna
Camarda I., La phytotoponymie des Nuraghes en Sardaigne, in “Braun-Blanquetia”, 3/2 (1898), pp. 337-340.
530
Knowledge from 1832 cadastral maps:
a source of information for present woodland management
Jim van Laar
Forest and Nature Conservation Policy Group
Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 3, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected], http://www.fnp.wur.nl
Abstract
The collection of the original cadastral overviews compiled in the beginning of the nineteenth century appears a valuable source of traditional knowledge for the preservation of cultural heritage in
woodlands and rural areas. Originally aimed to register land property throughout the Netherlands,
this data collection implicitly contains the first national forest survey in history. The large survey
started in 1812 and was completed by 1832. It became operational 1 January 1833. In various ways,
this information source can contribute to research, policymaking and management of rural environment in general and of woodlands in particular.
1. Introduction: the material and data of 1832
Registering of landownership started during French occupation (1810-1813) in order to develop a land
tax system for the Dutch departments of the French Empire. It took two decades to finish the mapping and classification of all land property (Veldhorst, 1991). This registration included a list of land
lots of which size, name of owner, land use type and classes of corresponding tax tariffs have been
recorded for each section of a cadastral municipality (Figure 1.). Especially land use categories offer
insight in different types of woodland appearance. The economic valuation with respect to the yield of
these woodland types can inform us about woodland characteristics in the beginning of the nineteenth
century as well. The maps show size and form of the lots. When these different types of cadastral
information are combined they will give an image of the early nineteenth century landscape.
Figure 1. An example of an original lot wise registration of owner features, size, land use type and tax tariff
classes used between 1812 and 1832
The original cadastral information is being kept in state archives but has been elaborated and
manually reproduced by interested volunteering historians in recent years. Although the value of
the material was already recognized for soil research and studies in agrarian history in the middle of
the last century (Veldhorst, 1991), its value for landscape research is rather new. Increasingly, this
original material will be available and accessible via digital media for further research in landscape
and woodland history (Gerding, 2004). Recently, authors in Tuscany, Italy, (Agnoletti et al, 2002)
and Flanders, Belgium, (Verboven et al, 2004) made use of original cadastral data in woodland history research and demonstrated its usefullness in understanding forest landscape dynamics.
531
POSTER SESSION
2. Forest landscape in 1832: an example
The area described in this section is ‘Middachten’ and ‘Hof te Dieren’, which are old private estates
in the cadastral municipality of Dieren, originating from twelfth and thirteenth century. The area is
located at the southeastern edge of the forested centre of the Netherlands called Veluwe, which is
a part of the Province of Gelderland as shown in Figure 2.
The landscape in the case area is characterized by a transition zone of riverine lands near the IJssel River (8 meter
a.s.l.) to the top of the pleistocene moraine of the Veluwe
(65 meter a.s.l.). A variety in poor and rich soil types, in
moist and dry conditions has resulted in different types
of vegetation like grasslands, wet alder woodland, high
beech forest, outgrown coppice, mixed pine forest and
heather.
The authentic maps of 1832 have been digitalized and
electronically elaborated as presented in Figures 3a. and
3b. This makes it possible to show lots with approximately same land use and tax class and thus to show
a schematic image of the landscape around 1832.
Figure 2. Location of case area
Figure 3. An example of 1832 cadastral maps after elaboration with (left) and without (right) an overlay of
a recent topographical map (1997)
In this case the maps show heathlands in pink, Scotch pine plantations in grey, oak coppice and
high forest of a number of quality categories in several green colours, old agricultural fields in white
and settlements in red. Alleys and old roads and even six sheep-folds can be recognized. In these
maps two heatland classes have been combined to one. Originally they were classified as different
tax classes because of their different quality for practical use.
The question can be raised what features or phenomenae that can be discovered or explained from
these authentic cadastral data in this particular case. Without being complete a number of peculiarities that emerged from the 1832 data set will be described below.
Coppice of oak used to be an important forest type in the beginning of the nineteenth century.
It was classified in several tax classes, depending on their production capacity. During twentiest
532
Knowledge from 1832 cadastral maps: a source of information for present woodland management
century much coppice has been replaced by coniferous forest. At present most coppice lots have
evolved to uneven aged mixed stands of high forest.
Between heathlands and coppice cultures a strip of pine was planted to prevent coppice and beech
alleys from severe western winds. Now these pine lots are totally integrated in the latter heatland
afforestations north of the medieval Middachter Bosch.
Locations of a number of sheep-folds in the former heathlands that all have disappeared a long
time ago and have been covered with mixed deciduous and coniferous forest has been identified.
This series of sheep-folds tells about nineteenth century land use and common rights to graze
sheep. The ways to guide the sheep from the village to the heathlands or grazing fields (‘schapendriften’) have disappeared now as well. Still woodbank structures of 20-40 meters apart from each
other to keep the sheep out of the forest can be recognized in the forest.
Also woodbanks and didge structures between high forest and heathland or between pine plantations and heathland still exist, but are now situated in the present forest. They were meant to keep
out wild and domestic animals and to mark property bounderies.
An old beech alley from 1832 appears to be covered with trees, without any trace and not much
different from the surrounding forest stand, to make it more profitable in terms of timber production. Some other alleys were converted to forest for the same reason.
Relics of the medieval Quercus petreae woodland are discovered in former coppice lots. They represent remnants of the old open woodland forest even before coppice had been planted. Also pine
trees of more than average age can be traced back with the 1832 map.
Structures like roads and woodbanks from 1832 maps match very well with older maps like the
‘Caarte van Dieren’ as shown in Figure 4a. In this way also locations of indigenous ancient woodlands like the medieval Dierense Bosch could be retrieved.
Figures 4a., 4b. Fragments of ‘Caarte van Dieren’ (1725) and’ the ‘Topografische Kaart van de Veluwe en de
Veluwe-Zoom (De Man, 1807). Comparison with maps from other periods appears very useful to
understand dynamics in woodland and woodland management.
3. Potential values of the 1832 data set
From several points of view the 1832 cadastral dataset has potential information. It can be used
for research and science in broad sense: the information and maps form a systematical and reliable
basis for comparative historical studies. After interpretation and elaboration, the 1832 maps and
cadastral data help us to understand early nineteenth century landscape.
533
POSTER SESSION
Clerkx and Bijlsma (2003) have shown that socalled extensive heathlands on parts of the Veluwe
appeared to be an open forest landscape after studying the data via an ecological approach.
In case policy makers recognize cultural heritage values, it provides fundamental information for
policymaking, spatial planning and land consolidation plans on local and regional scale.
The other way around, this information source can make policymakers aware of cultural heritage
values via consciousness-raising and education.
As the 1832 data source shows type, quantity and quality of the Dutch woodlands in the first
decades of the nineteenth century, it provides information for ecological historical studies and
ultimately for recovery of remnants and protection of ancient woodlands, for forest restoration or
reconstruction.
Then, this 1832 source can be profitable for decision making in woodland management when being
included in management plans. On very small scale cultural historical structures in the forest or
woodland types can be recovered and if necessary protected, restored or made visible as Jansen and
Van Benthem (2005) have indicated in their book on management of historical forest elements.
It can be concluded that the large data set of recorded land use features and cadastral maps published in 1832 provides an enormous potential source of information that can be used for preservation of cultural heritage in general and for management of woodlands, forests and nature in
particular as well as in present woodland management and landscape restoration and contribute to
the understanding of landscape dynamics.
4. Acknowledgements
I am grateful to dr Rienk Jan Bijlsma from Centre for Ecosystem Studies of Wageningen UR for
making the presented maps available for this publication.
5. References
Agnoletti, M. 2002. Landscape changes, biodiversity and hydrogeological risk in the area of Cardoso between 1832 and 2002 (Regional Park of the Apuane Alps).
Clerkx, A.P.P.M., R.J. Bijlsma, 2003. Veluwse heide blijkt open boslandschap na ecologische interpretatie van het kadastrale archief van 1832. In: de Levende Natuur; Journal of nature conservation
and management. 104, 148-155.
Gerding, M.A.W., 2004. De digitale snelweg naar 1832. In: Bouwer, K., Laar, J.N. van, Scholten, F.
Het bos in 1832; de betekenis van de eerste kadastrale gegevens. Bijdragen aan de studiedag op 25
maart 2004 te Ellecom. Stichting Boskaart Nederland 1832. 55-68.
Jansen, P. , M. van Benthem, 2005. Historische boselementen; geschiedenis, herkenning en beheer.
Waanders Uitgevers, Zwolle.
Laar, J.van, R.J. Bijlsma, 2004. Excursiegids behorende bij de studiedag ‘Het bos in 1832; de
betekenis van de eerste kadastrale gegevens; 25 maart 2004’.
Veldhorst, A.D.M., 1991. Het Nederlandse vroeg-19e-eeuwse kadaster als bron voor anderssoortig
onderzoek, een verkenning. In: Historisch Geografisch Tijdschrift 9, 8-27.
Verboven, H., Verheyen, K., Hermy, M., 2004. De meerwaarde van het primitief kadaster voor de
geschiedenis van bossen: een gevalstudie voor het Grotenhout (België). In: Bouwer, K., Laar, J.N.
van, Scholten, F. Het bos in 1832; de betekenis van de eerste kadastrale gegevens. Bijdragen aan de
studiedag op 25 maart 2004 te Ellecom. Stichting Boskaart Nederland 1832. 31-46.
534
Study tour: the landscape park project at Moscheta, Mugello Valley (Florence)
On Sunday June 11th seminar participants visited Moscheta. This is one of the study areas of the
project establishing a monitoring system for landscape quality in Tuscany, which currently includes
13 areas covering 1% of the region. Moscheta was recently selected to develop a pilot project to
create a park of the rural landscape. The project was carried out by the Department of Environmental Forestry Science and Technology (University of Florence)1 in collaboration with the Mountain
Community of Mugello Valley, the administrative body managing this mountain district. Is the
first time that a project like this has been developed since only natural protected areas are formally
authorized under current Italian law. The excursion was hosted by the Community of Mugello, represented by the officer in charge of the project, Dott. Giovanni Miccinesi, and was reported on “La
Nazione” the most important newspapers of Tuscany and one of the most important of Italy.
1–
2–
3–
4–
5–
6–
7–
8–
9–
10 –
11 –
12 –
13 –
Moscheta
Gargonza
Spannocchia
Barbilla
Castagneto C.
Donoratico
Bolgheri
Montepaldi
Paganico
Cardoso
Migliarino
Castiglione Garf.
Mensola
Figure 1.
Location of Moscheta in the monitoring system
for landscape quality in Tuscany. Darker areas are woodlands,
covering 47% of the region, the most forested of Italy.
The site
The area of the project is located in a small mountain valley on the south side of the Santerno River
basin, flowing from the eastern side of the Tuscan Apennine towards the Emilia-Romagna Region.
The 901-hectare project area includes the bottom of the valley and the mountains surrounding it;
the average altitude is 680 meters a.s.l. The valley is characterized by the presence of an historic
abbey founded in 1034 by Saint Giovanni Gualberto, a monk of the Benedictine order. The monks
initiated farming activities, and within two centuries the abbey became one of the most important
in Tuscany. In the 18th century the abbey lost its importance and was suppressed. The new owners
organized the area as a rural estate, according to the share crop system, where each farmer shares
the crops produced with the owner. This structure is the one we find at the beginning of 19th century when the estate appears to have been divided into holdings, “poderi”, each with a house for the
farmer and a piece of land for cultivation.
1Mauro Agnoletti is the Coordinator of the project.
535
Study tour: the landscape park project at Moscheta, Mugello Valley (Florence)
Figure 2.
The project area
The project for the park addresses two main problems related to the conservation of cultural landscapes and the development of marginal mountain rural areas, but also involves analyses of landscape dynamics. Marginal territories, especially those once intensively cultivated and now abandoned, represent a problem not only in developing countries but also in western societies. Also
for this reason the Community of Mugello promoted and supported the project, trying to tackle
the lack of any real initiative favouring the conservation of their cultural landscape. The recent
indications of the National Plan for Rural Development 2007-2013, and the European Landscape
Convention, favor these kinds of initiatives. Is should be noted that there are no laws allowing the
creation of a network of landscape parks, as there are for the NATURA 2000 network of natural
protected areas. This is particularly problematic for cultural landscapes.
Moscheta was initially studied according to the HCEA2 methodology developed for the main project
for Tuscany:
1) Creation of a GIS database, including digitized data collected from the land survey of 1832,
the aerial photographs of 1954 and 2000.
2) Production of several kinds of maps for the tree dates.
3) Analysis of landscape changes producing maps of landscape dynamics, cross tabulations, indices
of landscape ecology and the “Historical index” (Hi), specifically developed to assess historical
landscape changes.
4) Analysis of written and oral sources documenting these changes.
5) Sampling areas to analysis soil, vegetation and material evidences.
6) Interviews to tourists and residents to assess public perception and economic value of landscape
resources.
Landscape changes
Since 1832 there has been an enormous increase in woodlands, from 39% to 78% in 2000. A fundamental aspect related to this trend in Moscheta is the dramatic reduction of landscape diversity,
reflecting huge changes from all points of view: social, economic, environmental. A reduction of
67% in the number of land uses and the increase of the average size of forest patches of 54%, have
2Historical and Cultural Evaluation Approach (M.Agnoletti, 2006, The conservation of cultural landscapes, CABI, New York)
536
Study tour: the landscape park project at Moscheta, Mugello Valley (Florence)
A.
B.
Figure 3. Photo A: Afforestation with conifers has degraded the landscape in Moscheta, introducing elements
not related to the local landscape from either the aesthetic or cultural points of view. These afforestations, like most others existing in Italy, have no economic relevance but are still promoted by European
forest policy. Photo “B”: participants enjoying the chestnut orchards with monumental trees. These
woods are threatened by the abandonment of the rural territory and the tendency to turn them into
mixed stands to achieve renaturalization. Afforestation has replaced a large portion of these woods
in Moscheta.
contributed to the reduced complexity of the landscape mosaic. The period 1832-1954 was characterized by a reduction in wooded pasture and an increase in woodlands and cultivated land, while
during the period 1954-2000 there was a continuous increase of woodlands and afforestation, as
well as a decrease in cultivated land and wood pasture. The participants visited some of the most
interesting sites of the area and gained an understanding of the effects of these transformations
and some of the most interesting historical land uses still there. The old chestnut orchards with
veteran trees were visited, as well as the new afforestation of Douglas fir that replaced part of the
former chestnut orchards. A rare pastured wood, now used for horse grazing, some wood pastures,
and pastures in the higher part of the valley were also visited.
Landscape restoration
The project for the Park was also discussed. The situation in Moscheta is quite different from the
one presented for Vallombrosa in this volume by Ciancio and Nocentini, related to the conservation of a portion of the even-aged fir stand, around the Abbey, which is very well suited for indicator 6.11 of the present MCPFE criteria. In the case of Moscheta we need to preserve a landscape
that includes several land uses with the goal of restoring some of the previous ones, recovering at
least a part of the diversity existing in the past, and reversing the process of reforestation. In fact,
the simplification of the landscape mosaic occurred in the last two centuries requires the reduction in the extent of certain land use categories, mostly forest and woodland, and the increase of
others, redistributing them in the territory. There are several problems connected to this vision.
From a technical point of view the actions have been focused on a total of 200 ha, in order to find
a reasonable size for economic and management reasons. The latter also presents important problems. Official forestry has neglected to incorporate traditional practices, therefore, even well known
textbooks do not mention them, while others refer briefly to the existence of traditional silvicultural
systems, such as wood pastures. The other problem is due not only to the lack of any law allowing
such a park, but also to laws forbidding the reduction of the extension of woodlands, even in places
previously cultivated, although special permission for study and research can be granted. This is
537
Study tour: the landscape park project at Moscheta, Mugello Valley (Florence)
a problem affecting not only any restoration of former rural mosaics, but even the creation of panoramic sites. Tuscany has hundreds of roads potentially offering outstanding scenery and landscape
views, but most of them are obscured by trees growing at the side of these roads.
The steps in the project were as follows:
1) Assessment of changes in the landscape mosaic.
2) Identification of the land uses and landscape diversity to be recovered.
3) Selection and description of interventions.
4) Production of a map of interventions (a total of 193), locating them in the territory and assigning
an index of “restoration complexity” that characterizes degree of complexity of restoration.
5) Production of a map of future land use of the areas after restoration interventions.
6) Production of a management plan
The project for Moscheta is now entering its operational phase, with initial interventions scheduled
for late 2006. The restoration of the ancient land uses, as well as the maintenance of the existing
ones, underline the main approach of the project which is the need for the presence of the man, not
interpreted as a “disturbance”, but as the main and necessary actor in this landscape.
538
Conference participants and lead authors
Mauro Agnoletti
Piero Bruschi
Dipartimento di scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali Forestali
Università di Firenze
via San Bonaventura 13, 50145 Firenze, Italy
mauro.agnoletti@unifi.it
Department of Plant Biology, University of Florence
p. le delle Cascine, 28 – I 50144 Firenze, Italy
pbruschi@unifi.it
Matthias Bürgi,
Silvia Agnoloni
Consiglio per la Ricerca e Sperimentazione in Agricoltura
Istituto Sperimentale per la Selvicoltura (CRA – ISS) SOP
Firenze, Viale delle Cascine 1, 50144 Firenze, Italy
[email protected]
Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL
Section Nature Protection and Historical Ecology
Zürcherstrasse 111, 8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland
[email protected]
Marisa Cadoni
Rikard Andersson
Department of Forest Vegetation Ecology
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden
[email protected]
Gianpiero Andreatta
Corpo Forestale dello Stato, Coordinamento Territoriale
per l’Ambiente del Parco Nazionale delle Dolomiti Bellunesi
Viale del Vincheto, n. 9 – Celarda, 32032 Feltre (BL), Italy
[email protected]
Per Angelstam
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Forest
Sciences, School for Forest Engineers, P.O.
Box 43, SE-739 21 Skinnskatteberg, Sweden
[email protected]
Università di Sassari, DESA
via C. Colombo, 1 – 08100 Nuoro, Italy
[email protected], [email protected]
Enrico Calvo
Ente Regionale per i servizi all’Agricoltura e Foreste
(ERSAF della Regione Lombardia)
via Copernico 38, 20125 Milano, Italy
[email protected]
Ignazio Camarda
Department of Botany and Plant Ecology
University of Sassari, via Muroni, 25, 07100 Sassari, Italy
[email protected]
Giovanni Caniato
Mårten Aronsson
Archivio di Stato di Venezia,
Campo dei Frari 3002, Venezia, Italy
[email protected]
Swedish Forest Agency, S-551 83 Jönköping, Sweden
[email protected]
Paolo Cantiani
Maria de la Luz Ayala
Departamento de Estudios Regionales, Centro Universitario
de Ciencias Económico Administrativas
Universidad de Guadalajara, Núcleo Los Belenes
45100 Zapopan, Jalisco, México
[email protected]
Matteo Barbari
Dipartimento di Ingegneria agraria e forestale
Università degli Studi di Firenze
via San Bonaventura, 13 – 50145 Firenze, Italy
matteo.barbari@unifi.it
Anna Barbati
Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Ambiente Forestale
e delle sue Risorse, Università della Studi della Tuscia
via San Camillo de Lellis 01100 Viterbo, Italy
[email protected]
Sultan Bekiroglu
Istanbul University, Faculty of Forestry
Department of Forestry Economics
Bahcekoy-Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
Gary B. Blank
North Carolina State University
Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources
Raleigh, NC 27695-8002, USA
[email protected]
Vladimir Bocharnikov
Consiglio per la Ricerca e Sperimentazione in Agricoltura
Istituto Sperimentale per la Selvicoltura
via S. Margherita 80, 52100 Arezzo, Italy
[email protected]
Paolo Casanova
Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali Forestali
Università degli Studi di Firenze,
via San Bonaventura 13, 50145, Firenze, Italy
paolo.casanova@unifi.it
Teresa Cervera
Departament d’Història Econòmica
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB)
Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
[email protected]
Minoti Chakravarty-Kaul
Appt 59, Uttaranchal, 5 I.P. Extension, Patpargunj
Delhi 110092, India
[email protected]
Gherardo Chirici
Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie per l’Ambiente e il
Territorio, Università del Molise, Contrada Fonte Lappone,
Pesche (Isernia), Italy
[email protected]
Young Woo Chun
Department of Forest Science, Kookmin University
861-1 Chongnung-dong, Songbuk-gu
Seoul, 136-702 Korea
[email protected]
Russian Academy of Sciences
Pacific Institute of Geography
7 Radio st., Vladivostok, 690041, Russia
[email protected]
539
Conference participants and lead authors
Orazio Ciancio
Emre Şahin Dölarslan
Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Forestali Ambientali
Università di Firenze
via San Bonaventura 13, Florence, Italy
orazio.ciancio@unifi.it
Department of Forestry Economics,
Faculty of Forestry of Çankırı, Ankara University
Çankırı, Turkey
[email protected]
Matteo Coppini
Werner Doppler
Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali Forestali
(DISTAF), Facoltà di Agraria
Università di Firenze, Firenze, Italy
m.coppini@unifi.it
Department of Agricultural Economics and Social sciences
in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of Hohenheim
Institute 490c, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany
[email protected]
Piermaria Corona
Dongsu Jang
Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Ambiente Forestale e delle sue
Risorse, Università della Studi della Tuscia
via San Camillo de Lellis, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
[email protected]
Dept. of Landscape Architecture,
Hankyong National University, Ansung, Korea 456-749
[email protected]
Omer Eker
Franco Cozza
Corpo Forestale dello Stato
Ministerio delle Politiche Agricole e Forestali
via Carducci, 5, 00187 Roma, Italy
[email protected]
Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University, Faculty of Forestry
Department of Forestry Economics
Kahramanmaras, Turkey
[email protected], [email protected]
Marine Elbakidze
David Crampton
Kaska Dena Council, 8740 Findlay Road, Cranbrook, British
Columbia, Canada V1C 7C8
[email protected]
Ivan Franko National University
Department of Physical Geography
Doroshenko str. 41, 79020 Lviv, Ukraine
[email protected]
Xavier Cussó
Fabrizio Ferretti
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB)
Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
[email protected]
Consiglio per la Ricerca e Sperimentazione
in Agricoltura – Istituto Sperimentale per la Selvicoltura
SOP Firenze, Italy
[email protected]
Iain Davidson-Hunt
Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg,
MB, Canada R3T 2N2
[email protected]
Francis First Charger
Red Crow Community College, Box 1258, Cardston, AB
Canada TOK 0KO
fi[email protected]
Maguelonne Déjeant-Pons
Spatial Planning and Landscape Division, Council of Europe
F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex, France
[email protected]
Nicola Gallinaro
GAL Garda Valsabbia – Consorzio Forestale della Valvestino
Loc. Cluse Turano di Valvestino (BS), Italy
[email protected]
Isabella De Meo
Consiglio per la Ricerca e Sperimentazione in Agricoltura
– Istituto Sperimentale per l’Assestamento e l’Alpicoltura
Pzza Nicolini 6, 38050 Villazzano (TN), Italy
[email protected]
Maurizio Gangemi
Università degli Studi di Bari, Facoltà di Economia
Dipartimento di Studi Europei Giuspubblicistici e
Storico-economici, via C. Rosalba 53, 70124 Bari, Italy
[email protected]
Federico Di Cara
540
Dipartimento di scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali Forestali
Università di Firenze
via San Bonaventura 13, 50145 Firenze, Italy
[email protected]
Matteo Garbarino
Paolo Di Martino
Jesús García Latorre
University of Molise, Department
of Environmental Science and Technology
C.da Fonte Lappone, 86090 Pesche (IS), Italy
[email protected]
Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and
Water Management, Division V/9, Stubenbastei 5,
1010 Vienna, Austria
[email protected]
Piera Di Marzio
Juan García Latorre
University of Molise, Department
of Environmental Science and Technology
C.da Fonte Lappone, 86090 Pesche (IS), Italy
Association for Landscape Research in Arid Zones
Almería, Spain
[email protected]
Peppino Stefano Disperati
Ramon Garrabou
Dipartimento di Produzioni Vegetali, Università degli Studi di
Milano, Facoltà di Agraria, via Celoria 2, 20133, Milano, Italy
[email protected]
Departament d’Història Econòmica
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB)
Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
[email protected]
Dip. di Agronomia, Selvicoltura e Gestione del Territorio
via Leonardo da Vinci 44, Grugliasco, Torino, Italy
[email protected]
Conference participants and lead authors
Marta Gaworska
Margarita Kisternaya
Liaison Unit Warsaw, Ministerial Conference
on the Protection of Forests in Europe,
ul. Bitwy Warszawskiej 1920 r. nr 3, 00-973 Warszawa, Poland
[email protected]
State Kizhi Open-air museum, 10a Kirova Sq.
Petrozavodsk, 185000, Russia
[email protected]
Andrej Kobler
Simona Giorgini
Dipartimento di scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali Forestali
Università di Firenze
via San Bonaventura 13, 50145 Firenze, Italy
[email protected]
Francisco Javier Gómez
Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA)
Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB), Campus de
Bellaterra. 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
[email protected]
Alfred Grieshofer
Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment
and Water Management
Division IV/4, Marxergasse 2, A-1030 Vienna
[email protected]
Slovenian Forestry Institute, Slovenia
[email protected]
Bożena Kornatowska
Liaison Unit Warsaw, Ministerial Conference
on the Protection of Forests in Europe
ul. Bitwy Warszawskiej 1920 r. nr 3, 00-973 Warszawa, Poland
[email protected]
Valery Kozlov
Forest Research Institute, Karelian Research Centre
of Russian Academy of Science, Petrozavodsk, Russia
[email protected]
Mart Külvik
Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 64
51014, Tartu, Estonia
[email protected]
Sylvie Guillerme
GEODE, UMR 5602 CNRS, Université de Toulouse II
5 allees A. Machado, 31058, Toulouse cedex 9, France
[email protected]
Andrey Laletin
Luigi Hermanin
Tommaso La Mantia
Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali Forestali,
Facoltà di Agraria, Università di Firenze, Firenze, Italy
luigi.hermanin@unifi.it
Università di Palermo, Dipartimento Colture Arboree
Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 4, Ingresso H, 90128 Palermo, Italy
[email protected]
Kate Holl
Orazio La Marca
Scottish Natural Heritage, 2 Anderson Place, Edinburgh
EH6 5NP, Scotland, United Kingdom
[email protected]
Dipartimento di scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali Forestali
Università di Firenze
via San Bonaventura 13, 50145 Firenze, Italy
orazio.lamarca@unifi.it
NEPCon, P.O.Box 26779, Krasnoyarsk, 660036, Russia
[email protected]
Peter Holmgren
Forest Resources Development Service, Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
[email protected]
Pietro Laureano
IPOGEA, Italian Research Center on Local & Traditional
Knowledge, Vico Conservatorio, s.n.
75100 Matera, Italy
[email protected]
Peter Howard
Bournemouth Uni & Landscape Research Group
United Kingdom
[email protected]
Antonio Lazzarini
Università di Padova, Dipartimento di studi storici e politici
via del Santo 28, 35123 Padova, Italy
[email protected]
Patrick Jansen
Probos Foundation, Postbus 253, 6700 AG Wageningen
The Netherlands
[email protected]
Elisabeth Johann
Austrian Forest Association, Oberdörfl 9, 9173 St. Margareten
Austria
[email protected]
Krishna Bahadur K.C.
Department of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences
in the Tropics and Subtropics
University of Hohenheim, Institute 490c, 70593 Stuttgart
Germany
[email protected]
Leena Karjalainen-Balk
Ministry of the Environment, Land Use Department,
Kasarmikatu 25, Helsinki, PO Box 35, FIN-00023 Government
Finland
Leena.karjalainen-balk@ymparisto.fi
Antonio M. Linares
Departamento de Economía Aplicada y Organización
de Empresas, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda de Elvas, s/n,
E-06071 Badajoz, Spain
[email protected]
Vittorio Leone
University of Basilicata, Department of Crop Systems, Forestry
and Environmental Sciences,
via N. Sauro,85 – 85100 Potenza Italy
[email protected]
Raffaella Lovreglio
University of Basilicata, Department of Crop Systems
Forestry and Environmental Sciences
via dell’Ateneo Lucano, 10 – 85100 Potenza, Italy
[email protected]
Marco Marchetti
Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie per l’Ambiente e il
Territorio, Università del Molise, Contrada Fonte Lappone.
Pesche (Isernia), Italy
[email protected]
541
Conference participants and lead authors
Fiorenzo Mancini
Davide Pettenella
Accademia Italiana di Scienze Forestali, Piazza Edison,
11 – I-50133 Florence, Italy
[email protected]
Dipartimento Territorio e Sistemi Agro-Forestali
Università di Padova, Legnaro (PD), Italy
[email protected]
Anna Memoli
Alice Perlini
Dipartimento di scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali Forestali,
Università di Firenze
via San Bonaventura 13, 50145 Firenze, Italy
anna.memoli@unifi.it
Istituto Agronomico per l’Oltremare
via Antonio Cocchi, 4, Firenze, Italy
perlini@iao.florence.it
Giovanna Pezzi
Cristina Montiel-Molina
Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Department
of Regional Geographic Analysis and Physical Geography
Faculty of Geography and History, Ciudad Universitaria
s/n. E-28040 Madrid. Spain [email protected]
CIRSA, University of Bologna
via S. Alberto 163, 48100 Ravenna, Italy
[email protected]
Lorenzo Pini
ERSAF, Milano, Italy
[email protected]
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Agraria e Forestale
Università degli Studi di Firenze
via San Bonaventura 13, 50145, Firenze, Italy
lorenzo.pini@unifi.it
Francis Njuakom Nchii
Giovanni Piras
Ijim Mountain conservation cultural committee, Cameroon
[email protected]; [email protected]
Department of Botany and Plant Ecology,
University of Sassari, via Muroni, 25, 07100 Sassari, Italy
[email protected]
Paolo Nastasio
Susanna Nocentini
Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Forestali Ambientali
Università di Firenze
via San Bonaventura 13, Florence, Italy
susanna.nocentini@unifi.it
Maddalena Piredda
Taner Okan
Mario Pividori
Dept. of Forestry Economics, Faculty of Forestry, Istanbul
University, Bahçeköy, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
T.E.SAF., Università degli Studi di Padova, Italy
[email protected]
Department of Plant Biology, University of Florence,
P .le delle Cascine, 28 – I 50144 Firenze, Italy
mpiredda@unifi.it
Colin Price
Kenan Ok
Dept. of Forestry Economics, Faculty of Forestry, Istanbul
University, Bahçeköy İstanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences
University of Wales
Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, United Kingdom
[email protected]
José Ramon Olarieta
Chirakkal Rampanikker Rajagopalan
Universitat de Lleida, Spain
[email protected]
Centre for Folklore/Indigenous Knowledge Studies
Kanimangalam P.O.
Trichur, Kerala, 680027 India
[email protected]
Iago Otero Armengol
Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB)
Edifici Ciències, Torre Àrea 9, 4a planta. 08193 Bellaterra
Barcelona. Spain
[email protected]
P.S. Ramakrishnan
School of Environmental Sciences
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
[email protected]
Marco Paci
Nicole Riveill
Dipartimento di scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali Forestali
Università di Firenze
via San Bonaventura 13, 50145 Firenze, Italy
marco.paci@unifi.it
International Scientific Cooperation
Directorate-General for Research, European Commission
SDME 01/21, 1049 Brussels, Belgium
[email protected]
John Parrotta
Xavier Rochel
USDA Forest Service – Research and Development,
1601 N. Kent Street, Arlington VA 22209, USA
[email protected]
Département de géographie,
Université Nancy 2, 3 place Godefroy de Bouillon
BP 3317 54015 Nancy Cedex – France
[email protected]
Susanna Passigli
DAF, Università della Studi della Tuscia,
via San Camillo de Lellis, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
[email protected]
Pekka Patosaari
Department of Economic and Social Affairs
The United Nations Forum on Forests Secretariat
DC1-1245, One UN Plaza, New York, NY 10017 USA
[email protected]
542
Ian D. Rotherham
Tourism and Environmental Change Research Unit,
Sheffield Hallam University
Pond Street, Sheffield, S1 1WB, United Kingdom
[email protected]
Sònia Sànchez
Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA)
Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB), Spain
Campus de Bellaterra. 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallès
Barcelona, Spain
Conference participants and lead authors
Emilia Sarno
Sonia Tamez
Faculty of Human and Social Studies, University of Molise
via De Sanctis, I-86100, Campobasso, Italy
[email protected]
USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Region
1323 Club Drive, Vallejo, CA, 94592, USA
[email protected]
Bartolomeo Schirone
Lembitu Tarang
DAF, Università della Studi della Tuscia
via San Camillo de Lellis, 01100 Viterbo, Italy Viterbo
[email protected]
Estonian Society of Foresters, Metsakatsejaam pk 11,
48331 Jõgevamaa, Estonia
Enric Tello
Franz Schmithuesen
Vogtsrain 43, CH-8049 Zurich, Switzerland
[email protected]
Department d’Historia i Institucions Economiques, Facultat
de Ciències Econòmiques i Empresarials, Edifici Principal
Av. Diagonal, 690 08034 Barcelona
[email protected]; [email protected]
Roberto Scotti
Università di Sassari, DESA, via C. Colombo, 1 – 08100 Nuoro
Italy
[email protected]
Klaus Seeland
Swiss Federal Institute for Technology (ETH Zentrum)
CHN, J 75.3, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland
[email protected]
Laura Secco
Dipartimento Territorio e Sistemi Agro-Forestali – Università di
Padova, Viale dell’Università 16, Agripolis
35020 Legnaro (PD), Italy
[email protected]
Gary Servant
Sunart Oakwoods Initiative – Sgilean na Coille Project
Arainn Shuaineirt Strontian PH36 4JA
[email protected]
Maria Adele Signorini
Department of Plant Biology, University of Florence
p.le delle Cascine, 28 – I 50144 Firenze, Italy
msignorini@unifi.it
Harri Siiskonen
Department of History, University of Joensuu
FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland
harri.siiskonen@joensuu.fi
Andrea Sisti
Ronald Trosper
Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Resources
Management, 2021-2424 Main Mall, University of British
Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4
[email protected]
Jim van Laar
Forest and Nature Conservation Policy Group, Wageningen
University, Droevendaalsesteeg 3
6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
[email protected]
Paolo Vicentini
Ministry of Agricultural, Food and Forest Policies
Forest Service – Division V, Rome, Italy
[email protected]
Lorne West
Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service
Canada
[email protected]
Cheong-Ho Yi
Institute of Life Science and Natural Resources
Korea University, Anam-dong Seongbuk-Gu
Seoul, 136-701 Korea
[email protected]
Ludmila Zhirina
Non-Governmental Organization VIOLA, Russia
[email protected]
Federazione Regionale dei Dottori Agronomi
e Dottori Forestali dell’Umbria, Italy
[email protected]
Peter Skoglund
Department of Archaeology and Ancient History
Lund University, Sweden
[email protected]
Mike Smith
Forest Research, Northern Research Station, Bush Estate,
Roslin, Midlothian, EH25 9SY, Scotland, United Kingdom
[email protected]
Francesco Sorbetti Guerri
Dipartimento di Ingegneria agraria e forestale
Università degli Studi di Firenze
via San Bonaventura, 13 – 50145 Firenze, Italy
francesco.sorbettiguerri@unifi.it
Francesco Spada
Dipartimento di Biologia vegetale dell’Università degli
Studi di Roma, La Sapienza,
c/o Orto Botanico di Roma, Largo Cristina di Svezia
4000100 Roma, Italy
[email protected]
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