social education - Centrum Profilaktyki Społecznej

Transcription

SOCIAL EDUCATION
Current problems and perspectives
SOCIAL EDUCATION
Current problems and perspectives
EDITOR – IN – CHIEF
Leta Dromantienė
Mariusz Jędrzejko
EDITORIAL BOARD
Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba, Valdonė Indrašienė,
Linda Daniela, Rita Nordström-Lytz
Vilnius 2014
UDK 37.035
So-15
EDITOR – IN – CHIEF
Prof. Dr. Mariusz Jędrzejko, (1) Center of Social Prevention, Poland; (2) University of Social
Scienses, Poland
Prof. Dr. Leta Dromantienė, Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania
EDITORIAL BOARD:
Prof. Dr. Małgorzata Przybysz Zaremba, Academy of Business Dąbrowa Górnicza, Poland
Prof. Dr. Valdonė Indrašienė, Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Linda Daniela, University of Latvija, Latvia
Dr. Rita Nordström-Lytz, Åbo Akademi University, Finland
EXECUTIVE SECRETARY
Agata Katkonienė, Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania
MA Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała, Poland
REVIEWERS
Prof. Dr. Irena Žemaitaitytė
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Živilė Vilma Jonynienė
THE PROJECT COVERS by Zbigniew Pindor – Center of Social Prevention (www.cps.edu.pl)
ISBN 978-9955-19-656-3 (online)
ISBN 978-9955-19-658-7 (print)
Mykolas Romeris University, 2014
Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Parts I
Perspectives and Dilemmas of Socio-Educational Activities
Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz
Young People at Risk Civilization – Socio-Educational and Psychological Perspective (Part I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz
Young People at Risk Civilization – New Challenges (Part II) . . . . . . . . 33
Algimantas Šimaitis, Sandra Valantiejienė
The Profession of Social Pedagogue in Lithuania: Changes and
Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Gintautė Žibėnienė, Rita Virbalienė
Study Quality Concept of Students of Social Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Odeta Merfeldaite, Jolanta Pivoriene, Valdonė Indrašienė
Professional Self-development of Social Pedagogues:
Lithuanian Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Romas Prakapas, Leta Dromantienė, Dalia Prakapienė
Monitoring as a Part of Management Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Roman Solecki
The anthropology of risky behaviours in the cyberspace . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Part II
Challenges and Opportunities of Socio-Educational Activities
Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba, Justinas Sadauskas, Agata Katkonienė
Poverty and Social Exclusion as a Challenge for Contemporary
Social Pedagogy – Chosen Contexts and Theoretical Implications . . . . 97
6 Table of Contents
Auksė Šerstobojeva, Tomas Butvilas
Education of a Child in an Ethnically Diverse Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Tomas Butvilas, Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba
Openness within Adoption: Challenges for Child’s Psychosocial
Development and Self Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Jolita Dudaitė
Entrepreneurial Competencies of Children Living in Foster Homes. . . 131
Jautrė Ramutė Šinkūnienė
Attitude to Communication with a Disabled Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Miglė Devenson, Rasa Kirliauskienė, Vilmantė Aleksienė
Integration of Music Therapy Elements into the Programs of
Formal and Non-Formal Primary Music Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Dariusz Sarzała, Mariusz Jędrzejko
Prosocial Upbringing in the Context of Influences
of Family Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Part III
Socio-Educational Problems in the 21st Century
Andrzej Radziewicz-Winnicki, Marek Walancik
The Future of Applied Social Pedagogy (A Polish Perspective) . . . . . . 189
Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak Wawrzała
The “troubled” World – in Search of Sources for Risky Behaviors
and Deviations in the Young Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba
Aggresion and Violence at School – Global or Local Issue?. . . . . . . . . 225
Anna Prusik
Aggression as Exemplification of Behavioural Disorder
in Children and Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Violeta Jegelevičienė, Asta Railiene
Social Pedagogical Aid to Children Who Avoid School:
The Attitude of Class Tutors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Vida Gudžinskienė, Rimvydas Augutavičius,
Živilė Barkauskaitė Lukšienė
The Independent Living Skills Development of Children
in Care Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Table of Contents
Wojciech Piestrzyński
Family in Human Sickness and in Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Tomasz Safjański
Legal and Political Determinants of Drug Crime in Poland
at the Beginning of the 21st Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Tomasz Safjański, Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała
Drugs and Drug Addiction as a Threat to Social Safety and Health
– the Chosen Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Silvia Dončevová
The Category of Gender and the CAN Syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Agata Katkonienė
Psychological and social aspects of aggressive behaviour . . . . . . . . . . 313
Artur Gołębiowski, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz,
Mariusz Jędrzejko,
Sense of Coherence versus Styles of Stress Management
among Soldiers Leaving for Peacekeeping Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
7
Introduction
21st century is an era of numerous paradoxes – although we possess
widening knowledge, we introduce more and more problems into our lives,
though we develop technologies and economy, economic disproportions
grow, though we have greater access to modern medicine, still more people
fall ill, though we spend more on education and prevention, still more people
suffer from addictions. Thus, though we do not want it, the modern world
is full of risk, which makes education prevention and upbringing face new
goals and new challenges.
Those issues have been the concern of social education, sociology and
psychology looking for efficient research tools, diagnostic methods, effective
prevention and therapeutic programs.
Therefore, we have been living in the world which, on one hand is
characterized by globalization, new digital technologies development,
especially these referring to information, visible climate changes, on the
other, by diversity of educational systems and social welfare, accumulation
of social inequality areas and poverty (in some parts of the world). This
world presents science and scientists with crucial questions: explain why this
is happening that way, give a hint how to solve it, show effective ways of
solving complex socio-economic problems.
One of the important methods of limiting the risk, reducing tensions,
eliminating threats is educating young generation in such a way to allow
better differentiation of what favors development and what can constitute
hazard both in local, national and international dimensions. According to the
authors of this book, young people need a wider range of competences as well
in interpersonal relations as in professional activities. If such competences
are acquired at school, while studying or in family it will be easier for them
to get around in the real world and in cyber-space, at the same time being less
vulnerable to such modern problems as: drugs, cyber-crime, cyber-bullying,
exclusion and social marginalization.
What do young people need? Certainly knowledge, ability of dealing
with difficult situations, empathy skills, interpersonal communication
10 Introduction
competences, knowledge of languages, understanding other cultures.
Only equipped with such knowledge will they be able to cope with new
challenges.
Here we should add that the above mentioned issues have been known for
years – they were described, among others in OUN Convention on Children’s
Rights (art. 29), and in spite of that, their dissemination has been far from
expectations. To make changes happen, further developments in children and
youth education are necessary because they need comprehensive development
which will be possible if culture of contemporary school and education
programs will integrate and promote the newest tendencies and demands.
Hence, education faces an important task of continuous responding to social
reality – as it seems - many people representing education do not fully
understand this goal. References to these issues can be found in numerous
places in this publication – in form of theses about necessity of educating for
democracy, educating for balanced development, educating for limiting risky
behaviors and enhancing protective factors, developmental education, health
education, legal education, entrepreneurial education, media education and
many others, present in the 21st century.
Why do we raise questions that should be obvious – yet in the world
developing in such a pace, where every month new digital technologies appear
and an average smart phone can take advantage of two million applications
(!) the educational progress is a key condition for balanced development.
And the point is not that a contemporary human should be everywhere, know
everything, use everything, on the contrary, that he/she should be able to use
the goods of this world in a balanced way.
In such a world, social education has exceptional tasks, as it obligation
steers towards explaining relations between dynamic development,
education and such social functioning of an individual to allow him/
her to develop in a healthy way. To fulfill this aim we need competent
social educators, insightful researchers, equipped with knowledge and
determination in exploring and explaining still more complex reality.
It is also essential to constantly remind all of the people who manage
great economic processes and economic and social mechanisms that
development is beneficial only on the condition that it serves human
wellbeing. The fact of multi-cultural societies development is also not
without meaning (and we are of the opinion that this process will be
accelerating), which will create areas of different cultures interactions,
different attitudes towards family and family relations, what even more
visibly stresses the need of educating competent, open, active, strongly
motivated and creative social educators.
Introduction
We present this publication as a voice of social educators in the issues
which, in our opinion, are important for the future of young generation and
all the societies.
***
The monograph submitted to the reader is the result of co-operation of
educators, psychologists and sociologists representing research centers from
Lithuania, Latvia, Finland, Poland and Slovakia. It contains monograph articles
from the fields of social education, psychology and related sciences based on
various research methods – from monograph to empirical research results. The
articles character and contents prompted the editors to organize it into three
parts – Perspectives for socio-educational activity; Challenges and chances for
socio-educational activities; Contemporary socio-educational issues.
The first part “Perspectives for socio-educational activity” presents articles
describing various contexts in socio-educational activity and challenges
facing social education. The essential common point of the presented articles
by Polish and Lithuanian researchers is similarity of problems dealt with by
educational practices. It testifies strong influence of globalization processes
on young people’s behaviors, risk areas and threats. Hence, the problems
of risky behaviors in young people are discussed in context of wider social
changes. In this part, also the problems of social educators professional
development and their professional qualifications are discussed. The issue is
of great importance for success of social prevention, phenomena diagnosis
and designing effective measures. That is why such questions as: position of
educators at schools, social educators professional development specificity,
interpersonal relations are debated. The first chapter also contains articles
referring to quality of university education in the field of social education,
describing alternative and innovative methods, namely monitoring as a part
of management process used in science of education.
The second part of the publication “Challenges and chances for socioeducational activities” contains articles referring to essential contemporary
social problems which are: poverty and social exclusion (the authors present,
among others, activities which can be undertaken by social educators),
education in a family, where parents belong to different cultural environments
and in multilingual families (this phenomenon gains in popularity both in
Poland and in Lithuania). This part of the book refers also to positive and
negative aspects of foster care. Questions of social skills are also discussed
giving concern to disabled people (their higher social competences facilitate
functioning in society). A short overview of music therapy research in the
field of education was also presented. Here, the positive influence of therapy
taking advantage of music on positive thoughts development among pupils
11
12 Introduction
is emphasized, influence on improving motivation among students and on
development of healthy personality.
The third part, entitled: “Contemporary socio-educational issues” contains
articles referring to a wide spectrum of problems dealt with by social education
including essential problems of social education, their sources and influence
on individual, group and economic behaviors. Questions of growing social
aggression, domestic violence, teenagers’ aggressive behaviors were analyzed.
The important fragment of this part is discussion about stress and drug issues
– the problem of increasing background complexity and consequences.
Undertaking drug and designer drug issue is not accidental – as well as in
Lithuania as in Poland and Finland, the organized crime connected with drugs
increases and every year, the illicit market is being “enriched” with dozens
or tens new psychoactive substances. This phenomenon is one of the most
important educational challenges for social prevention. The topic which is less
widely known for a reader is the phenomenon of post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), a disease attacking soldiers taking part in peacekeeping missions.
This problem is an essential educational and psychological challenge and is
more and more often analyzed in the armies of Finland, Slovakia, Lithuania
and Poland. The publication recognizes also the importance and significance
of self sufficiency skills, and analytic skills for the future life and it provides
analyses of importance of coherence sense and styles of life management
among young adults serving in the military.
We hope that readers will find in this publication are other interesting
topics.
Linda Daniela
University of Latvija, Latvia
Leta Dromantienė
Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania
Valdonė Indrašienė,
Mariusz Jędrzejko
Center of Social Prevention, Poland
Agata Katkonienė
Rita Nordström-Lytz,
Åbo Akademi University, Finland
Małgorzata Przybysz Zaremba
Academy of Business Dąbrowa Górnicza, Poland
Introduction
***
The publication presented to the reader is the first scientific description
created thanks to scientific co-operation of social educators, sociologists and
psychologists representing Finnish, Slovak, Latvian, Lithuanian and Polish
academies. The representatives of the following academies and research
centers took part in the project:
•
Åbo Akademi University (Finland)
•
Academy of Business Dąbrowa Górnicza (Poland)
•
Center of Social Prevention (Poland)
•
Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences (Lithuania)
•
Military Academy of Land Forces (Poland)
•
Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania)
•
School of Law and Public Administration in Rzeszów (Poland)
•
University fd Social Sciences (Poland)
•
University of Silesia in Katowice (Poland)
•
University of Latvija (Latvia)
•
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius (Slovakia)
•
University of Social Studies and Economics in Gdansk (Poland)
•
University of Computer Sciences and Economics in Olsztyn (Poland)
•
University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn (Poland)
•
University of Social Scienses (Poland).
13
Part I
Perspectives and Dilemmas
of Socio-Educational Activities
Young People at Risk Civilization – Socio-Educational and Psychological Perspective
Mariusz JĘDRZEJKO Prof. Dr
Center of Social Prevention, University of Social Sciences (Poland)
Marzena NETCZUK-GWOŹDZIEWICZ Dr
Young People at Risk Civilization
– Socio-Educational and Psychological
Perspective (Part I)
Abstract:
The authors analyze the development of risky behaviour and pathology
among young people. They point to their sources and new considerations
for social change in Poland. The article presents the sources of these
problems and their impact in individual, social and economic aspect.
Keywords:
Youth, addictions, risky types of behaviour, preventive measures
Introduction
Each epoch introduces into human life many new elements which, in the
short or long term revolutionize its social functioning. Such solutions include,
among others the printed word, electricity, the cinema, airplane, television,
mobile phone and the Internet. It is more than less likely that in the coming
decades our lives will be changed by subsequent inventions and most of them
will be made in the world of new digital technologies. Modern times more
and more clearly highlight the interesting features of these changes, which
could be expressed in the following way:
− technological and organizational changes are faster – from invention to
implementation and popularization there is a short period (up to several
years);
18 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz
− prices of inventions implemented for mass production make them
accessible for the majority of inhabitants of the lands (in industrialized
countries);
− new technologies are introduced simultaneously in many areas of life,
which further promotes the dissemination;
− an increasingly common mechanisms is ‘forcing’ consumers to
use new technologies such as personal banking, bill payments,
communication with institutions and companies- this process will be
rapidly advancing;
− advertising – having increasingly coercive nature – it is aimed primarily
at the younger generation of customers.
These features are the reason for which in sociological and pedagogical
literature the latest decades are defined as the cyber age, cyber technique,
advertising, consumerism, prosumption, and the language is extended by
entirely new terms such as nanotechnologies, interfaces, smartphones,
cyberspace, cyber shops, e-shopping.
The train discussed in the Introduction part causes an afterthought that by
revolutionizing human life we get the basis to simplify it, to make it more
humane and equal. Yet, the real picture of the changes implemented is quite
different, as we are trying to show graphically.
Picture 1. Great changes versus real picture of human life
Capitalistic resolution
– Job market development
Tchnological revolution
Promoting equality
Elimination of totalitarianism
Greed markets- junk
contracts, usury
Cyberdisorders
Cybercrimes
Dichotomous social and
material developmemt
Anti-humanist
ideologies
Source: Own elaboration
Picture: http://martensdesign.pl/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/281107reklama4.jpg (15th
April 2013)
According to the recent report of the World Health Organization, on the
one hand the length of human life is increasing (developed countries), on
the other hand, we are witnessing a continuous deterioration of mental and
somatic health. As many as 450 million people worldwide each year suffer
from mental disorders, 70 million are addicted to alcohol, 24 million suffer
from schizophrenia, annually 10-20 million people are trying to commit
suicide, and one million takes their own life (Brzezińska, 2008, p.34). More
than 800 million people live in such extreme poverty that it poses a real threat
to their health and life- several thousands die every day. When it comes to
the Polish reports, about 220 thousand Poles are addicted to alcohol; 800
thousand abusing it, there are 50-60 thousand drug addicts, another 100-120
thousand using them periodically. As it seems, the last number will multiply
quickly, for example as a result of a massive promotion of marihuana. The
recent analysis of drug problem in Europe included in the annual report by
the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, indicate the
persistence of a high percentage of people who have declared marihuana use
– on this continent there are over 80 million people, of which 23 million over
the last year (ECMDDA 2013). Important information and data is provided
to us by ESPAD reports, which noted an increase in the spread of marihuana
and hashish in Poland - every fourth of the age group 15-64 (24 per cent)
had contact with cannabis products (in 2006 it was 16 per cent) 2.The last
analysis of GATS1 talk about the resurgence of smoking among teenagers and
an alarming level of regular smoking women, including those being pregnant.
Numerous studies prove risky sexual behaviour of young generation.
The analysis of information and reports of scientific institutions or research
institutions shows us a picture of human life in which we see more and more
risky and compulsive behaviour threatening biological, mental and social
life. This article is an attempt to show this phenomenon in pedagogical and
sociological perspective.
Disorders and pathology versus developmental inequalities
Analysis of pro-developmental factors and risks indicate that in Poland for
several years there has been a dichotomous process -on the one hand, there is
an increase in educational level of Poles,2 access to health care, the quality of
education is improving, and communication and access to new technologies
are significantly improving. On the other hand, there are a growing number
1
The tests by Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS) are carried out on behalf of the
World Health Organization – a recent study comes from 2011.
2
Between 2002-2011 the number of Poles with higher education rose from 9,5 per
cent to 17,5 per cent of the entire population, and those with secondary education from
66,9 per cent to 78,7 per cent (CSO, Census 2011).
19
of health problems (not just the older generation), the number of perpetrators
of crimes and offenses is increasing and the same goes to the number of
non-prescription drugs and those ordered by physicians, the percentage of
obese people and those experimenting with dangerous substances is also
increasing. The statement ‘inplus’ versus ‘downward’ can be multiplied,
which will even strengthen the argument for the accumulation of differences
in the development of Polish people with the rapid development of poverty
and wealth.
Picture 2. Dichotomous models of social development in Poland
Approximately 100,000 Poles have in
their account over one million dollars.
More than 2 million Poles have assets
in excess of one million Polish zloty.
In 2011, over 1570 new millionaires
appeared in Poland (an increase of 13%
15% of households live below the
poverty level (income poverty) – 24%
rural, 11% urban.
4.6% families are affected AT the same
time – with income poverty, living
conditions and a balanced budget.
Source: Own elaboration based on data from Central Statistical Office (Poland)
According to the authors, these disparities become a huge social and moral
challenge as they are not only a source of increasing material inequalities, but
also a source of many dysfunctions and pathologies. The result of this process
and the result of the developmental stop of middle class is the development
according to the model 4xB - the poor get poorer, the rich get richer (see:
Melosik 2000).
While the development of the sphere of wealth may have important growthoriented meaning, experience shows that these are ‘closed developments’,
which rarely generate job position growth, support workers or invest in
skilled people and educational patronage. At the same time we get more and
more evidence that it is the spheres of poverty and extreme wealth that are
clearly stronger ‘saturated’ with types of deviant behaviour. What in groups of
wealthy people should favour the pro-health attitudes, greater social culture,
the respect for the environment or the support for the weak, it often turns
into extreme forms of consumerism. Thus, the damages associated with the
development of ‘in plus’ are reaching higher level:
− the drive to career success generates extreme forms of workaholism or
work overload (young corporate workers, sales representatives work
12-13 hours a day, the number of young mothers, of workers in the
trade and services- working steadily 10-12 hours a day - is growing);
− the occurrence of economic migration of one of the family members,
and commuting long distances, which often takes more than 3-4 hours
per day, is expanding;
− a large number of young employees work on the so-called junk
contracts, one of the reasons being the high labor costs for employers
(this is already related to 1.3 million workers – according to General
Inspectorate of Labour, 2013); there is a sustained increase in
unemployment among workers up to the age of 25.
By introducing these numbers, we point out to the complexity of the factors
generating multi- type risk behaviour, disorders and addictions, because their etiology often has the sources of economic, social, environmental, cultural nature.
Economic factors are the ones that develop problem situations the fastest.
Let us indicate, therefore, that in many sciences (including anthropology,
pedagogy, neurology, sociology, psychology) one looks for the answers
to question about key risk and protective factors, situations reinforcing
addictions or compulsive behaviour risk. Although more and more complex
responses appear, for example, in the form of prevention programmes,
awareness campaigns, support programmes, we can observe the growing
number of new problems:
− growing number of families with serious internal problems, such as
aggression, violence towards children;
− growing problem of disintegration of young married couples and
households burdened with aggression and violence3
− increasing proportion of young people experimenting with drugs and
any substances with similar effects;
− rising costs of curing diseases included in the ICD-10 and DSM-IV, as
disorders and addictions; growing number of specialists dealing with
these problems;
− increasing government spending (public) on the functioning of various
institutions involved in antisocial pathologies and addictions;
3
According to the Report SMG/KRC Diagnosis in the field of perpetrators of domestic violence: domestic violence form the perspective of the adult population of Poland commissioned
by the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy ‘20% of all respondents accepts arguments, fisticuffs and verbal abuse as normal behaviour occurring in almost every home and sees no signs of
abnormalities in them. People who have used physical violence in the family, more often (21%)
than the other two analyzed groups believe that a strong frustration justifies the use of abusive,
humiliating verbal abuse against a family member’. The same Report noted that ‘16% of the
population admit to have ever used physical violence against a family member. Nearly half of
the people (47%) who used psychological violence in the family, at least once also used physical violence towards their family. People who have committed physical violence in the family
a dozen times or more, accounted for 6% of people in the group who used physical violence in
the family’. (Millward Brown SMG/KRC, Warszawa 2011, p.16).
21
− growing public expectation to increase the potential of institutions
responsible for security and public order;
− various authorities increase the level of social surveillance (e.g. by
monitoring system that is installed not only in public, but also in
schools and workplaces);
− local councils and central institutions increase the number of funds
spent on various types of prevention and prophylactic programmes
(see Table 1);
− one of the fastest developing forms of economic activity are security
companies;
− decreasing age of the perpetrators of risky behaviour (Jędrzejko,
Janusz, Walancik, 2013, p.43).
Table 1. The growing need for preventive measures on the example
of the programmes co-produced by the Pedagogium Foundation and
Mazowieckie Centre for Prevention and Addiction to local governments
and educational institutions (2010-2013)
Initiatives
Multithreaded programs implemented in
the municialities and local governments
Educational activities (class groups)
2010
2011
2012
2013
(I quarter)
2
2
4
9
114
276
917
288
Educational Boards of Teachers
23
57
125
43
Prophylactic meetings with students’
parents
35
68
73
41
The above figures show a real need for preventive measures, as a result of
emergence of real problems and threats, too.
What is characteristic of the last two decades is also the development of the
so-called new disorders, which include cyberholism, shopoholism, gambling,
sexoholism or workaholism4. In the opinion of many scholars, only at the
appropriate stage of socio-economic development, with the necessary skill
for moral reflection, there will appear studies on these types of problems of
social and health nature. If so, the number of publications on this and related
topics is a response to the scale of the problems that actually occur:
− according to a study by Bogdan Woronowicz from the Institute of
Psychiatry and Neurology in Warsaw, the problem of workaholism
affects about 5 per cent of adult workers;
Workaholism live to see scientific testing Work Addiction Risk Test, which in 1995
was developed by Bryan E. Robinson and Bruce Philips.
4
− according to the WHO, Poland is in a small group of countries, where
alcohol consumption per capita is growing – at the world average of 6.3
litres of pure alcohol consumed, in our country it is 13.3 litres per year;
− The ESPAD (2011) studies show that the most common illegal
substances young people resort to are marihuana and hashish. 24.3 per
cent of young people aged 15 -16 admitted to have used them at least
once in the lives, which constitutes a significant increase compared to
the results from 2007 when the use of cannabis products at least once
in a lifetime was declared by nearly 16 per cent of the respondents;
− Over 2 million Poles buy drug every day - Poland is the sixth-largest
drug market in Europe (collected sources);
− Jacek Kurzępa’s study shows that pornographic films were watched by
19% girls and 27% boys. More popular turned out to be sex chat rooms
(56% of the respondents), sadomasochistic chat rooms (54%) and chats
related to homosexuality ( about lesbians – 43%, about gays – 33%)
(Kurzępa, 2007, p. 209).
The above examples do not close the list of threats and areas of risky
behaviour, and to some of them we will come back later in the article. After
all, it is not Polish peculiarity, as the increasing numbers of educational
problems among young people are indicated by Russian pedagogy, German
and British psychology. It should be emphasized, for example, that in some
highly liberalized societies – vide Holland and the Czech Republic- even
the awareness of the great costs of addictions does not change the decision
to legalize drugs or limit the legalization of prostitution. It can therefore be
assumed that the problems within the concepts of disorder and addiction
will grow, as the ‘social climate’ and popularization of social life models, in
which the category of unlimited freedom is ahead of all the other models and
the solutions, are favourable.
Picture 3. The fastest growing disorders and addictions in the Polish
society
Experiments with drugs and legal highs
Alcohol abuse
Divorces and aggression in families
Compulsive use of digital technology
Cyber addiction
Risky sexual behaviour
Medicines abuse
Workaholism and work pathology
Sugar abuse
Overuse of chemicals in food
23
As readers may have noticed, in the language of public debate, as
well as in the literature more and more often terms such as alcoholism,
addiction, deviant behaviour, social dysfunction, workaholism, gambling
or pharmacomania are used. It is undoubtedly a response to real visible
social problems, often having a ‘shape’ of specific victims, part of whom
being young people (what is characteristic of recent years is the increase in
addicted teenagers and under-aged experimenting with drugs [see: ESPAD
2010,2011]). In the light of available data the most common addictions
include:
− use of chemicals such as alcohol, drugs, nicotine, medicines, which
affects mental states and causes numerous health damages- both,
physical and mental;
− compulsive use of new digital technologies – especially the Internet,
computer, game consoles and mobile phones.
Development of problems being a consequence of the use of the
above substances and occurrence of disorders- behavioural addictions is
a consequence of their mass spread and their massive promotion among
young people.
‘New’ times and their features
It is likely that disorders and addictions, as well as risk situations are
an immanent feature of modern times, great acceleration, constant change,
constant movement, the pressure of part of the media and huge influences of
consumption market, especially pervasive advertising as well – what should
be strongly emphasized- a clear deficit of axiological education. Times, in
which financial markets and generated by them, the main goal – profit- is
placed in front of personal human dimension, the environmental protection,
health and the reflection on his single dimension. The key features of modern
decades, strongly affecting the appearance of various fields of risk are:
− departing from the ethics of interpersonal, employment, trade and
services relations, for the strong pressure based on constant movement
and change;
− encouraging recipients- consumers towards causing various compulsive
types of behaviour (resorting to further loans, consumption beyond
actual human needs, the emphasis on the continual change of clothes,
of household appliances, cosmetics and many everyday products);
− targeting offensive adds to more and more younger customers.
An important factor is also building a model of social functioning based
on the thesis ‘success – success at any cost’, which caused the mechanisms
defined in sociology as a ‘rat race’, ‘pressure to succeed’. The side effects of
these changes are such occurrences vas celebritism, disrobing – exhibitionism,
extravagant behaviour, contempt for traditional solutions, existence through
excitement.
On the new market of consumption and pop culture its recipient, who
very often refers to children and the youth, functions in the space of constant
pressure of the market and under the huge information overload, making
it impossible to analyze, reflect and act steadily. The latter process favors
the model of new digital media, which are nothing else but a continuous
avalanche of new-often useless- information.
It should be emphasized at this point that it is not new technologies but the
man himself who generates the key problems resulting in diseases, disorders
and addictions – he makes it more and more intensively and effectively. In
this perspective, we should evaluate the following phenomena:
− mass promotion of non-prescription drugs;
− expanding markets of strengthening and stimulating medications,
especially during high school examination, matriculation and academic
sessions;
− pressure on the visualization model of public perception and evaluation
of a man (clothes, gadgets, appearance);
− various ways of circumventing the ban on advertising tobacco or
alcohol;
− promotion of the so-called light alcohol at mass sport and cultural
events, such as offensive beer concerns entering into great football and
musical events;
− promoting quasi-sexual behaviour and sexualization of content targeted
at a young audience.
Yet another problem is taking up by some of the socio-political forces
campaigns for moral revolution in Poland that, with its content, includes:
the legalization of some drugs, the recognition of homosexual relationships
as equal to heterosexual ones, ‘awakening teen sexual activity as well as
redefining the tradition as the foundation for Polish culture.
Are the above trends, events, facts related to risky behaviour of a man
stated in the title? According to the authors, yes; for many of them they
play a causative, stimulating and encouraging role. What needs to be also
stressed is that modern times are characterized by distinct developmental
disparities, particularly material ones, they generate other victims of
various types of exclusion: technological exclusion- growing technological
disproportions between young well-to- to financially people and those
25
coming from the areas of poverty; there are increasing disparities in terms
of quality of education and training at a higher level- the status of the
master’s degree is often a fiction, as it does not guarantee employability,
which increases the discomfort and individual disruption. The labor market
being out of adjustment, especially the one with strongly influenced politics
and local government, is rolled by the sickness of nepotism and informal
links networks.
Let us note here that a part of young people as a result of growing up
in communities stricken by social pathology (often multigenerational)
enter into life with strongly entrenched codes of risky behaviour: drinking,
smoking, early sexual contact, verbal and physical aggression, lack of
emphatic skills and conciliation. According to Andrzej Bałandynowicz:
“persons requiring specialized rehabilitation treatment are individuals who
suffer mostly from the state of being unnecessary to the world due to various
social factors responsible for their disintegration process” (Bałandynowicz,
2012, p. 27). Since the number of disintegration factors and their power
effect on the young generation is increasing, the costs which young people
bear in the process of disintegration are getting higher. Theses on this issue
can be also found in the studies of Krystyna Chałas who highlights that
the victims of these processes ‘are characterized by a sense of helplessness
because of the loss of control over their daily environment, and because of
the following two factors – lack of feeling of being useful and loss of the
sense of life leads a person to an individual depression as well as group
depression’ (Chałas, 2003, p.176).
Deficiencies of knowledge and prevention
In the context of many studies relating to dangerous, risky, compulsive
behaviour of young people it is indicated that its victims (also often
culprits) have a very faint knowledge of human health, in particular that
of creating conditions of its homeostasis. Short-sightedness of the way
young people think about the aspects such as mental and physical health,
health as a human capital, a single dimension of human life shows a huge
gap in the education of young generation. Meanwhile, the value of health,
which so clearly emphasizes Mirosław Kowalski, ‘activates the modes of
knowing oneself and others, as well as evaluating the surrounding reality’
(Kowalski, Gaweł, 2006, p. 61; see Przybysz-Zaremba, 2014), “being at
the same time the value serving to achieve goals in life, the condition of
life quality, the value closely related to the entire axiological area of an
individual. The importance of the value of health is the basic element in
the areas related to creating opportunities to make responsible choices. The
issue of human health awareness does relate directly to relationships with
other human, often affecting his activities in the field of health” (Kowalski,
Drożdż, 2008, p. 89). This thesis is a field of great activities of education
and prevention, but in practice, health promotion, healthy lifestyle is
only a marginal part of the impact on the young generation. As it is clear
from the survey research conducted by the authors, in cooperation with
the employees of Department of Education of Academy of Business in
Dąbrowa Górnicza, only 32 per cent of junior high school students accept
the idea that ‘smoking in young age will cause significant health effects in
older age, and less than 28 per cent agrees with the scientifically proven
theory that marihuana is addictive’5.
Some authors who diagnose the problem of dangerous behaviour in the
young generation simply say about a disordered and addicted personality of
our time6 – once it is the drugs distributed and returned to the Polish market
of afterburners, sometimes it is gambling, compulsive gambling in the web,
shopping, work, sex, body visualization, exhibitionist behaviour on social
networks or improving muscular body. If, in this perspective, we look at
the phenomenon of disorganizing individual and social life, we will see that
some of these processes are specifically planned, as part of a big market,
where a young customer is being constantly astounded with new legal or
illegal offers. Thus, the key factors generating certain types of behaviour
cause even stronger pressure on young people. These are: increasing supply
of psycho-active, stimulating and energizing substances; strong influence of
environmental and media standards (such as those created by well-known
figures in the world of culture, show business and the media); narrowing of
educational process, especially based on moral criteria. As a result of these
processes, there is a ‘child on a skateboard’- coasted, excited, stimulated and
excited (Jampolsky, 2011, p. 19).
5
Preliminary studies in the diagnosis of the phenomenal forms of social pathology
in Silesia and Zagłębie- unpublished text, M. Jędrzejko, M. Walancik, D. Morańska,
Dąbrowa Górnicza 2013.
6
Lee Jampolsky in a very interesting way discusses one of the aspects of these risks
in the work Leczenie uzależnionej osobowości. The author, looking for sources of selfdestructive human behaviour, writes among others: ‘Discontent, a sense of hopelessness,
frustration and depression seem to sneak into our lives through the back door (…). And
although most often we are not able to determine why this is happening, the fact is that
we are unhappy. Then we try to look at different ways of happiness outside ourselves’.
27
Picture 4. ‘The child on a skateboard’ – faster ‘growing up’ of teenagers
Young age of alcohol exposure + massive beer drinking by the young
Easy access to drugs and medications + recurrence of the problem of smart drugs
Loss of axiological education at home
Information overload as a result of excessive contact with the media
Lowering the age of sexual initiation
Excessive intake of sugar and food chemistry
The 21st century the Age of addictions
The problems discussed in the article are of great importance from the
socio-economic and health perspective, primarily due to generated damages
and other disorders caused by them. Therefore, it should be emphasized that
a feature of modern times is:
• the occurrence of more and more complex disorders in terms of both,
physical and mental character (politoxycomanic models of addiction
to drugs or other substances; the total presence of disorders resulting
from misuse of digital media and disorders of an ADHD);
• significant impact of chemical addictions on the family destruction
and the relationships between parents and children often deepened by
a problem of codependency;
• the casuative nature of drug addiction for the purpose of going into
other social pathologies and disorders.
What we think, together with Marek Walancik in the monograph
‘Zachowania Ryzykowne i Uzależnienia’, the importance of the problem
discussed here is mainly due to the strength of the addictive mechanism that
‘turns off’ almost all the protective mechanisms (Jędrzejko, Janusz, Walancik,
2013, p. 43) making the person helpless. We also know from the studies of
addicts about the existence of a significant relationship: the younger the age
of addiction the greater destructive force. Famous scholars of such problems
Jerzy Mellibruda and Zofia Sobolewska-Mellibruda indicate that what is
specific of an addiction is remaining in it regardless of the side effects and
the desire to abstain form the use of harmful substances or behavoiur often
results in failure. However, interruption of substance use or discontinuation
of compulsive behaviour affects mental and physical disorders (Mellibruda,
Z. Sobolewska-Mellibruda, 2006, p. 28).
Having been created for several years, analysis of the problem of chemical
and behavioural addictions point to the existence of new features of ‘addictive
market’, which can be summarized in the following points:
supply of new chemical substances with strong addictive potential is
growing – in 2010 there were over 40 on the Polish market, in 2011 over 40
as well, and in 2012 more than 30 (see the table below);
Table 2. The most popular psychoactive substances distributed in the
Internet distribution network (2012)7
Group
Botanical agents
Medicines and pharmaceutical
products
Other substances and boosters
Name of the substance
cannabis indica seeds
hallucinigenic mushroom spores
abortifacient agents
anabolic steroids
drugs with pseudoephedrine
Precursors for drugs manufacturing
Modified mephedrone
Ephedrine, pseudoephedrine
pantedrom
bufedron
methoxetamina
4-MEC
3-MMC
GHB
GHB
Boosters with specific names(e.g. Oriental
Rosa, Turbo Bolt, Rock Crystal, Fetorini)
− after two years of peace dynamically developing market of boosters,
whose offers occur mainly on the Internet, which in turn facilitates
criminal groups an unlimited popularization;
− toxicological practice has a lot of problems with diagnosing the longterm effects of the use of new psychoactive substances, and some of
them cannot be verified with widely available tests.
Elaborated on the basis of the following Internet websites: www.shamanshop.pl,
www.kannabis.info, www.thc-thc.com, www.hyperreal.info, www.magicmushrooms.
org, www.mrcacashop.org, www.trawka.org, www.taniejaranie.pl, www.ganjafarmer.pl,
www.taniesianie.pl, www.holenderskiskun.pl, www.magicznemuchomory.pl (January –
March 2013).
7
29
The above facts have an important impact on the practice on drug and
booster prevention, as well as on the content of preventive measures. On the
one hand, they generate increasing costs of this type of crime; on the other
hand, they greatly increase the costs of prevention, diagnosis and therapy.
As a result of a growing promotion of various products and types of
behaviour, increasing their accessibility, modeling behaviour, e.g. by
behaviour of celebrities, entry of many new illegal distributors (drugs, legal
highs, substances increasing muscle mass), the number of risky situations,
disorders is continuously growing generating needs of:
organizational nature (number and availability of diagnostic, therapeutic
and curative centres, training specialists in addiction);
− research (analysis of new substances, training analytical personnel;
conducting long-term research and monitoring the victims of these
addictions);
− financial nature (costs of preventive and medicinal system maintenance;
costs of prosecution and penalization of drug offenders; costs of
developing the research potential; socio-economic costs of the grey
market).
***
Problems discussed above are only part of the phenomena observed in
Poland.
Bibliography:
1. Bałandynowicz A., Pedagogiczne aspekty komunikowania w świecie
wirtualnym, w: S. Bębas, J. Pils, J. Bednarek (red.), Komunikacja w cyberświecie, Wydawnictwo WSH.
2. Brzezińska M., Psychika w kryzysie, „Charaktery. Magazyn psychologiczny” 2008, nr 1, s. 34-37.
3. Cedzyńska M., GATS – porównania międzynarodowe, prezentacja multimedialna, Warszawa 2012. Materiał nie publikowany.
4. Cekiera Cz. Toksykomanie. Narkomania – lekomania – alkoholizm – nikotynizm, PZWL, Warszawa 2005.
5. Chałas K., Wychowanie ku wartościom. Elementy teorii i praktyki. Godność, wolność, odpowiedzialność, tolerancja, Wydawnictwo Jedność,
Lublin-Kielce 2003.
6. ECMDDA Annual Report 2013, Lisbon 2014.
7. Jampolsky L., Leczenie uzależnionej osobowości, przeł. A. Wolnicka,
Wydawnictwo Czarna Owca, Warszawa 2011.
8. Jędrzejko M., Janusz M., Walancik M., Zachowania ryzykowne i uzależnienia, Oficyna Wydawnicza ASPRA-JR, Warszawa-Dąbrowa Górnicza
2013.
9. Kowalski M., Drożdż M., Przemoc i zdrowie w obrazach telewizyjnych.
Edukacja przez codzienność telewizyjną, Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls,
Kraków 2008.
10. Kowalski M., Gaweł A., Zdrowie – wartość – edukacja, Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 2006.
11. Kurzępa J., Zagrożona niewinność. Zakłócenia rozwoju seksualności
współczesnej młodzieży, Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 2007.
12. Mellibruda J., Sobolewska-Mellibruda Z., Integracyjna terapia uzależnień. Teoria i praktyka, Wydawnictwo Instytutu Psychologii Zdrowia,
Polskie Towarzystwo Psychologiczne, Warszawa 2006.
13. Melosik Z., Tożsamość młodzieży współczesnej (czyli jak żyć w kulturze typu „instant”, „Teraźniejszość. Człowiek. Edukacja” 2000, numer
specjalny, s. 37-49.
14. Przybysz-Zaremba M. (2014), Health as a value - review of selected
research explorations (Zdrowie jako wartość – przegląd wybranych eksploracji badawczych „University Review, Health Care”. Trenčín: Alexander Dubček University of Trenčín, 2014.
15. Raport ESPAD 2011, Instytut Psychiatrii i Neurologii, Warszawa 2012.
31
Young People at Risk Civilization – New Challenges (Part II)
Center of Social Prevention, University of Social Scienses (Poland)
Marzena NETCZUK-GWOŹDZIEWICZ Dr
Young People at Risk Civilization
– New Challenges (Part II)
In the network of a multiform risk
Searching for specific features of the previous and the present decade, it
is justified to say that we are living in times of a growing multi-form risk.
Its specificity can be summarized as follows: there is a growing number
of kinds- types of risk an average person can face; risks change their
character into a multi-form- a multi-faceted; the introduction of protective
factors against these risks is more and more difficult, as they entered all the
spaces and social strata. They have, therefore, the form of drug addiction,
polytoxicomania, alcohol abuse, aggression and violence; compulsive use
of digital technologies, compulsive use of automotive means, pornography,
pedophilia and prostitution, risky sexual behaviour, workaholism, falling into
shopaholism, gambling or addiction to a man or ideas. While, however, for
many decades, pathological behavior was attributed mainly to areas of social
exclusion, extreme poverty or being marked by multigenerational contact
with pathologies (pathology inheritance), nowadays similar risks appear in
materially affluent social groups, in families structurally complete. Pedagogy
and psychology seek to answer the questions- why are not relatively good
economic and material conditions, education of parents, full families expected
protective factors?
It seems that the key reason for the rise of risky behaviour is the change
of upbringing model, which has been replaced by parental ‘presencestrangeness’ and deprived of the moral and axiological aspect. To prove the
accepted thesis, there are the following empirically verifiable facts:
Picture 1. Key factors influencing the growth of risky behaviour among
the youth
Ineffective upbringing in the family home
Pathological patterns in the family home and in the area of socialization
Poor quality of school prevention and health education
Massive promotion of marihuana and new drugs
The increase in risky behaviour models (idols, celebrities)
Source: Own elaboration.
− classical family patterns based on models of family functioning (including performing multiply tasks together or joint participation in the
rituals of culture) have been replaced by the culture of consumerism,
in which each family member has more and more their own closed unidirectional worlds (TV channels for the father; series for the mother;
digital networks for children. As a result, a family function in a strong
physical connection but in a far emotional distance;
− content of the worlds of adults and children, also as a result of entering
the latter into the world of Digital Natives, is constantly mowing away
(parents as ‘digital immigrants’ completely do not know and do not
understand the digital world of the child). At the same time, we do not
know and do not understand the dangers of cyberspace;
− a new model of working parents that prefers occupations related to
shopping and service and also present in a large scale economic migration lead to longer working hours in the afternoons and evenings, as
well as it increases the amount of time that employees spend on commuting. The result is self-raising and educating of the child;
− being under pressure from increasingly neoliberal environments, all
forms of axiological education are controlled or eliminated, and the
cultural foundation of Poland based on Christian civilization is constantly questioned. In its place, the model of moral revolution is introduced, as well as that of the ‘new ideology’ that has no axiological
criterion but only ‘picture technologies’.
The issues described here have their origins in many phenomena of
social, economic and cultural nature. The researchers of the problem point
out that what is specific about the last two or three decades is the constant
liquidity leading to changes in the system of values, but not as a replacement
for something better, rather more constructive and meaningful but leading
to the removal of values hitherto recognized as essentials, without giving
any explanation and constructive counterproposals. While- as emphasized by
Teresa Sołtysiak- the risk is included in the genotype of a human who, in the
world of risk, became a Man, replacing norms and standard ‘floating reality’
offers ‘norms liquidity’ and ‘minor offers’, as well as the phenomenon of
a ‘stirred mass culture’. Thus, the chance to meet the risk is disproportionately
higher than it was in 20-25 years ago (Sołtysiak, 2012, p.65).
According to one of the greatest contemporary Polish teachers, the expert
on the issue of Stanisław Kawula’s family, the risk has become trite, it is
multi-imaged, multi-factored and multi-faceted, and protecting from it is
more and more difficult. What used to be a factor reducing the possibility of
falling into problematic situation- the full family, a good financial situation of
parents, high social conditions- no longer guarantees security and the proper
level of children and the youth protection. The same author, in search for ways
to solve the problem, points to the need for the development of pedagogy
corresponding to specific forms of work on the most difficult challenges of
modern times (Kawula, 2012, p. 73-87.)
In the world, where – as previously quoted Andrzej Bałandynowicz people
must be strongly reminded of the need to respect the rules, norms and regulations,
and not of the trifles, grow up more and more people (Bałandynowicz, 2012,
p. 27). They go from childhood into adolescence and adulthood, in the socioeconomic reality devoid of clear rules, dynamic – but unpredictable, global –
but without moral boundaries, colourful- but demanding a dramatically high
price for participating in the ‘beautiful offerings’. We should add that on our
eyes (or maybe heads and bodies) the phenomenon - the process of departing
from the anthropological and axiological recognition of life of a Human, in
which he is constantly ‘persuaded’ to turn various disputes with nature, is
taking place. We live in a social reality (perhaps more media one) where all,
even the most extravagant, violating any aesthetic, extreme and deviant signs
and manifestations of evil reach customers faster than even the most ethical
and moral manifestations of human good.
In this case, it seems reasonable to say that at the beginning of the
second decade of the twenty-first century, the risk of meeting uncomfortable
situations, hard ones, threats to health and safety, assault or stigmatization,
exclusion, delay or mismatch to new rules, is incomparably higher than it
was two, three decades ago. The risk is all the greater because today, without
the propel moral signposts, it is easy to confuse ‘the path of happiness’ with
35
the proverbial ‘by-ways’. Therefore, the risk of meeting deviant behaviour,
and consequently falling into social pathologies, of becoming a victim or
an addict’s relative concerns almost everyone of us- but we do not know
when, who, how. What is more, in the state of increasing risk many classical
protective factors lose its power. Another important aspect is the economic
cost of old and new risks, which are presented below in relation to the drug
problem.
Table 1. The cost for treatment for drug addiction borne by the National
Health Fund (2004-2010)
Year
The cost expenditures
2004
54 017 159,78 PLN (~13.000.000 Euro)
2005
60 089 521,57 PLN
2006
62 199 614,84 PLN
2007
64 047 046,10 PLN
2008
79 121 702,12 PLN
2009
111 125 110 PLN
2010
111 281 201 PLN (~28.000.000 Euro)
Source: National Health Fund
The risk is present everywhere, and this fact also applies to the real world
and cyberspace. In these areas there are constantly born ‘shadows’, which
not only escalate the threat, but also more effectively they limit the ability
of people to determine clearly what is good and what is bad. ‘Shadows’ are
becoming part of our culture and have the following form:
• building consent to different types of deviant and off-specification
behaviour (e.g. creation of the myth of the ‘light marihuana’);
• postmodern distinctions and a different definition and evaluation of
non-normative acts committed by an ordinary citizen (reprehensible)
and by people from the world of celebrities (acceptable);
• expanding fields of discussions on morality and values towards their
reduction and redefinition.
It is also reasonable to say that in modern times which are given the
term ‘raging markets’, the man is crammed not only into the culture of
mass consumption but even more in the culture of presumption; constantly
stimulated with new models and designs; surprised at being constantly late
(with a one-year old phone, using an outdated model of a two-year old iPad,
having a one-year old dress, bag or a sweatshirt with now unfashionable
colour or logo). This is a man living in short intervals of change (a 12-15year old person does more activities per day than his or her adult parents),
sends daily dozens of emails, texts messages and information on the network,
he or she receives the same amount, spends on the network over four hours
a day (in extreme- more and more numerous cases even 7-8 hours a day),
does a few activities at a time, is convinced by tabloid and flashy media to
enjoy life to the full (he or she is involved in almost everything that his or
her adult parents), by which begins to get used to more and more ‘shades of
grey’- to what used to be forbidden and today becomes common, what was
considered to be medically harmful, and today ‘is used for greater efficiency
and effectiveness’. These problems, having a great impact on the future health
of today’s children and young people, are often underestimated. Let us add
to that a new space, which reveals more and more compulsive behaviour of
children and young people- cyberspace.
Polish and foreign research provide the basis for a thesis that the role of
digital media in the formation of various types of risk is not about having
access to them by young people, but it is about the superficial digital
media education; the lack of effective learning programmes of netiquette;
development of information overload as a result of a continuous functioning
of nervous system under the influence of digital technology. More and
more often young people collect the content to which they are not prepared
intellectually (knowledge) and emotionally, and their parents have very low
informative skills, and that is why in only few houses one can find modeling
for the new technologies. Yet, another problem is the strong stimulation by
the content (and their form) administered by digital technologies (such as
online games, computer games). The Internet is constantly expanding the
boundaries of knowledge and these in turn, as a result of pedagogical and
educational mistakes, are limitless.
In such set traps fall more and more people, especially young people, not
because they are bad, but because we, adults, lack the courage to speak the
truth about the need to live in harmony with nature, the natural abilities of the
body and the consequent reminder that freedom is not boundless space, but it
works with close connection with the law- obligation (duty).
37
The youth in the disturbed world1
It is therefore reasonable to say that in the above model of socio-economic
functioning. a larger group of people:
• learns new technologies without understanding their power;
• meets new spaces for which it is not prepared emotionally;
• becomes a victim of ‘being late’, for example not having money for
new iconic device or clothing;
• is focused on the external characteristics (visual), and not the inner
core values;
• can be excluded or marked by the effect of new divisions and shortcomings;
• becomes a victim of different types of violence.
As noted by Jan Papież, the danger of becoming the victim of one of the
forms of violence has become so great that it is experienced not only by
young people during adolescence, but also more and more by young children
(Papież, Płukis [ed.], 1998, p. 112). What is more, apart form being victims,
they become aggressors duplicating patterns from home, sometimes from
computer games, film idols or celebrities’ behaviour seen in the web. Hence,
the problem grows into one of the most important challenges of teaching and
education, and the question – how to stop children and youth aggression – is
one of the key ones.
In such a perspective, is it not reasonable to claim that this state is a result
of bad parenting, however more and more of lack of education?
This state- actually, this reality- induces one to seek answers to questions
concerning the leading risk factors, as well as those protecting from them,
especially if we think about young people who – as statistics show- are the
most important group of ‘consumers’ of different type of risk and problems.
Among the most current issues that we believe should raise the greatest
reflections of educational, medical, psychological, and above all moral nature
there are already several problems, and a few took on the character of socially
swollen.
1
The author’s views on the issue of risk in the modern world the Reader can find in
the work Młodzież w zaburzonym świecie – etiologia i konsekwencje zjawiska, Dąbrowa
Górnicza – Warszawa 2013.
Picture 2. The fastest growing disorders - addictions among Polish
youth
Reccurence of smoking among adolescents
A high proportion of Young pe ople regularly drinking alcohol
A high percentage of experimentation with marihuana
A nightlife of juveniles
Overuse of digital technologies- cyberdisorders
Overuse of contrast enhancers
Decreasing age of sexual initiation, sexual activity and contact with
pornography
Source: Own elaboration based on the subject literature and medical sources
Let us also indicate that the above risks are reflected in the medical and
police statistics as well as social studies, and their number (percentage of
population) exceeded the most popular until recently disorder – neurosis.
In numerous Polish and foreign studies we can find many other thesis –
verifiable by empirical data – related to other groups of risky and problematic
behaviour and family de-encapsulation (including the works of Polish Scienses
Lucyna Hurło, Jan Śledzianowski, Roman B. Sieroń, Sylwester Bębas, Andrzej
Gołębiowski, Marek Dziewiecki, Tadeusz Sakowicz, Mirosław Kowalski,
Czesław Cekiera) (see: Hurło 2012; Kałdon, Kurlak, 2002; Dziewiecki 2009;
Śledzianowski 1991, 1992; Pierzchała, Cekiera 2009), and also the problems
which young people in the process of education and socialization. We must
therefore wonder why young people having incomparable more educational
opportunities than before, better social and material conditions, being
involved in various activities of prevention, having school psychologists and
educators, with such a great power of hatred they attack different views, why
teenagers are capable of torturing their peers, why in protest against other
beliefs they are ready to burn TV cars and beat reporters, why they go to
matches of their favourite football team with machetes with their hands…
The number of such questions: where from, why, in the name of what, what
for – is growing.
39
Researchers of this issues point out to the new conditioning for criminal
offences and problematic behaviour, among which we should mention:
brutalization of public behaviour, including political discourse widely
presented in the media; turning up social emotions by negative information
transfer, in which a particularly shameful role is played by the tabloids; strong
emotions and impulses to stimulate teenagers; fostering consumer way of
life, especially the desire to possess goods constantly changing; changing the
functioning model of Polish families as a result of changes in the economic
model (reducing time with parent and children spent together - see: Kowalska
2010); processes related to a family disorganization, especially the rapid
growth in divorces.
There is no doubt that such types of risky behaviour, like addictions, are
a consequence of a particular condition, the result of complex occurrences
and processes that develop in a more or less evident way causing implications
with long-term (often lifelong) consequences. Their origins often lie in the
methods used by parents or relatives, the widespread presence of alcohol
in the ‘party’ life of a Polish family, exciting descriptions of extravagant
behaviour of celebrities and idols. Some of them can be predicted, diagnosed
and they have visible symptoms, others are surprising.
Conclusions
Numerous studies and publications are looking for an answer to the
question what are the primary circumstances for children and young people
resorting to psychoactive substances or making risky activities? What
follows the problem formed in this way is that there appear more questions
– about the causes and the course of the process of addiction (interference),
the key determinants of addictions, relationship between adolescence and an
increased risk of falling into problematic situations.
Researchers and practitioners point to environmental, biological and
psychological factors variously placing the key incentives for this type of
behaviour. However, there is substantial agreement on the fact that there
is one key factor causing such behaviour, as it would be difficult to create
a common path ‘for addictions’. Nevertheless, it is necessary to indicate that
all theoretical approaches to these issues are absolutely applicable only in
respect to the study area – often limited to a city, a neighbourhood, a small
region. Therefore, a clear impact on the common features of the initiation
and intensification of threats will be attributed to local cultural factors, legal
and organizational changes, an access to dangerous substances or activities.
Otherwise, the risk will grow in a Mazovian village, the nouveau riche
enclaves surrounding the capital or in the housing projects of great Silesia.
This diversity – with many common characteristics- is growing, and its image
is found in the practice of teaching:
• in wealthy, affluent urban families and in the territories of material
poverty surrounded by large metropolitan areas there is a growing
presence of growing risky sexual behaviour among children;
• in families where parents are involved in alcoholism and chase of
money we record more problems in relationship child – modern electronic multimedia;
• there is a stronger effect of taking after parents in terms of pathological and risky behaviour, especially in the areas of economic exclusion, in pathological families;
• overly strict and freedom upbringing promotes drug and alcohol experimentation.
At the same time the occurrences observed in some regions of Poland
become for them unique and distinctive, finding representation in the
generation of children as a form of social behaviour patterns.
We stress this specificity, as, observed with some surprise, attempts to
uncritically devolve into Polish ground full prevention diagnosis models from
other countries, without understanding the young people from there, with
many similarities, are profoundly different from ours. The obvious differences
can be seen already in a close perspective of Poland and Slovakia, Poland and
the Czech Republic, Poland and Russia, and in further perspective - Poland
and France. It seems that learning from the experience of other countries
is justified but when taking into account the obvious cultural differences,
religious and social systems of law.
The issues raised by the authors do not close the discussion on indicated
problems- they are rather a contribution opening them, Important thesis,
explanations, theoretical approaches on the issue we can find among sociologists,
for example in the works of Robert Merton, J. Coleman, L. Hendry, Howard
Becker, Czesław Cekiera, Maria Jarosz, as well as among the researchers
representing other fields or multidisciplinary research – Krystyna Chałas,
Ewa Wysocka, Iwona Niewiadomska, Bronisław Urban, Marek Dziewiecki,
Zbigniew Gaś. Also, it is non- accidental that in contemporary research on
the etiology and the course of risky behaviour one seeks their sources and
interactions emerging between them and the economic conditions, social and
living units (mainly poverty, as a stimulator of deviant behaviour, especially
addictions to psychoactive substances), cultural determinants (e.g. genuine
religiosity as a protective factor against the use of drugs and alcohol), models
41
of subculture activity (it has been proved that some subcultures can be the
stimulator of the first drug experiments, due to their subculture acceptance,
and often affirmation, the condition of the family and its structure, the level
of healthiness and health culture of the family and social environment, the
quality and the level of social life2.
In conclusion, it should be pointed that young people during the period
of adolescence have a high tendency to follow the patterns and behaviour of
people important to them, and mechanism of modeling and social learning
are basic models of copying certain social patterns. As part of this process
interiorization and internalization of norms and rules of conduct take place,
including those that may threaten mentally and/or physically. This also raises
an important conclusion that what is characteristic of the last 2-3 decades
is the increase in the scope and the impact force on young people’s popular
patterns with low aesthetic and cultural standards, that we can assign the
following features:
• a significant part of young generation functions in the strong influence
of pop culture icons, icons generally inaccessible, often different form
the actual behaviour of these people. A distorted image of the idol is
uncritically reproduced, and some of these patterns are simply obscurantist, vulgar, intellectually primitive;
• role models of celebrities and idols are characterized by taking extreme
attitudes, risky, exciting and extravagant;
• number of simple (often coarse) patterns of pop culture is growing
and is very variable (icons of pop culture, which is the result of the
powerful role of entertainment media, are constantly changing, and the
market promotes more and more eccentric characters).
2
A broader analysis of the problem that lead to deviant behaviour reflecting the social maladjustment or being socially harmful the Reader can find in the works such as:
H. Machel, K. Wszeborowski (red.), Psychospołeczne uwarunkowania zjawisk dewiacyjnych wśród młodzieży w okresie transformacji ustrojowej w Polsce, Gdańsk 1999; L.
Pytka, Pedagogika resocjalizacyjna, Warszawa 2005; T. Wach, Resocjalizacja nieletnich
sprawców gwałtownych czynów zabronionych, Lublin 2006; K. Pierzchała, Cz. Cekiera,
Człowiek a patologie społeczne, Toruń, 2009.
Picture 3. Potential risks in the next decade
(1) The increase in the number of teenagers diagnosed with cyberdisorders
(2) The growing number of people addicted to drugs and substitute substances
(3) Legalization of marihuana on other drugs and increase the supply of new drugs
(4) Health disorders as a result of the abuse of sugar and chemicals in food
(5) The growing phenomenon of pathological behaviour taken after parents
(6) The increase in the number of children growing up in single-parent families
(7) Transferring the effects of economic and financial crisis to the children
(8) New addictions – cyber addiction
Bibliography:
1. Bałandynowicz A., Pedagogiczne aspekty komunikowania w świecie
wirtualnym, [in:] S. Bębas, J. Pils, J. Bednarek (red.), Komunikacja
w cyberświecie, Wydawnictwo WSH.
2. Becker H.S., Outsiderzy. Studia z socjologii dewiacji, przeł. O. Siara,
Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2009.
3. Cekiera Cz., Ryzyko uzależnień, Wydawnictwo Naukowe KUL, Lublin
1985.
4. Cekiera Cz., Toksykomanie. Narkomania – lekomania – alkoholizm – nikotynizm, PZWL, Warszawa 2005.
5. Chałas K., Wychowanie ku wartościom. Elementy teorii i praktyki. Godność, wolność, odpowiedzialność, tolerancja, Wydawnictwo Jedność,
Lublin-Kielce 2003.
6. Coleman J., Hendry L.,The Nature of Adolescence, Routledge, London
1999.
7. Dziewiecki M., Kształtowanie postaw, Wydawnictwo AVE, Radom 1997.
8. Dziewiecki M., Nowoczesna profilaktyka uzależnień, Wydawnictwo Jedność, Kielce 2009.
9. Dziewiecki M., Pedagogika integralna, Wydawnictwo Sióstr Loretanek,
Warszawa 2010.
43
10. Hurło L., Przybysz-Zaremba M. (red.), Społeczno-pedagogiczne aspekty
życia rodziny, Wydawnictwo Prospekt PR, Olsztyn 2012.
11. Jarosz M., Transformacja tu i teraz, [in:] M. Jarosz (ed.), Wygrani i przegrani polskiej transformacji, Oficyna Naukowa, Instytut Studiów Politycznych PAN, Warszawa 2005.
12. Kałdon B., Kurlak I. (ed.), Człowiek w obliczu trudnej sytuacji życiowej,
Uniwersytet Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego, Warszawa – Sandomierz
2010.
13. Kawula S., Pedagogika społeczna. Dziś i jutro, Wydawnictwo Edukacyjne AKAPIT, Toruń 2012.
14. Kowalska E., Dziecko a „autorytet” w reklamie telewizyjnej, [in:] E. Kowalska, M. Kowalski (ed.), Reklama w społeczeństwie informacyjnym.
Konteksty społeczno-edukacyjne, Wydawnictwo Maternus Media, Tychy
2010.
15. Papież J., Płukis A. (ed.), Przemoc dzieci i młodzieży w perspektywie
polskiej transformacji ustrojowej, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń 1998.
16. Pierzchała K., Cekiera Cz., Człowiek a patologie społeczne, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2009.
17. Sołtysiak T., Resocjalizować, ale jak? W społeczeństwie ryzyka i nieustającego konsumeryzmu, wystąpienie na konferencji „Resocjalizacja
w środowisku otwartym – mit czy rzeczywistość?, Uniwersytet Mikołaja
Kopernika, Toruń, 22 listopada 2012 r.
18. Sołtysiak T., Sudar-Malukiewicz J. (ed.), Zjawiskowe formy patologii
społecznej oraz profilaktyka i resocjalizacja młodzieży, Akademia Bydgoska, Bydgoszcz 2003.
19. Śledzianowski J., Alkoholizm i inne zjawiska patologii społecznej, Wydawnictwo Michalineum, Warszawa 1991.
20. Śledzianowski J. (ed.), Forum trzeźwościowe – o młodych, dla młodych,
Wydawnictwo Rubikon, Kielce 1992.
21. Urban B. (ed.), Dewiacje wśród młodzieży, Wydawnictwo UJ, Kraków
2000.
22. Urban B., Zachowania dewiacyjne w założeniach symbolicznego interakcjonizmu. Implikacje dla praktyki resocjalizacyjnej, [in:] B. Urban,
J.M. Stanik (ed.), Resocjalizacja, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 2007.
23. Wysocka E., Dzieciństwo i młodość jako kategorie rozwojowe i społeczne, [in:] E. Wysocka, Dzieci i młodzież w niegościnnej rzeczywistości,
Wydawnictwo Akademickie Żak, Warszawa 2012.
The Profession of Social Pedagogue in Lithuania: Changes and Perspectives
Algimantas ŠIMAITIS, M.Ed.
Ministry of Education and Science, Klaipėdos University (Lithuania)
Sandra VALANTIEJIENĖ, M.S. Sc.
National Centre for Special Needs Education and Psychology (Lithuania)
The Profession
of Social Pedagogue in Lithuania:
Changes and Perspectives
Abstract:
The object of this article is the profession of social pedagogue in Lithuania
and its development after introduction of social pedagogues in Lithuanian
educational institutions since 1991’s. The objectives of the research is as
following: 1) to analyze changes of social pedagogue position in Lithuanian
schools from its appearance to the present day; 2) to overview provisions
of national legislation which regulates the work of social pedagogues in
educational institutions; 3) to provide and survey the demographic data of
Lithuanian social pedagogues who works in comprehensive educational
institutions. The research was based on both theoretical (analysis and
synthesis, systematic, comparative, historical methods) and empirical
(generalization of professional practice, analysis of statistical data)
research methods: The article consists of introduction, three chapters
and conclusions. Importance of the research article which is provided in
this article is justified by the fact that while various authors have analyzed
the practical work peculiarities of social pedagogues in Lithuania, no
detail analysis was given about transformations in legal regulation of
this profession and the statistical data which describes numbers of social
pedagogues and their socio-demographic characteristics. The completed
analysis leads to the conclusions that from 1990 to 1999, the social
pedagogue’s position was not fully integrated into the common educational
system. However the demand of social pedagogues is increasing and this
46 Algimantas Šimaitis, Sandra Valantiejienė
position is increasingly stated to gain ground in the educational system
of Lithuania, especially when the relevant legal basis for the operation of
social pedagogues was created (since yrs. 1999 – 2001).
Keywords:
social pedagogue, the comprehensive educational institution, social
pedagogical assistance.
Introduction
The political, economic and social changes in Lithuania after the
declaration of independence in 1990s were followed by the complicated
transition period, which caused a wide variety of social problems. New forms
of addiction, increased crime, social violence, new forms of abuse, neglect
has also emerged in recent years. The republic of Lithuania tried to solve these
social problems and strived to promote positive socialization of the child, to
ensure the proper conditions at each school and to provide social assistance in
schools. In this context the first positions of social pedagogues have appeared
in early in 1990’s. Their goal was to provide social and educational assistance
to the members of school community, to ensure a successful and effective
process of child education and to help eliminate the causes that interfere with
a student’s education (learning) process.
The first positions of social pedagogues were set up only at schools.
However, over the past two decades, the employment opportunities expanded.
Today, the positions of social pedagogues are being established not only at
schools, but also in the institutions of special education and care, various
centers that provide rehabilitation and resocialization for children, child
protection institutions, social welfare centers, and institutions of educational
management, orphanages, pedagogical psychological institutions, recreation
centers, colleges and higher schools.
The positions of social pedagogues are needed to carry out the following
main activities: assistance of social and educational help, organization
of social services, working with pupils that have learning and behavioral
difficulties, organization of preventive and project work, the classification
and spread of relevant information among school communities, pupils and
their parents.
The work peculiarities of social pedagogues in Lithuania were deeply
and widely described by such authors as G. Kvieskienė, V. Indrašienė,
I. Leliūgienė, S. Jonušaitė, V. Kučinskas, R Kučinskienė, O. Merfeldaitė
I. Klanienė and others. The process of solving social problems at school and
the role of social pedagogue in this process are also being analyzed by foreign
authors, for example, E. Anderson, K. Oxtoby, C. Cameron, J. Kornbeck,
W.A.C Stewart and others.
This article is based on the assessment of legislation regarding the
regulation of work of social pedagogues from 1999 to 2014. The statistical
data analysis was made according to the information system of the Ministry of
Education and Information Technology Centre of Education Management of
the Republic of Lithuania (http://svis.emokykla.lt/) for the period from 2009
to 2014. Also based on scientific articles and publications the assumptions
were examined regarding the appearance and formation of social pedagogue
positions and the trends of the training of these specialists in Lithuania.
The status of the positions of social pedagogues
in Lithuania until 2001
The concept of social pedagogy dates back to the days of German
educationists in the mid-1900s, such as Karl Mager and Adolph Diesterweg.
In the early decades of the 20th century, but especially since the 1920s, the
German educationist Herman Nohl interpreted social pedagogy in terms
of a theoretical framework for professional social work on the basis of the
hermeneutic philosophy of science (Hämäläinen, 2003, p. 69-70). So in some
European countries, especially in Germany, ideas of social pedagogy had
already been actively adopted in practice even before the Second World War.
In the interwar period in Lithuania (1918-1940), the conception of social
pedagogy as a science branch was also formed, as well as its basic concepts.
Lithuanian educators Šliupas, Šernas, Geniušas, Laužikas and others
theoretically and practically studied issues of pedagogy and social education.
A valuable contribution to the development of the theory of social development
can be attributed to Professor Šalkauskis, who spoke for the integration into
society on an equal basis. He suggested that the entire educational system of
pedagogy has to be based on social theory, called social pedagogy. His ideas
about human and social relations and interactions of public education and
human integration into the society are still valid today (Leliugienė, 2002, p.
22.). Lithuanian universities, where social workers were trained in, had a lot
of influence on the development of social pedagogy in Lithuania (Kvieskienė,
2002, p. 23).
However the occupation and incorporation of Lithuania into the USSR
in 1940’s has ruined the development of the national traditions of social
47
pedagogy. The revival of social pedagogy both in theory and in practice has
started only after the restoration of independence in 1990’s. In 1991, while
implementing the scientific experiment “School - residential district”, the
position of social pedagogue (social educator) was established for the first
time in two secondary schools in Lithuania. The aim of the project was to
take over the experience of social work and social pedagogy from Western
Europe, the U.S., Russia and practice of other countries, and also to establish
the institution of social pedagogue in Lithuania, which could integrate all
human resources and organizations the district for successful socialization of
children. In 1991, along with this experiment Lithuanian universities, started
to train social pedagogues (educators) and social workers (Leliugienė, 2002,
p. 29). First positions of social pedagogues were established in Lithuania
while implementing the Order No.198, May 29, 1990 of the Minister of
Education and Culture of Lithuania. The positions of social pedagogues were
established in Kėdainiai district Dotnuva Academy and Kaunas Palemonas
comprehensive schools. This was the basis for the further development of
social pedagogues in Lithuania.
Since 1990 til 1999 the position of the social pedagogue was not properly
integrated into the mainstream education system because of the novelty of the
position, and also because there were no specifically approved documents for
the preparation and regulation of work of social educators as well as social
pedagogues in the educational institutions. Only in 1999, the Minister of
Education approved the first temporary requirements for the social educator’s
qualification – “The sample description of the position of social educator”
as well as “A pilot project regarding the establishment of the position of
social pedagogues” which was approved and was carried out with the aim
to prepare for the establishment of a position of social pedagogue in various
types of educational institutions, and to evaluate the operating efficiency of
the social pedagogues. In the same year, a working group was created to
prepare normative documents and training standards of social educators in
different types of educational institutions.
In 1999, 79 social workers (pedagogues) worked in Lithuanian schools.
The research, which was conducted in 2000 by Pedagogical - psychological
center of Lithuania proved the fact that social pedagogues were needed to
a great extent in Lithuanian schools. The data showed that after the social
educators have started to work in educational institutions, the educational
and organizational work became systematic and a person appeared able to
consistently solve student’s problems appeared.
The positions of social pedagogues Lithuania
in 2001–2005
The public policy had a significant impact on the further appearance of
position of social pedagogues – this was due to the fact that youth socialization
programs and various prevention programs were widely organized after
2001. Many other factors contributed to this process as well. The positions of
social pedagogues in educational institutions were established in accordance
with the Resolution No. 471 of April 24, 2001, adopted by the Government
of Lithuania, where the Program (2001-2005) of establishment of positions
of certified social pedagogues in educational institutions was approved
(Official Gazette, 2001, No. 36-1220). This program became the component
of Lithuanian educational reform while preparing and implementing the
wider Government’s activity program (including the education policy
program) of the Republic of Lithuania for 2000-2004 (<http://www.lrvk.
lt/bylos/vyriausybes/po_1990_11_programa.pdf>). The current situation,
strategy, funding requirements and expected results, measures of program
performance based social needs for teachers in educational institutions have
been clearly set out in this program. The working group set by the Order
No. 46 of Minister of Education in 2001, January 16, began to coordinate
systematically the activities regarding the establishment social pedagogue
positions.
In order to guarantee children’s right to receive timely and effective social
assistance, support and protection, the Lithuanian Ministry of Education
on December 14, 2001, confirmed an Instruction for the position of social
educator, which provides the establishment of position of social pedagogues
in educational institutions and specifies their functions (Order No. 1667 of
the Minister of Education; Official Gazette, 2002, No. 24-896). According
to this Regulation, social educators (pedagogues) carry out the functions
of education, socialization, early prevention, emergency prevention and
rehabilitation programs. On this basis, the positions of social pedagogues
have been established in not only the institutions of comprehensive education
but also in special, boarding, youth, vocational schools, day care centers and
other institutions that provide social services and carry out the education
functions. On 4 October, 2001, by the Order No. 1687 of the Minister of
Education “The standard of professional training of social educator” (Official
Gazette, 2002, No. 101-4524) was also approved.
Eventually, work and functions of social pedagogues were detailed in
other legislation related to the activities of social education. For example,
“The provisions of general pedagogic aid” approved by the Order of the
49
Minister of Education of the Republic of Lithuania; June 15, 2004; No. ISAK
-941 (Official Gazette; 2004, No. 100-3729). These Provisions states that the
social educator provides socio-pedagogical support at school together with
class teacher, other teachers, administrators and other staff.
The positions of social pedagogues were especially actively established
and their number in educational institutions began to grow rapidly from
September 1, 2001. The aim was to strengthen the prevention of abuse of
psychoactive substances in the country and to organize preventive work
at schools with children, parents and institutions that ensure the rights of
children and social security guarantees, especially in the informal school
activities (see Figure 1).
Picture 1. The number of social pedagogue positions in Lithuania
In 2001, 169 positions of social pedagogues were financed from the
state budget. In 2002, the number was 371. At the same year, the need for
social pedagogues was investigated. The research showed that 80 percent
of schools would like to have social pedagogues. In 2003, 460 positions of
social pedagogues already were financed. In addition, the municipalities
established the positions of social pedagogues in their subordinate educational
institutions according to their financial capabilities and the current need for the
establishment of social pedagogues. For example, in 2001 - 2003 additional
200 positions were established from the municipal funds. In 2004 Lithuanian
schools employed 597 social pedagogues. At the same time it should be
noted that since 2004, the funds needed for social pedagogues positions
were included in the pupil’s basket (education voucher) as a special form of
education funding, and the costs for the establishment of social pedagogue
positions was completely taken over by municipalities from the state. Due
to these reforms, since 2005 the number of social pedagogues in Lithuanian
comprehensive education institutions increased to 900.
During this period (2001 - 2005) mainly women worked as school social
pedagogues, men accounted for only 3-4 per cent of the total number of social
pedagogues. Most social pedagogues in 2001-2005 worked in secondary
schools - 64 percent, 15 percent - in vocational schools, 6 percent – in lower
secondary schools, 5 percent – in high schools and special schools, 4 percent
- in youth schools.
It should be noted that according to the Order No. A1-291 (November 24,
2005) of Minister of Social Security and Labor “Regarding the approval of
measures that improve the work organization in orphanages”, the measures
were set up to alleviate the establishment new social pedagogue positions in
foster homes as well as retrain existing staff.
Positions of social pedagogues Lithuania from 2005
until present days
Since 2006, the number of social pedagogues stabilized and changed
very slightly. In 2006, the number of social workers was 1007, 60 of them
worked in professional schools. In 2010 the number of social educators
decreased slightly - schools employed 988 social workers, vocational training
institutions – 66, orphanages – 286. Since 2009, the social pedagogue position
was established in pedagogical and psychological institutions. In 2010, 17
social workers worked in these institutions, in 2014 the number increased
to 29. Since 2008, two or more social educators worked in some Lithuanian
schools.
In 2014, 33 percent of social educators working at schools had between
4 and 9 years of work experience in these positions, 29 percent had between
9 and 14 years of experience. 24 percent of the social educators accounted
for two groups of teachers - working in this position for up to 4 years and 15
years and over.
Since 2005, most of school social teachers were women, while men
accounted for only 3-4 per cent of the total number of teachers. Thus, this
trend continued throughout the period of establishment of social pedagogues
Lithuania.
According to the annually renewed data of Information Technology
Centre of Education Management of the Republic of Lithuania (http://svis.
emokykla.lt/) from 2011 to 2014, the number of social pedagogues with
expert qualification category doubled – and made 7 percent of all social
pedagogues, 16 percent of pedagogues had a qualification of methodologist
51
Total number of
social pedagogues
1 Social pedagogue
2 Social pedagogues
3 Social pedagogues
4 Social pedagogues
2008/2009
academic year
2009/2010
academic year
2010/2011
academic year
2011/2012
academic year
2012/2013
academic year
2013/2014
academic year
Top of Form
The number of
schools Bottom of
Form
Table 1. Change of social pedagogues
1415
973
442
86
7
3
1364
988
376
93
8
2
1321
1008
313
102
9
1
1309
1016
293
85
13
2
1242
1001
241
98
9
3
1208
1148
59
109
9
1
and 39 percent had a senior social pedagogue qualification category. However,
27 per cent of all social educators in 2014 were not certified (did not increase
qualification in their career and remained the pedagogical staff with the
lowest qualification).
To summarize the facts, which are mentioned above, it can be stated that the
demand of social pedagogues is increasing, and this position is increasingly
gaining ground in the educational system of Lithuania. Therefore, in the near
future, it is likely the position of social pedagogue will be established in
every educational institution and large educational institutions will have at
least two positions of social pedagogues.
Conclusions
1. Social pedagogues in Lithuania were prepared from the last decade of the
20th Century; however, their intense practical work at schools began only the
21st century (since 2001). The legal regulatory framework of their activities
was started to be formed in a more consistent way only from 1999.
2 At present, the position of the social pedagogue is successfully established
at schools. It should be noted that when social pedagogues have started to
work at educational institutions, education and organizational work took on
a systematic character: an employee appeared able to consistently absorb
social problems of the students and help solve them.
3. In Lithuanian schools, mostly women work as social educators
(pedagogues), men account for only 3-4 per cent of the total number of social
educators. This trend has remained unchanged over the examined period, in
which the establishment of the position of social pedagogues Lithuania was
surveyed.
4. From 1990 to 1999, the social educator position was not fully integrated
into the common educational system. The consistent tendency for an
increasing number of social pedagogues could be observed only since 2001
when legal documents regulating their activities were adopted, as well as
financing model of the position was changed (it is not directly financed from
the budget, but from pupil’s basket (using the system of education vouchers)).
However, since 2006 the number of social teachers in Lithuania changed
insignificantly.
5. From 2011 to 2014 a trend of increasing qualification of social
pedagogues can be observed - the number of social educators with expert
qualification category has doubled, 16 percent of social pedagogues in 2014
had a qualification of a methodologist, and 39 percent had a category and
qualification of senior social pedagogue.
Bibliography:
1. Leliugienė I., Socialinė pedagogika. Kaunas: Technologija, 2002.
2. Kvieskienė G., Socializacija ir vaiko gerovė. Vilnius: Vilniaus Pedagoginis Universitetas, 2003.
3. Hämäläinen J., The Concept of Social Pedagogy in the Field of Social
Work. Journal of Social Work 3(1): 69–80. London: Sage Publications,
2003.
4. ITC Švietimo valdymo informacinė sistema/Detalioji statistika registruotiems vartotojams < http://svis.emokykla.lt/>.
5. Lietuvos Respublikos Seimo 2000 m. lapkričio 9 d. nutarimas Nr. IX20 “Dėl Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2000-2004 metų programos”
<http://www.lrvk.lt/bylos/vyriausybes/po_1990_11_programa.pdf>.
6. Socialinių pedagogų etatų steigimo švietimo įstaigose 2001–2005
metų programa, patvirtinta Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2001 m.
balandžio 24 d. nutarimu Nr. 471 (Žin., 2001, Nr. 36-1220).
7. Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir kultūros ministro 1990 m. gegužės 28 d.
įsakymas Nr. 198.
53
8. Lietuvos Respublikos Švietimo ir mokslo ministro 1999 m. vasario 18 d.
įsakymu Nr. 180 patvirtinti Socialinio pedagogo laikinieji kvalifikaciniai
reikalavimai ir Pavyzdinės socialinio pedagogo pareiginės instrukcijos.
9. Lietuvos Respublikos Švietimo ir mokslo ministro 2001 m. sausio 16 d.
įsakymas Nr. 46.
10. Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministro 2001 m. gruodžio
14 d. įsakymas Nr. 1667 “Dėl socialinio pedagogo kvalifikacinių
reikalavimų ir pareiginių instrukcijų patvirtinimo” (Žin., 2002, Nr. 24896).
11. Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministro 2002 m. spalio 4 d.
įsakymas Nr. 1687„Dėl socialinio pedagogo rengimo standarto patvirtinimo“ (Žin., 2002, Nr. 101-4524).
12. Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministro 2004 m. birželio 15 d.
įsakymas Nr. ISAK-941 “Dėl bendrųjų socialinės pedagoginės pagalbos
teikimo nuostatų patvirtinimo” (Žin., 2003, Nr. 116-5290).
13. Lietuvos Respublikos socialinės apsaugos ir darbo ministro 2005 m. lapkričio 24 d. įsakymu Nr. A1-291 patvirtinti Vaikų globos namų darbo
organizavimo gerinimo priemonių planas ir Darbuotojų kvalifikacijos
priemonės.
Study Quality Concept of Students of Social Pedagogy
Gintautė ŽIBĖNIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Rita VIRBALIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Study Quality Concept of Students
of Social Pedagogy
Abstract:
The article presents the social pedagogy students’ conception of the
quality of studies. Students’ conception of the quality of studies is revealed
by analysing students’ opinions and is classified according to the excluded
categories: the study process, the study results, the study structure, the
study environment, material and methodological resources, teachers,
prestigious and popular institutions, studies and personal observations.
Students usually associate the quality of studies with the study process,
the study results. The research was organized in the fall of 2012 and 2013
with 71 first-year social pedagogy students: 37 from Mykolas Romeris
University, 20 from Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, 14
from Vilnius College. Students’ conception of the quality of studies is
revealed by analysing students’ opinions which is classified according
to the excluded categories: the study process, the study results, study
structure, study environment, material and methodological resources,
teachers, prestigious and popular institutions, studies and personal
observations. Students usually associate the qualitative studies with the
study process, the study results.
Key words:
students, conception of the qualitative studies.
56 Gintautė Žibėnienė, Rita Virbalienė
Introduction
Since 1999 during Bologna process changes in the quality of studies
assurance field have started and it has been agreed to monitor systematically
the quality of higher education status. At European level it is recommended
to conduct a systematic research concerning the opinion about the quality of
studies provided by the participants of the quality of studies assurance system
(including students) (Bologna beyond 2010). This European attitude is
reflected in the Law on the education and study of the Republic of Lithuania,
2009, 41, p 2. Not only education policy makers, but also scientists agree that
it is important to find out the opinion about the quality of studies provided by
the participants of the quality of studies assurance system (as it facilitates the
quality of studies improvement). In unison it is noted the research significance
on the students’ opinions about studies. A number of Lithuanian and foreign
scientists published a series of studies for students’ evaluation on the quality
of studies in higher schools. However, these researchesmostly focused on
the quality of studies assessment based on the questionnaire when students
estimate the proposed features and scale (like, really like, etc.). A number
of researches related to social pedagogy students’ opinion on the quality of
studies is limited. R. Saveljeva et al. (2011) studied the social pedagogues’
the training quality improvement by developing students’ professional
mission and career vision. D. Alifanovienė D. Jankauskaitė (2009) researched
the social pedagogy and social work students’ attitude on abilities training,
scope of study and subjects. G. Žibėnienė and J. Dudaitė (2012) studied
social pedagogy and social work students’ attitude on the motives for the
study choice, the importance of various parts of the quality of studies for
the students and the quality of studies in general. There is a lack of data
concerning the definition of the quality of studies by various students who
determine it in their own words and it is important to clarify it by asking the
first-year students what their associations original expectations are, and what
their associations with the quality of studies are. Therefore, the issue is that
there is no a clear view on first-year social pedagogy students’ conception
of the quality of studies. The object of the research is the first-year social
pedagogy students’ conception of the quality of studies. The aim is to expose
the first-year social pedagogy students’ conception of the quality of studies.
The research organization and ethics
The research was organized in the fall of 2012 and 2013 with 71 first-year
social pedagogy students: 37 from Mykolas Romeris University, 20 from
Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, 14 from Vilnius College.
There searchers applied conveniences amp ling techniques: selected students
were attending their lectures, i.e. first-year students studying social pedagogy
for the first 3 months. The research methods applied were following: literature
and document analysis, a survey of the first-year students with open and semiopen questions. The article presents open question responses which revealed
the students’ conception of a quality of studies. The method of data analysis
used was the qualitative content analysis. Determining the quality of studies
is analysed on the basis of traditional qualitative content analysis, carried out
multiple reading of students’ texts, systemisation, exclusion of categories.
The ethical aspect of the research to be mentioned is that there search was
carried out in accordance with the principle of voluntariness, in the students’
learning environment. The consent and authorization were received from
the researched students; the opportunity was given not to participate in the
survey.
The first-year social pedagogy students’ conception
of the quality of studies
Based on the students’ conceptions of the quality of studies, eight categories
were determined (see table 1). During the research period it was revealed that
most of the students associate the quality of studies with the study process (68)
and results (53). Only a few students (3) said that important methodological
and material resources are important.
Students’ conception of the quality of studies interfaces with study process
and results show the important aspects of recognizing the quality of studies.
For example, on the evaluation of the new study program, or on the evaluation
of the carried out study program strong focus is on the program objectives,
study outcomes clarity, matching a given qualification, study cycle, the labour
market needs and mutual harmony (Order No. V-23 on the methodological
requirements of the study program, 2013).
57
Table 1. Students‘conception of the quality of studies highlighted by the
categories and subcategories.
Category
Study process (68)
Study results (53)
Study structure (5)
Study environment (16)
Material and
methodological
resources (3)
Teachers (19)
Subcategory
Teaching (21)
Organization of study process (33)
Study process “beyond higher education school“ (9)
Study methods (5)
Acquired knowledge and skills (14)
Acquired professional knowledge (9)
Acquired relevant new knowledge (9)
Prepared a competent professional (7)
Acquired knowledge and / or skills related to the
adaptability for future activities (6)
Acquired skills (6)
General skills (2)
Job-related subjects(4)
Useful subjects (1)
Psychologically comfortable environment (15)
Promoting cooperation (1)
Material resources (2)
Methodological material (1)
Competent (10)
Tend to improve (2)
Loving their job (1)
Practitioners (1)
Responsible (1)
Communicating and cooperating (2)
Intellectuals (2)
Prestigiuos and popular
institutions and studies
(12)
Prestige of institution(5)
Study popularity (4)
Personal observations
(15)
Personal interests (11)
Personal comfort (3)
Prestigious study (3)
• Students’ conception of the quality of studies in association with
the study process and study results.
The Analysis for the conception of the qualitative studiesshowed that most
of them (65) associate it with the study process. By analysing the answers
where four subcategories were defined, where many of these students have
mentioned the organization of study process (42) and teaching (21).
Associating the concept of quality studies with the organization of study
process, a lot of students (11) distinguish the importance of practical training,
relations of task content to the future work context (... when the practical
training is dominating... “, “ ... the tasks associated with the future job... “).
More mature students (8) relate the quality of studies to the ability to grow
(“... allows the improvement... “, “... the study encourage for development...”).
Also it is important for them to participate in an interesting study process (5)
that focuses on creativity training (3) - “ ... interestingly organizes seminars
...”, “... is organized to foster creativity ... “. This link with the encouragement
to pursue an interesting learning process is referred to in scientific literature, in
such a process practical tasks associated with future professional activity are
implemented. Students talk about the importance of theoretical and practical
training harmony (4), well- planned activities during the study process (2) “... the theory and practice activities are associated ... “, “... a well -planned
activities ...”, which correspond to the general provisions of the teaching
process.
By naming teaching, the students emphasized the clarity (8) and interest
(8) - “...when teaching is clear ...”, “... interesting teaching ...”,as well as
visualization and quality of teaching. Also, students in defining the concept
of the quality of studies mention the study process “beyond higher school”
(9) highlighting an opportunity to study abroad, the organisation of study
process in the various environments. Fresh students (5) prelate study methods
to the quality of studies, mentioning interesting, effective, non-traditional
methods.
Students (14), defining a qualitative study mention both knowledge and
skills, therefore it can be assumed that these students have already acquired
a fair competence concept (table 2). Some students (7) relate the quality of
studies to the study results:”... prepared a good professional ...” “... a competent
professional ...”. However, the number of students underline knowledge
emphasizing its applicability, relevance, novelty (18):”... the latest news ...”,
“... relevant knowledge for labour market ...”, “... knowledge adapted to work
…”.Also students associate the quality of studies with the knowledge and /or
skills adaptability to practice, acquired skills.
59
Table 2. Students’ conception of the qualitative studies in association
with the study results
Category
Study
results
Subcategory
Supporting statements
Acquired knowledge and „... not only theoretical knowledge but
skills
also practice, experience ...”, „... relevant
knowledge and skills ...”
Acquired professional
„.... knowledge and information that is
knowledge
necessary for the work ...”, „... knowledge
adaptable to work ...”
Acquired relevant new
„... the latest news ...”, „... the latest
knowledge
information ...”, „... relevant to the labour
market knowledge ...”
Preparation of
„... prepared a good professional ...” „...
a competent professional a competent professional ...”
Acquired knowledge and „... knowledge needed for future work ...”, „...
/ or skills related to the
when knowledge
adaptability for future
can be tried and adapted to the work ... „
activities
Acquired skills
„... acquired skills ...”, „... the practical skills
...”, „... gaining practical skills, because
without it is difficult to find a job ...”
General skills
“…when we gain universal skills…”
• Students’ conception of the quality studies in association with different aspects
Besides, students besides associated their conception of the quality of
studies with teachers (19), learning environment (16), avariety of personal
observations (15), the institution’s and study prestige (12). Only a few
students associate the quality of studies with study structure (5). Students
frequently mention study process, but much more seldom the study structure,
thus it can be said that there are such results because many of them relate the
quality of studies to the study results. The quality of studies is associated with
material and methodological resources by the least number of students (3),
although the outside evaluators of the quality of studies pay great attention
to this attribute.
Teachers’ competence is an important part for the quality of studies
evaluation, as well as an important aspect of the quality of studies for the
students. Many students (10), referred to the competence of the teacher:”...
professional ...”, “... competent teachers ...”, “… when you can see that
really knows ...”.The study environment is an important condition for the
quality of studies (16), but it is associated with psychologically comfortable
environment (15), which is developed by the studies participants in the
process:”... a good teacher-student relationship ...”, “... a friendly relationship
...”, ... a good feeling, pleasant environment ...”, “.... when opinion is taking
into account...”, “... a friendly environment ...”. According to scientists’
observations „teachers‘ professionalism and authority help to create the
educational environment“.
Some students (12) think that the quality of studies is related to prestigious,
popular institutions and study: “...good name ...”, “... the famous program ...”,
“... known university …”... the popular studies...”. Whether the popularity of
the study means the quality, is a discussable question. However, the education
quality management methodological literature identifies the prestige, public
recognition as the quality of education features.
Also by naming the conception of the quality of studies students (15)
provided various personal observations related to personal interests (11) and
personal comfort (3). Personal interests of the students are subjective, for
some “... new connections...” are important, while others are in“... interesting
after-school activity ...”, “... meet the individual needs ...”, etc. Comfort
related to the quality of studies was described by the students as “...a flexible
schedule and study...”, “...close to home...”. Although often it is discussed
that high demand of graduates in the labour market could be a disclosure for
the quality of studies only one student associates the quality of studies with
this aspect (“...employment after graduation ...”).
Conclusions
Students’ opinion as a whole (including all students’ views) reveals the
full study quality concept. From all student’s summarized point of view the
quality of studies are associated with (under the categories) the study process,
the study results, the study structure, the study environment, material and
methodological resources, teachers, prestigious and popular institutions,
studies, personal observations. Under the categories the students mostly
link the quality of studies with the study process and the study results.
However, only a small number of students correctly perceive the content of
the study results, as part of the student focus on the knowledge’s and other
focus on skills only. Under subcategories there are the organisation of the
study process, teaching and psychologically comfortable environment. The
emphasis on teaching students, teaching description, not mentioning the
active role of student as an active participant in the process of learning can
be related with insufficient experience of studying the ideas of humanistic
education paradigm and reveals the importance of teaching students to learn
through constructivist ideas.
61
Suggestions
(1). For the Institutions of higher education in the internal evaluation of
the quality of studies it is recommended to focus on the monitoring of the
environment of the studies, on the investigation of this environment providing additional quality assessment criteria as for first-year students of social
pedagogy is especially important psychologically comfortably environment,
which they associate with quality of studies.
(2). In the preparation of social pedagogues it is recommended to organise more frequently the study process „beyond higher school” because the
relevance of this as the feature of high-quality studies have distinguished
the students themselves. Also learning process not only in the traditional environment enables a better understanding of professional features and conforms to the EU recommendations in improving the quality of studies. It is
also important to encourage students to apply in the process of studies the
ideas of constructivism and humanistic education.
Bibliography:
1. Alifanovienė, D., Jankauskaitė, D., The peculiarities of designing socioeducational study programmes at university type higher educational
institutions: students’ attitude. Teacher Education, 2009, vol. 12 Issue
1.
2. BOLOGNA beyond 2010. Report on the development of the European
Higher Education Area, 2010. [accessed 2013-03-01]. <http://www.
ehea.info/Uploads/Irina/Bologna%20beyond%202010.pdf>.
3. Order No. V-23 of study programme methodic requirements, Quality
Assessment Director of the Centre in 22 of April, 2013 (Official Gazette,
2013, No. 49-2469);
4. Republic of Lithuania law on Higher education and research, 30 April
2009, No. XI-242,
5. Saveljeva, R. et. al., Socialinių pedagogų rengimo kokybės gerinimas
plėtojant studijuojančiųjų profesinį pašaukimą ir karjeros viziją. Tiltai,
2011, vol. 56, issue 3.
6. Žibėnienė, G.; Dudaitė, J., Study quality concept: the first course student
approach, Societal innovations for global growth: research papers.
Vilnius, 2012, No. 1(1).
Professional Self-development of Social Pedagogues: Lithuanian Case
Odeta MERFELDAITĖ Assoc. prof. Dr.
Jolanta PIVORIENĖ Assoc. prof. Dr.
Valdonė INDRAŠIENĖ Prof. Dr.
Professional Self-development
of Social Pedagogues: Lithuanian Case
Abstract:
The article presents qualitative research data the goal of which was
to investigate peculiarities of social pedagogues’ professional selfdevelopment. Three specific objectives were defined: to find out what
the main aims of professional development of social pedagogues are; to
investigate methods of professional development of social pedagogues;
and to analyse the results of professional development of social
pedagogues. Qualitative research using semi-structured interviewing was
done at schools. Using non-random sampling, 29 social pedagogues were
selected and participated in the research. The main selection criteria were
based on supposition that a social pedagogue should have more than five
years’ professional experience. Interviews were recorded, transcribed and
analysed using the method of content analysis by forming categories and
subcategories.
The research data shows that discovering professional meaning and
development of professional skills are the most important aims of
professional development. Most often, the mentioned self-development
methods are reading scientific literature, qualification seminars, surfing
the Internet, and communication with colleagues. Research participants
claimed that self-development helps to improve personal and professional
relations and increase work motivation, and provides self-assuredness in
difficult situations.
64 Odeta Merfeldaitė, Jolanta Pivorienė, Valdonė Indrašienė
Key words:
professional self-development; aims, methods and results of selfdevelopment.
Introduction
Education is a process during which uniqueness of every person is revealed
and highly valued characteristics like responsibility, creativity, solidity
are stimulated (Mackevičius, Subačienė, 2008). In other words, education
promotes positive development of personality. In modern knowledge society,
education, learning and self-development become important factors. Constant
changes in society require lifelong learning. Social pedagogy is an integral
profession which requires diverse abilities, skills and competences, which
could be achieved by self-development – a constant perfection of personal
and professional life. According to Kuzminkiene (2005), self-development
is one of the most important prerequisites for a social pedagogue who wants
to integrate and stay in labour market (see Przybysz-Zaremba, 2011, pp.
263-273). Only the social pedagogues who are in constant development and
leaning and who know themselves well can support people in solving their
problems. According to Lifelong learning memorandum (2001), everyone
should learn how to learn, to adjust to changes, and to use information (see
Przybysz-Zaremba, 2006, pp. 383-389).
The EU in its Strategy EU2020 raised a goal to implement lifelong
learning and mobility. In the Lithuanian National Strategy of Education
2013-2022, the development for lifelong learning is emphasised, more
specifically, it states, that it is important: to assess person’s creative abilities
and, based on that, to help her/him to acquire competences or qualifications
which correspond to the cultural and technological level of society and to
integrate and compete successfully in the changing labour market; to create
environment for satisfying learning needs and lifelong development. The
future vision of the society is defined in Strategy “Lithuania 2030”– it is an
active, cohesive and learning society. Learning society is a society in which
every person learns during all his/her life: constantly updates knowledge and
skills which correspond to changing circumstances and future challenges.
Learning is the main value and activity of such society. Not only persons,
but also organizations are learning. Learning and qualification development
is useful both to individual and to organization. On the organizational
level, it promotes rising of motivation, increases flexibility, and ensures the
required level of employers qualification. On the individual level, it helps
to find different ways of problem solutions, increases value of the work and
labour productivity, supports self-confidence of the worker, provides better
career perspectives and forms a better organizational climate (Baršauskienė,
Guščinskienė, 2003).
In the paradigm, when education is a priority, big attention is paid to
organizing of adult learning. In the paradigm, when learner’s responsibility in
learning is a priority, the person, his/her motivation, the ability to search for
learning possibilities and their using is emphasised (Linkaitytė, Žilinskaitė,
Lapėnienė, 2011).
Zuzevičiūtė (2006) defines three sources of learning needs: personal,
social and socioeconomic. During economic changes the importance of
knowledge and information for managing these changes was understood and
education was related with economy (Edwards, Usher, 2001). According
to Linkaitytė, Žilinskaitė, Lapėnienė (2011), the economic sector plays the
main role in development and implementation of lifelong learning strategies
and in defining what competences and skills the education system should
develop. It means that not only an individual should adjust to educational
institutions, but educational institutions should adjust to individual as well.
On the other hand, it means that education and social welfare is responsibility
of both – state and individual. Psychosocial, cultural, political challenges
are an inseparable part of everyday life. Therefore, opportunities for adults’
education, learning motivation, rising challenges should be investigated and
analysed in order to provide quality educational services corresponding to
labour market and society’s needs (Trakšelis, 2012).
The first Lithuanian authors who investigated the self-development
phenomenon are Jovaiša (2003), Bitinas (2004), Spurga (1998, 1999). They
wrote about schoolchildren’s self-development and also researched the
phenomenon from pedagogical point of view. Baublienė (2003), Kardelis
(2005) analysed peculiarities of physical self-development. Possibilities
for self-development in lifelong learning were researched by Zuzevičiūtė
(2008), Teresevičienė (2008). Self-development of volunteers was analysed
by Jonutytė, Rekis (2009). Some research was done on self-development
of pedagogues by Vaivada, Blinstrubas, Mockevičienė (2012), Survutaitė,
Žalytė (2006), Šliogerienė, Burkšaitienė (2010), Aleksandravičius, Žukovskis
(2012), Indrašienė, Kolbergytė (2013). However, this topic lacks researchers’
attention, comprehensive research and an in-depth analysis which would
reveal possibilities for self-development and its importance to the process
of social educational support. Therefore, it is relevant to formulate the
research question as what are social pedagogues’ aims, methods and results
of professional self-development?
65
The research object is self-development of social pedagogues.
The research goal is to investigate peculiarities of social pedagogues’
professional self-development.
The research aims:
(1) To find out what the main aims of professional development of social
pedagogues are.
(2) To investigate methods of professional development of social
pedagogues.
(3) To analyse the results of professional development of social
pedagogues.
(4) The research method. Qualitative research using semi structured
interviewing was done at schools. Using non-random sampling, 29
social pedagogues were selected and participated in the research.
The main selection criterion was based on the premise that a social
pedagogue should have more than five years’ professional experience.
The interviews were recorded, transcribed and analysed using content
analysis by forming categories and subcategories.
The aims of professional self-development
Based on research data such aims of professional self-development could
be defined:
• Discovering of professional meaning: “I want somehow to understand
better society’s need for my professional activity, its benefit”; “I have
a strange aim, it is more like a wish – to disseminate more widely the
importance of social pedagogy”.
• Development of specific skills: “I would like to learn working well
with documentation (…). I have to learn organizing and leading”; “My
aim is to know as much as possible what is related directly with my job,
to know legal acts and documentation well, to deepen psychological
knowledge, that I could feel more confident, strong and expert in my
work”.
• Individual consulting: “I am always interested and want to improve in
individual consulting”; “I just need to learn consulting”.
In summary, research participants raise different aims of self-development.
There is no one prevailing aim; however, the most often mentioned aims
of professional development are discovering professional meaning and
developing professional skills.
Methods of professional self-development
Research data shows that social pedagogues use different methods for
self-development.
One of the most often mentioned method is communication with colleagues.
Research participants emphasised good relations with colleagues, received
support from them.
“The best way in professional sphere is colleagues’ help and experience, it
is an invaluable gift that you can openly discuss with them, and they are real
support. When I want to learn something in this work, I ask colleagues, who
always generously help me”.
“I learn a lot from my colleagues, and from my organization, and from
others. I could say that cooperation with colleagues is the most strengthening
thing”.
Another method of self-development is conferences and courses. There
is a contradiction in participants’ opinions: some claim that it is obligatory,
others believe that it is a pleasant activity.
“(…) there are such methods at work like different conferences, lectures,
courses. They are more kind of obligatory”.
“If there is a possibility I always participate in seminars, trainings, for
example on conflict management or consultancy”.
The Internet becomes a common way to develop professional competences.
Research participants say that they search for answers in it more and more
often.
“I look for information connected to work on Internet. And when a client
asks for something or for support, the Internet helps, you can’t know
everything”.
“I search the Internet most often”.
Research participants emphasised that most knowledge and skills are
acquired through practice.
“You learn the most while working”.
“Every day work with people improves your skills”.
Reading of professional literature (“I constantly try to focus novelties – to
read professional books”), self-reflection (“Self-reflection helps to improve
professional skills, I understand what characteristics I lack as a professional,
what I need to learn”) and inter-visions (“I have inter-visions at work, we
discuss cases. It helps me very much in conflict situations; I find new ways of
its solving”) were mentioned rarely, but when mentioned they were referred
to as very effective methods helping to recognise appropriate or inappropriate
behaviours at work, to receive new necessary information.
67
In summary, research participants named various methods of selfdevelopment; however, only few from these which are defined in scientific
literature. It could be assumed that the understanding of self-development
methods is narrow; participants lack information about them. The most
common methods include reading scientific literatures, qualification seminars,
surfing the Internet, and communication with colleagues.Other methods,
like auto-suggestion, self-critique, self-regulation, self-discipline and others
which are defined in scientific literature are unknown for interviewed social
pedagogues.
Results of professional self-development
Self-development brings positive changes in all spheres of life. The
research data shows these results of self-development:
• Fullness of life: “Shortly, it helps to live fully, to enjoy the life. This is the
most important what you can get from self-development”; “It is needed
for meaningful, valuable life. A personality either moves forward, grows,
develops, or degrades, becomes part of the grey mass”.
• Better relation with others and self: “The relations with others became
easier, because self-development helps to understand yourself better,
to accept yourself, then it becomes easier with others”; “it helps to
accept yourself, and that helps to communicate with others, it helps to
understand that there are things which you don’t like but you couldn’t
change. It helps to accept other as s/he is”.
• Self- awareness: “For me it is a possibility to know myself, to discover
my needs; self- development directs where to go. It helps to understand
self and the life, helps to answer many questions”; “Self-development
helped me to know myself and to accept as I am. It is easier to live
when you are friend with yourself, because you can’t run away from
yourself”.
• Calmness: “It gives me calm, self-understanding and this diminishes
stress”; “It helps to calm down, to look at everything calmer”.
• Motivation to work: “It helps to discover your work anew, to work with
new passion”; “In general self-development increases motivation to
work”.
In summary, it could be said that self-development is valuable in
professional life. According to the research data, it brings fullness and
calmness in life, makes better relations with others and self, raises selfawareness and motivates to work.
Conclusions
(1) Social pedagogues raise different aims of self-development which
help them to develop as professionals. Discovering professional meaning and
development of professional skills are the most important aims according to
research data.
(2) Understanding of self-development methods is narrow, research
participants lack information about them. Most often the methods include
reading scientific literature, participation in qualification seminars, surfing
the Internet, communication with colleagues. Other methods, like autosuggestion, self-critique, self-regulation, self-discipline and others named
out till forty?? in scientific literature are unknown for social pedagogues.
(3) All research participants agree that self-development is an important
process in their life. They agree that self-development helps to improve
personal and professional relations, increase motivation to work, provides
calmness in difficult situations.
Bibliography:
1. Aleksandravičiaus A., Žukovskis J., Kaimo bendruomenių raida ir jų
veiklos tikslai: siekiant darnumo visuomenėje, < www.vadyba.asu.lt>,
2012.
2. Baršauskienė V., Guščinskienė J., Nuolatinio mokymosi vaidmuo
kintančioje visuomenėje, Vilnius, 2003.
3. Baublienė R., Asmenybės raida ir nuolatinė saviugda: metodinė
priemonė, Kaunas, 2003.
4. Bitinas B., Hodegetika: auklėjimo teorija ir technologija, Vilnius, 2004.
5. Edwards R., Usher R., Lifelong learning: a postmodern condition of
education, Adult education quarterly, Vol. 51 (4), 2001.
6. Indrašienė V., Kolbergytė A., Saviugdos formavimosi kontekstas,
Socialinis darbas, 2013, 12(1).
7. Jonutytė I., Rekis D., 14-18 metų savanorių saviugdos galimybės
nevyriausybinėse organizacijose, Socialinis ugdymas, 2009.
8. Jovaiša L., Hodegetika: auklėjimo mokslas, Vilnius, 2003.
9. Kardelis K., Mokslinių tyrimų metodologija ir metodai, Šiauliai, 2005.
10. Kuzminskienė K. (2005), Pradinių klasių mokytojų pedagoginės
saviugdos ypatumai: magistro baigiamasis darbas, Socialiniai mokslai,
Edukologija, Vilnius: VPU, 2005.
11. Linkaitytė G. M., Žilinskaitė L., Lapėnienė A., Andragogikos studija:
teorijos ir praktikos dermės paieškos, Klaipėda, 2011.
69
12. Mackevičius J., Subačienė R., Darbuotojų profesinio ugdymo sąnaudos
ir jų valdymas, Informacijos mokslai, Vilnius, 2008.
13. Mokymosi visą gyvenimą memorandumas, <www.lssa.smm.lt/docs/
Memorandumas_2001.doc>, [2012.02.28]
14. Przybysz-Zaremba M., Praca oraz edukacja – najważniejsze wartości
współczesnego człowieka. Rozważania teoretyczne, [in:] Płaszczyzny
współpracy szkoły ze środowiskiem lokalnym, (red.) L. Hurło,
Wydawnictwo Magnus, Łódź 2011.
15. Przybysz-Zaremba M., E-learning – nowa forma edukacji, [in:]
Definiowanie McLuhana. Media a perspektywy rozwoju rzeczywistości
wirtualnej (red.) M. Sokołowski, Wydawnictwo „ALGRAF”, Olsztyn,
2006.
16. Šliogerienė J., Burkšaitienė N., Neformaliojo ir savaiminio mokymosi
pasiekimų vertinimas ir pripažinimas universitete. Vilnius, 2010.
17. Spurga V., Saviugdos metodai, Vilnius, 1998
18. Spurga V., Saviugdos pagrindai, Vilnius: Lietuvos etinės kultūros
draugija “Ethos”, 1999.
19. Survutaitė D., Žalytė A., Pradinį ugdymą studijuojančių pedagoginė
saviugda, Pedagogika, T 84, Vilnius, 2006
20. The EU 2020 strategy: analysis and perspectives, < http://www.
europe2020.org/>
21. Trakšelis K., Suaugusiųjų švietimo kaitos tendencijos Lietuvoje
(Sociologinis aspektas), Klaipėda, 2012, <http://vddb.laba.lt/fedora/
get/LT-eLABa-0001:J.04~2012~ISSN_1648-8776.N_4_37.PG_88-92/
DS.002.0.01.ARTIC>, [213 – 10 – 20].
22. Vaivada S., Blinstrubas A., Mockevičienė D., Skirtingų lygių asmeninių
žinių fenomenai asmenybės dimensijose: asmenybės saviugdos kontekstas.
Jaunųjų mokslininkų darbai 3 (1), Vilnius, 2012, p. 255-266
23. Valstybės pažangos strategija „Lietuva 2030“, Valstybės žinios, 201205-30, Nr. 61-3050.
24. Valstybinė švietimo 2013–2022 metų strategija: tikslai, problemos,
tobulinimo kryptys, 2012, <http://www.nmva.smm.lt/wp-content/
uploads/2012/12/svietimo-strategija.pdf>, [2013 – 10 – 20].
25. Zuzevičiūtė V., Teresevičienė M. Suaugusiųjų mokymasis. Andragoginės
veiklos perspekyva. Scientific study, Kaunas, 2008
Monitoring as a Part of Management Process
Romas PRAKAPAS Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Leta DROMANTIENĖ Prof. Dr.
Dalia PRAKAPIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr.
The General Jonas Žemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania (Lithuania)
Monitoring
as a Part of Management Process
Abstract:
This article presents the results of the study organized on the basis of STEBIS
methodology which reveal the interdisciplinary possibilities of monitoring
as a part of management process while working on behavior modification
of social pedagogical nature. In the article the monitoring as a part of
management process is presented in the context of the science of education:
as a component of social education and a means of behavioral diagnosis.
Keywords:
monitoring, behavior modification,children of risk group.
Introduction
Monitoring in the scientific literature is presented as atypical part of
management process. Representatives of management science claim that
in order to justify managerial decisions, evaluate the results, changes, etc.
monitoring should be carried out (Chlivickas, 2010). In the twenty-first
century the inter-disciplinarity of research (Vilnius Declaration, 2013)
provides an opportunity to take a look at expertise of different sciences in
order to be more efficient and in this particular case, to take a look at social
pedagogy in terms of educational goals for behavior modification.
72 Romas Prakapas, Leta Dromantienė, Dalia Prakapienė
Pedagogical correction presupposes monitoring system as personalization
of social education. Monitoring is seen as a system of social, educational,
psychological, legal, medical measures in order to forestall children and
adolescents from committing offenses, and to show a special concern for those
who are already violating the law. This is primarily related to prevention in
a narrow sense, i.e. individual work with children who are already violating
the norms of behavior. The goal of such prevention is to stop the child or
adolescent from developing a tendency to violate behavior and law norms, to
ensure that his/her behavior would not become delinquent. Research shows
that single measures have never given positive results (Prakapas, 2003); thus,
monitoring as a part of behavior modification allows not only to evaluate, but
also to predict the potential behavior. This in turn creates preconditions to find
more effective opportunities to prevent law violations and crimes. Adequate,
timely and objective information allows analyzing the current situation in
detail, making reasonable assumptions; there is less subjectivity. Information
about violations and crimes by children should be received in time.
However, data collectionis notan end in itself; it is used to assess, analyze,
predict, and identifythe changes of the effect. Even preliminary assessment
of information helps to differentiate educational work with minors, who tend
to commit offenses, more operatively, and to foresee appropriate risk factors.
A more thorough analysis of the data is especially needed to start individual
educational work with the child of risk group while planning and organizing
the preventive work with him/her at the educational institution.
The problem is the application of monitoring while working on behavior
modification of social pedagogical nature.
The object is the education of childrenof risk group.
The aim-to describe the possibilities the application of monitoring have in
behavior modification.
The methods: monitoring the behavior of children of risk group.The study
was conducted in 2012-2013 in four counties of Lithuania (Alytus, Panevėžys,
Utena and Vilnius) in 10 educational institutions of different types and in two
sub-districts. In these institutions the monitoring of negative child behavior
was carried out according to STEBIS methodology (Bitinas, Prakapas,
Satkauskas, 2007) during two weeks’ time. Informationis compiled on the
basis of the following principles: continuity, sufficient minimum, complexity,
individualization, expediency.
Monitoring as a Component of Social Education
Monitoring is seen as a specifically and purposefully organized cognitive
process which allows improving organization of social pedagogical work
with children and collection of relevant information. Monitoring can be used
to improve specific individual educational activity. It can also help to pursue
two major objectives:
• to obtain statistical data on children’s and adolescents’ offenses; to
pinpoint the most pressing behavioral problems of children and adolescents;
• To draw attention to the so-called “difficult” children and adolescents
whose behavior demonstrates that there is a risk that they may become law offenders.
Pursuing the above mentioned objectives is directly related to the
appropriate and purposeful joint activities by a teacher and the children and
is meant to develop and improve personality.
Education is an active, purposefully organized formation of person’s
individuality. It is, to some extent, determined by the social environment.
Personalization of social education gets an important role in this process
which is facilitated by systematically gathering information. Itis one of the
means to optimize social education. It is known that effective social education
is possible only when the immediate social environment, where a particular
child or adolescent educates and is educated, is thoroughly analyzed; that is
where real possibilities of measures are specified (see: Leliūgienė, 2003).
Only knowing person’s immediate social environment, which directly affects
his/her development, is possible to predict theformativeprocess.
Children’s Behavioral Diagnosis
Monitoring makes fundamental assumptions of systemic and individual
psycho-pedagogical and socio-pedagogical work with children of risk
group.This work is done by gathering important information, noting the key
objectives, methods, measures, results of individual psycho-pedagogical
and socio-pedagogical work. Various studies (see: Malinauskaitė, 2010;
Nasvytienė, Lazdauskas, Leonavičienė 2012, etc.) confirm the main opinion of
different professionals, who work with children of risk group, that prevention
is effective in most cases when there are three steps, i.e.:
• when adequate measuresare used to solve social problems, a constant
analysis of their occurrence is carried out and there is timely prevention;
73
• when solving primary problems of emotional, spiritual, physical, social andhealth nature is of great importance;
• When the help among professionals of various fields of science and
practice is coordinated in order to solve urgent and important issues.
Analyzing and applying the above mentioned steps, the gathered
information becomes of great help, especially dealing with the daily work
and solving issues of confidence, improving the ability to develop meaningful
relationships with peers and adults, introducing them to the idea of finding
acceptable and individual lifestyle, taking care of them overcoming social
problems and rejecting dubious values.
While doing psycho-pedagogical work with children of risk group through
monitoring, attention must be paid to the following three groups of behavior:
(1) children who violate the norms of behavior episodically; (2) children who
violate the norms systematically; (3) delinquent children.
This grouping is presupposed by one of the aims of preventive work with
children of risk group, i.e. to work individually with them, particularly with
those children who tend to offend and commit crimes, constantly monitoring
the efficiency of work. Therefore, while individually working with such
children, there are two possible strategies of preventive work: precautionary
and rehabilitative. Monitoring allows an objective assessment of the learners’
behavior dynamics. This in turn allows the educator to examine more closely
concerning situations, distinguishing behavioral trends and predicting their
expression.
The Prospects of Children’s Behavior Modification
through Monitoring
In order to get quality research, it is necessary to draw attention to the
improvement of psycho pedagogical correction of the above mentioned
groups when the children’s goals of personalized learning are taken into
consideration. To achieve these goals individually working with children of risk
group through monitoring, particular circumstances and psycho pedagogical
assumptions (e.g. the educational potential of social environment, good will,
fostering success situations, learning, etc.) are of great importance.
In scientific literature (see: Prakapas, 2003; Bitinas, Prakapas, Satkauskas,
2007 and others) it is stated that the aspirations of pedagogical correction are
determined by a better understanding the child’s behavior and his/her life story
and actions; the perception of psychological age, life stages, characteristics
of gender, child’s personality as a whole; the cognition of the development
of his/her social competence; taking into account the specificity of the child’s
situation, his/her social status in the family, at school and in the society; the
respect of the child’s dignity and honor, etc.
In the light of these theoretical assumptions, the study was carried out
on the basis of STEBIS methodology. During the two weeks of monitoring,
a total of 327 instances of negative behavior were recorded, which were
put into groups related to: (1) substance dependence (16%), (2) aggression
(13%), (3) delinquency (7%), (4) egression (38%), and (5) other kinds of
behavior (26%).
The above mentioned acts were perpetrated by 141 children (107 boys and
34 girls), 60.28% of them lived in families of social risk (according to the
assessment by social educators and social workers of researched institutions).
The largest group (39%) consisted of children studying in 7-8th grades at
secondary schools whereas the smallest (8%) - students of primary schools.
Fixating children’s negative acts, specialists not only recorded them, but
also tried to choose proper measures of pedagogical approach (activation of
the family, micro-social environment and learners’ community; activation of
personal resources; psychosocial rehabilitation; training socially significant
behavior; organization of activities alternative to delinquent one; penalties
and prohibitions; medical assistance; promotion of healthy lifestyle). This
individualization of socio-pedagogical activity allowed to relatively grouping
all the children of risk group, to analyze and optimize the measures of their
pedagogical approach.
The data of the study shows that measures most often selected by the
specialists are activation of the family (43%), activation of personal resources
(23%) and penalties and prohibitions (19%). It was later found out in the study
that special and constant attention to the face-to-face conversations with the
child or his/her family does not produce any results. As social educators and
social workers later said that only during monitoring they realized that they
often use some measures without thinking about their effectiveness.
Analyzing the data of the study, all children were divided into three groups
(those who violate the norms of behavior episodically, those who violate them
systematically and delinquents). It was found that those children who violate
the norms of behavior episodically often do not realize that when they commit
offenses this might lead to them having serious problems. Their offenses
often depend on the situation and are barely noticeable. Offenses are often
a result of particular circumstances, the inadequate response to children’s
behavior, its expression, and the differences between educational and child’s
goals. The moral position of children from this group is not firmly formed
yet. They are not affected yet by antisocial activities or neglected in terms
75
of education. Children who violate the norms of behavior episodically often
only need a sincere and impressive conversation with him/her, the parents
or legal guardians, peers (i.e., the traditional pedagogical measures applied
working with children) so that they themselves would decide to behave well,
to control their behavior.
Transgressions of children who violate the norms of behavior systematically
are not always associated with offenses, but they very easily and quickly can
become crimes (without considering the physical, mental or other harm to
himself/herself, being drunk the teenager can attack and injure others; not
having any or enough money he/she can decide to steal, etc). The analysis of
the data shows that children who systematically violate the norms of behavior
usually: do not do their homework, interaction with adults is insolent, they
smoke, use physical force, abuse weaker children, and avoid attending school.
In most cases, they ignore what adults demand from them. Their behavior
is characterized by instability because many researched children have no
acceptable interests and spiritual expectations. In the scientific literature, it
is mentioned that working with children from this group attention should be
paid to the interactive educational activities (e.g. games, simulations, etc.) or
to specialized activities which are often used working with delinquents (e.g.
therapies of art and behavior, logo therapy, psychodrama).
A more complicated situation is with delinquent children because they have
already violated the law or committed crimes. Remedial work with delinquents
is particularly challenging because often it results in solving problems of
a particular child with the help from police and child protection workers. The
complexity of this work is due to many external and internal psychological
reasons of child’s development. Individual work with delinquents is limiting
when it is impossible to reconcile the objectives and actions. Remedial work
with children from this group is not limited to the measures of direct effect.
This work becomes more personalized and individual, influencing education
more when it is received in the family and class and at the same time specialists
work not only with the child of risk group, but also with his family and his/her
teachers, i.e. social environment in an attempt to overcome the psychological
and social barriers that hinder social activities of the child.
Conclusion
Summarizing the potential of improving psycho pedagogical work with
children of risk group, it could be stated that their behavior can be understood
only when the process of its formation is clear, after familiarizing with what
the children’s life and education are like, analyzing the history of the change
of their behavior. Individual work seeks that the child would not be exposed
to stress which could lead to unnecessary anxiety, hatred, wish to prove his/
her righteousness. Although children violating norms constantly because
problems, they should not feel offended humiliated, rejected. It is necessary
that people around them became more pleasant and nicer. This is an essential
prerequisite for the learners to restore inner balance and feel happy.
Bibliography:
1. Bitinas B., Prakapas R., Satkauskas V., Vaikų elgsenos stebėsenos programa STEBIS. Vilnius: Lietuvos demokratiškumo ugdymo kolegija,
2007.
2. Chlivickas E., Valdymo sistemos modernizavimas: žmogiškųjų išteklių
potencialo plėtra. Public Administration, 1/2(25/26), 2010.
3. Leliūgienė I., Socialinė pedagogika. Kaunas: Technologija, 2010.
4. Malinauskaitė A., Elgesio sutrikimų prevencija skatinant socialines ir
emocines kompetencijas priešmokykliniame amžiuje: vokiškoji patirtis.
Special Education, (1), 149-159.
5. Nasvytienė, D., Lazdauskas, T., Leonavičienė, T., Child’s resilience in
face of maltreatment: a meta-analysis of empirical studies. Psychology,
467-26/2012.
6. Prakapas, R., Individualus priėjimas mokyklinio monitoring sąlygomis.
Pedagogika, 68, 2013.
7. Vilnius declaration. Retrieved March 22, 2014, from http://erc.europa.
eu/sites/default/files/content/pages/pdf/Vilnius_SSH_declaration_2013.
pdf
77
The Anthropology of Risky Behaviours in the Cyberspace
Roman SOLECKI Dr.
Pedagogical University in Cracow (Poland)
The Anthropology of Risky Behaviours
in the Cyberspace
Abstract:
The article concerns the issues connected to the place of man in the
cyberspace and the dangers that exist there. It shows the concepts of
understanding the causes of risky behaviours from the perspective of
different areas of development, analysing the need for silence and the
meaning of life. It presents the assumptions of effective prevention and the
ways of counteracting being lost in the Web.
Key words:
Prevention of media dangers, needs, risk factors and guarding factors, the
meaning of life, silence.
Introduction
The mankind have continuously searched for the answers to the most
important questions which every person asks themselves. The way of
discovering them may surprise even more with every step taken. Seeing the
contemporary homo viator (a traveller or a pilgrim – a mediaeval symbol
of human lot)1, a large number of directions and possibilities of choice
which are offered by the society striving for being called informational
seems to be something normal. However, a rising feeling of self-sufficiency
weakens the will of searching for the deeper meaning which loses the battle
with a competitive pleasure of the moment. How can we understand the
contemporary digital resident of the Earth who got lost on his/her way in the
big Web?
1
http://sjp.pwn.pl/slownik/2560779/homo_viator. Printed on June 24, 2013
80 Roman Solecki
Media dangers
Excessive commitment to the cyberspace may result from the possibility
of fulfilling one’s needs in the Web. Hall and Parson’s IBD concept (Internet
Behaviour Dependence), in which the problems connected to using the web
result from the mechanism of compensating the deficits which are felt by an
individual in other spheres of their functioning (Majchrzak, Ogińska-Bulik,
2012, p. 49) which they cannot realise in the world outside the Web, says
about this. As Tomasz Kocowski states: “ (…) the description of the needs
depends on the discipline which deals with it” (Kocowski 1982, pp. 40-41).
but also: “it cannot rely on the research of only one discipline, so it is not
a biological, sociological, psychological or economical problem, but a typical
interdisciplinary problem, which can only be solved thanks to the co-operation
of many fields of human studies. A wide-ranging and systemic approach directed
at the man as an integrated unity is needed here” (Kocowski, 1982, p. 44).
In his hierarchy of the needs which are essential to normal human
functioning, Abraham Maslow consecutively lists: the physiological needs,
the needs of security, belonging and love, dignity and respect, self-updating
(Obuchowski, 1995, pp. 62-63). Taking an example, a lack of appropriate
standards and rules of behaviour, as well as not drawing consequences after
these rules are broken, reduce the sense of security, leading to uncertainty
and looking for the places, like a computer game or social network, where
full control is possible. The research shows that mainly the young fulfil
their social needs in the cyberspace2. In a systemic concept of human
needs Tomasz Kocowski classifies among them: the needs of belonging,
connection, organization, emotional bonds, conformism, communization,
social usefulness, social gratification, social acceptance, co-participation,
protection and autonomy of an individual (Kocowski, 1982, pp. 188-194).
In contrast, an American psychologist and researcher J. Suler has named 6
main needs which, according to him, are fulfilled in the Internet: the sexual
needs, a need of different states of consciousness, a need of achievements
and mastery, a need of belonging, a need of union/relationship, a need of
self-updating and transcendence (Majchrzak, Ogińska-Bulik, 2010, pp. 7376). Therefore, it is not a surprise that more and more people search for their
fulfilment in the Internet, because then one does not have to go out since the
life in the web is enough. Whereas we are able to modify our intellectual,
2
See: Raport K. Szafraniec, Młodzi 2011. Source: http://kprm.gov.pl/Mlodzi_2011_
alfa.pdf (access: June 6, 2012); K. Makaruk, Sz. Wójcik, EU NET ADB. Badanie
nadużywania Internetu przez młodzież w Polsce. Source: http://fdn.pl/eu-net-adb (dostęp:
6.02.2013).
emotional or social development with digital substitutes, we are not able to
do the same with our physical and spiritual development.
Models of understanding man
The reduced anthropology of understanding man may lead to unimaginable
effects which will become permanently connected to his conduct and
functioning. Over the years, the process of addicting and the potential causes
which may initiate it have been described in different ways. M. Dziewiecki
made their short profile (see: M. Dziewiecki, 2009, pp. 123-137):
• A moralizing model, in which using addictive substances is the result
of moral immaturity, a weak willpower, naivety, a mis-formed conscience. The responsibility and the blame is on an individual who is
aware of their misconduct, who does it in a free purposeful way. The
way to counteract in this model is appealing to the will, forming the
conscience, handing over moral principles, making an individual aware
what is good and what is wrong, scaring them with the consequences.
The modes of operation are moralizing lectures whose purpose is to invoke the fear of using psychoactive means. As it turns out, also people
with the morality formed in the right way, who are aware of their acts
and their negative results, get addicted, too. Admittedly, moral sensitivity, a mature conscience and a strong willpower are all significant
factors which help in prevention, but they are not the only ones;
• An intellectualizing model, in which using addictive substances is the
result of a lack of sufficient knowledge of how they work. In this model
the aim is to hand over professional information on the essence of addictions, mechanisms, substances composition and their effect on an
organism and a spiritual and social life. The methods that are used are
lectures, discussions, statistics, activating technics, contests. As it turns
out, also people who have rich knowledge of psychoactive substances
and the negative after-effects of using them reach for them too. A man
can manipulate his/her thinking, especially while in a life crisis. An additional risk in this model is a desire to verify the knowledge one got in
practice, which has often become a characteristic training in thanks to
which one can be made dizzy to get the desired effects;
• A biologizing model, in which using addictive substances is the result
of the organic factors and genetic determinism. However, a research
has shown that the innate alcoholism does not exist, but there is only
an inherited natural defensive capability of an organism against harmful chemical substances. Yet, it is not the cause of getting addicted,
81
82 Roman Solecki
though it can quicken its process. On the other hand, the knowledge of
one’s own organism’s weak tolerance of a given substance itself cannot
protect one against trying to dose their organism with this substance.
It is common knowledge that there is a connection between the age of
initiation and the risk of addiction. The younger the age is, the faster
the development’s pace is, and, as a consequence, the organic and psychosocial harms are bigger, and the risk of getting addicted is intensified;
• A psychologizing model, in which using addictive substances is the
result of their emotional attractiveness, in other words, the ability to
regulate one’s mood and frame of mind. Thanks to the psychoactive
substances a man can change his/her emotional experiences without
having to change anything in the behaviour. It is a chance to soothe the
harmful experiences which we can forget about thanks to the addictive
substances, which come back anyway. The aim of this model is shaping
the skills to deal with the difficult and unpleasant emotions. The methods used are working in groups, brainstorm, role-play and dialogues,
discussions. Time and again, however, the competences which are important for the sake of the attitude towards the dangerous substances
(assertiveness or the right experiencing negative emotions training) are
promoted. Coaxing into living a decent life in happiness, they touch
upon these issues in a superficial way, being limited to the biologicalpsychological sphere only. That is why the psychologizing model does
not give a full answer to the dangers of addictions, because, showing
the ways of dealing with the unpleasant emotions, it does not present
where they come from.
The condition of human spirituality
In the whole ineffective prevention of addictions the most important
question is omitted – the question about the origin of painful emotional states,
from which a person tries to free themselves using the addictive substances
or actions. It is sure that they are a symptom of the existential functioning of
a person, a bit of information about the crises being experienced. Whereas
it is easy to deceive our intellect by convincing ourselves about different
things and using such defensive mechanisms as rationalization, we are not
able to hide our painful mood, like a fear or depression, unless, to get this
aim, we make use of a momentary blockade which addictive substances are.
Limiting the prevention actions to the sphere of the intellect, biology, psyche
or emotions is being stuck in one place and making the achievement of the
planned goals impossible. The yearning to experience a relief, an escape from
harmful reality and to reach a meaningful life is so strong, that a person is
ready to pay every price, even if they are aware of the threat to their health, to
their and other people’s life (Dziewiecki, 2009, pp. 123-137).
V. E. Fankl, a psychiatrist and the creator of logotherapy from Vienna,
introduced a number of terms to the therapy which can be helpful in
understanding the spiritual dimension of the prevention and upbringing.
Firstly, it is the will of meaning, which is possessed by every man, and which
is the elementary motivation in life to find and realize this unique meaning,
and one can do it only independently. Not accomplishing this task leads to
existential frustration, and this, in turn, leads to neurosis. Frankl says about
noogenic neuroses which are the consequence of existential problems. They
entail suffering, cause despair, fear and the pain of existence. Most often
on this stage the mechanism of compensation and addictive regulation of
feelings is activated in order not to let happen the personality destruction. In
the book “To rescue from the Web”, K. Young presents five stages of addiction
in the form of a spiral in which particular phases depend on one another and
lead a person down, namely, into increasingly deeper addiction. These stages
are: discovering, experimenting, intensification, inner extortion and a state
of hopelessness. The first stage – discovering that thanks to the Internet it
is possible to relax after a hard day at school or work using different means
which are available in the cyberspace – is the key. That continuous desire to
learn the new possibilities that the Web gives turns the spiral on, leading to
experimenting which is accompanied by a feeling of freedom and latitude, as
well as social acceptance. The moral acceptance and the awareness of the fact
that, after all, nothing bad is happening, one has a normal life, and the virtual
life is only a game, also escalates the whole process (See: Young, Klausing,
2009, p. 70).
An information chaos
Living in a permanent state of information overload in which the human
brain cannot cope with processing an excessive amount of the incoming
data, it is difficult to find the attitude of constructive criticism or taking
reflection over the surrounding reality. “Technostress – being overload with
the overflow of information which evokes a feeling of anxiety or even panic,
leads to the indifference caused by the inability to absorb new content.
Despite this, a person suffering from technostress seeks the meaning of their
83
84 Roman Solecki
life in a virtual reality, in which, in an attractive and safe way, they can find
the substitutes of interpersonal relationships, as well as the experiences of
religious nature (Young, Klausing, 2009, p. 31). A person gets an impression
that one will never be on time, that they must catch up, that the overflow of
information will never allow them to experience a full cognition, hence, only
a fast and cursory selection of “the truth” learned is possible. There is a lack
of the adequate media education and the conception of social development
which would be orientated not only towards teaching the skills of using
the new technologies to counteract “the digital exclusion”, but, most of
all, towards correct and constructive teaching people attitudes towards the
media, including all the levels of human development. As a consequence, the
information society “instead of becoming more reflective, is becoming more
and more algorithmic, so it «likens itself» more and more to a computer,
in a degree which is useless taking into account the actual needs (…) It
leads to «programming» and objectifying a man” (Babik, 2010, p. 24).
A machine is not reflective, it accomplishes the tasks which are planned
in advance according to the algorithms written by the programmers. In the
times of the cyberspace the development of man is not keeping pace with the
development of technology, and that is why it cannot prepare itself, neither
intellectually nor emotionally, for the continuous changes which are taking
place too quickly. The everlasting chaos and the absence of silence, the
inner one as well as the outer one, often causes uncritical surrender to social
movements, schemes of functioning and the consumptional vision of the
world. “A so-called information depression may be the effect of the overflow
of information, which has a relating to illness nature. This depression is a false
conviction that a piece of information is worth nothing, as well as a feeling
of being information «overwhelmed», and connected to this disorders in
evaluation system” (Babik, 2010, p. 24). This everlasting rush of incentives
and thoughts gives rise to the fact that the increasing relativism introduces
an anxiety and takes away the sense of security, which leads to despair.
A chance of overcoming it is the silence, in which: “a reflection takes place,
there is the act of getting to know oneself and an internal change. It helps in
the composure, ruling «managing» of «myself», thanks to which one gets
internal balance” (Olearczyk 2010, p. 26).
It is connected to the internal life, which means: “the whole
psychoemotional, cognitive and depending on the will human activity, which,
though it always entails a person’s external activity, it constitutes a personal
centre” (Chmielewski, 1999, p. 11).
Hence, it involves everything that people do throughout their lives – the
attitude towards the surrounding world and oneself depends on this. From
this fact a conclusion can be drawn that an individual’s feeling of being lost
in everyday chaos is a consequence of the internal chaos, where there is no
place for the silence in which a reflection over oneself, another person and
the surroundings can be born, in a micro and macrosocial scale. The skill
of the active share in the Web itself (often declarative only) does not reflect
information competence, which is, in the process of learning throughout the
whole life, the skill of searching for and making use of a bit of information
in the effective, critical and creative way, depending on the needs, in order to
solve the encountered problems3. If a person is not able to gain control over
a bit of information, then how can one gain control over oneself? All the more,
that: “The cyberspace has an effect on the attitudes, especially on the attitudes
of a young man, and it has a more powerful effect than the patterns and
models which are handed over in a traditional way by the parents, educators
and teachers. For the cyberspace attracts one in a «permanent» way, talking
with a total language, using the word, sound, picture, movement, influencing
the mind, imagination, feelings” (Sarzała, 2010, p. 221).
The loneliness in silence
The digital world more and more often becomes the place of experiencing
existential loneliness. On the one hand someone can spend hours on surfing
the net, watching videos on YouTube, browsing or publishing posts on
Facebook’s wall, chatting with friends, listening to music, and, when the
opportunity occurs, getting points in a favourite game. This multitasking
gives an impression of being in the centre, controlling everything, caring
for relations. However, on the other side of the screen there is only a bundle
of cables and, most often, a wall or (that is the best option) a window with
a view of the real world, in which it is “so hard to live” that only the personal,
autonomous space of one’s room, or even a desk or a bed, in which, apart
from us there is nobody, is everything that is left. “Although we are alone,
the possibility of an almost immediate contact is reassuring. We have an
impression that someone is almost with us (…) Alone with our thoughts, yet
in the contact with an almost tangible fantasy of something different, we feel
that we can freely start the game. We have a chance of «writing» someone
whom we would like to be, we can imagine the others in the way we would
like to see them – to construct them, as it were, according to our own needs”
(Turkle, 2013, p. 234). Silence can “kill”, becoming a place of escape to
See: http://www.sbp.pl/repository/SBP/sekcje_komisje/komisja_ds_edukacji_informacyjnej/Wytyczne.pdf
3
85
86 Roman Solecki
(or perhaps even a return from) a toxic, but giving an illusion of security,
structure, the feeling of rejection, being unnoticed, sadness, emptiness, which
a person desires to experience alone, being as though “there”, but really
suffering “here”. As S. Turkle states „it is not difficult to notice that a virtual
reality of a computer is an ideal embodiment of the simulacrum metaphor. So
the question is if all these dot-com smiles, kisses, hugs and other virtual signs
of tenderness are the expression of «authentic» feelings, or perhaps they are
rather a mass trial to mask the loneliness and alienation” (Turkle, 2013, p.
251). The silence asks questions about the place in the world, the identity,
the truth, that people are so afraid of. That fear, which is, among others,
a consequence of the unrealised need of the feeling of security, unleashes
the mechanism of reducing the stress felt with the help of isolating oneself
from the world of relations in which one should be “here and now”, engaging
the whole self for “You”, both in time and space. On the emotional level the
mechanism of the addictive regulation of feelings is a symptom of addiction.
The cyberspace, because of its omnipresence and the easiness of access, may
intensify this phenomenon, becoming the place of seeking life substitutes.
“There is something tellingly ironic in the fact that our thoughts go to
the achievements of technology when we are thinking about the methods
of softening tensions which, as we think, we have been exposed to by the
technology progress” (Turkle, 2013, p. 251).
The silence as a dispatch may get a negative form, being an attitude of
indifference towards another man or a fear of expressing oneself, expressing
one’s thoughts, feelings, views, behaviours, which can be met with a lack
of affirmation and, as a consequence, with rejection. It does not mean,
however, the internal peace or a lack of interest in another person because
of emotional emptiness which accompanies the relation, but it is rather
a communication of not verbalized and uncovered experiences. Therefore
the indifference or an emotional distance is a defensive mechanism so that
someone does not discover our harms (See: Olearczyk, 2010, p. 27). That is
why “we hide ourselves from one another. In text messages, e-mails and the
messages sent via different communicators we show as much as we hide. We
can be alone and introduce ourselves the way we want to be seen. We can
also «arrange» contacts with people at our own pace. Listening only slows
down this process” (Turkle, 2013, p. 257). There is something contradictory
in the placement of silence in the life of information society. Its presence
while using the Internet and a computer should, as in everyday life, constitute
the space for reflection, peace and rest. In the case of the new technologies,
however, it becomes the place of both active engagement in the Web and
postponed experiencing emotions, and what is a paradox, these two roles
interpenetrate. “The Internet has introduced pragmatism in the transfer of
information, which has eclipsed meditation thinking which is characteristic
for traditional communication. This space has a dynamic character which
helps to reassert the culture of the present time, only the thing that comes
about in a given moment counts” (Siemieniecki, 2010, p. 261). On the
other hand, the asynchronous communication is believed to be better than
a real talk because during such a “face to face” meeting a person has less
“bordering” – there is a lack of proper borders, one can say not what they
want, too quickly, too much, without control and a longer consideration.
There comes a fear of being suspended in the vacuum, and a dialogue partner
gets an impression that his/her interlocutor wants him/her to maintain and
continue the conversation. Its end is thought to be a rejection. It is caused by
the multitasking and a repeatedly accelerated pace of life where the wasted
time is treated as something unacceptable, so the communication should be
precise and shortened because there is no time for analyses. Where does such
a state of affairs originate? “In the macro scale the shortening of the time
that passes between new inventions, their practical results, introduction and
spread is ascertained. The dynamics of human behaviours is also changed.
Undertaking a bigger and bigger number of tasks in, after all, unchangeable
units of time, which has been noted down for decades, means shorter time
of their existence. Shortening the course of social things – interpersonal
meetings, conversations, meals, dialogues performed with oneself – gives
many negative effects (Ledzińska, 2010, p.169). For the internal silence to
come about, some time and the adequate preparation to it, which is hushing
up, is needed. In a way, the technologies shorten the time of performing some
tasks, but actually they take even more of it to use it in the other forms of
digital activity.
In the age of dot-com information-communication technologies there
appears a new definition of stress, as pressure exerted and experienced in real
time. People cannot conduct social life in the way they used to do it in the
past, they lack enough strength even for a telephone contact. While logging
into Facebook they feel less lonely, even if nobody of their friends is logged in
at the moment they feel their presence. Browsing their activity in the Internet,
looking at their posted photos and reading their comments, they feel they
are up-to-date, that they keep on being in touch with the world. Everlasting
tiredness causes the fact that they are not ready for another person and face
to face meetings. An aversion to telephones appears because using them one
can only talk in real time, and this is becoming more and more tiresome. It
is better to stay at home without the necessity of daring to get into personal
contact, no commitments, it is better to be alone, it is calm, safe, one does
87
88 Roman Solecki
not have to dedicate all attention to another person, one can distance oneself
from his/her feelings, experience them at one’s own pace. The progress of
technology has not only contributed to this state of human condition, but it
has also created proper tools thanks to which we can deal with the effects
of the digital revolution, wading even further into its consequences. “The
electronic mail gives people an occasion to have a greater control over the
time and their emotions (…) Portable devices which serve to communicate
with the world (e.g. short-text-messages, Facebook, Twitter) have made it
possible that we can inform our friends about our experiences at such a pace
at which we almost live them, but such a system takes its revenge on us.
We express ourselves in clipped, off-hand messages, nevertheless, we write
a lot and not infrequently our messages reach many people. Therefore, we
get more and more answers – the material is so broad that we feel exhausted
at a simple thought of the contacts which would not be in a written form”
(Turkle, 2013, p. 257).
From the research carried out by A. Chrzanowska a conclusion can be
drawn that what has been worked out by a man thoughtfully may have an effect
on their automatic reaction. As she states in the conclusion: “A characteristic
for modern times ambivalence related to the broadening of the range of
possibilities is experienced strongly by the young people who are at the
threshold of the adult life. On the one hand – a conviction about the freedom
of choice, a desire of shaping one’s life according to self-defined aims and
favourable conditions for it; yet, on the other hand – a feeling of being lost,
the difficulties with the full commitment, the uncertainty resulting from the
lack of evident road signs indicating how to live (…) The values chosen
by a man change his/her functioning in a real way – they direct the future
activity, constrict the influence of the automatic processes of regulation,
favour shaping of one’s life in a conscious and considered way. While
creating educational and pedagogical programmes the motif of values cannot
be omitted – independently from the level of technological development,
they always constitute a foundation owing to which the knowledge and the
skills are used with a profit for the development of an individual and their
surroundings” (Chrzanowska, 2010, p. 70). Knowing that in the world of
the cyberspace we never leave our station, and that is why we try to defend
ourselves against the rigour of affairs happening in the real time, it is worth
searching for the solutions which will help us to function in the world of
computers and the Internet in a better way.
Guarding factors and risk factors
The chance of the overall influence on a person lost in the Web is the
integration of prevention which should be carried out on three levels. The
first one is the so-called environmental prevention which connects the actions
of individual institutions and educational environments, which support one
another, into one unity. The second level means the influence on both the
recipient of a given prevention programme and the people who have some
influence on the recipient and who are related to him/her (parents, educators,
teachers). The third aspect of the integration depends on connecting the
assumptions of different areas and domains of prevention, departing from the
programmes which have a narrow range of influence and concern only one
substance or threat (Grzelak 2009, pp. 326-327). It seems to be a necessary
measure because the educational difficulties, which are experienced by
parents or teachers in regard to their charges, often result from the adults not
being well-organized, the lack of integrity and the sense of meaningfulness,
the emotional and spiritual immaturity. That is why all the prevention
influence should not be limited only to children and the youth, but, as it is
with the continuous education throughout the whole life, also the prevention
should be an inseparable constituent of the social functioning of an individual
and a group. Perhaps here the effects of the prevention programmes and the
assumptions fail to meet the most, as they engage the parents and the teachers
in a minimal degree.
We know that the problem of addiction is not the question of a substance
or a thing alone, but, to tell the truth, it is the question of a man in a life
crisis. For that reason Sz. Grzelak has proposed a concept of the integrated
prevention which does not limit itself to counteracting just one substance or
an addictive action only, but it takes into account a broad field of influence:
“The integrated prevention is such prevention whose aim is to effectively stop
a possibly broad spectrum of the youth’s risky behaviours and problems (e.g.
nicotine, alcohol, drugs, violence, depression, teenage pregnancies, HIV/
AIDS and other STI) and it uses the methodology which gives the biggest
chance of achieving a good proportion of the expenditure in regard to the
effects (cost-effectiveness)” (Grzelak 2009, p. 328).
Making the anthropological analysis of risky behaviours undertaken in
the cyberspace, it is worth having a closer look at the risk factors and the
guarding factors whose influence is a key constituent that correlates with the
pathological usage of the Internet.
89
90 Roman Solecki
Risk factors
Guarding factors
features, situations, conditions which
features, situations, conditions which
favour undertaking risky behaviours,
increase the resistance to risk factors,
which are rooted in an individual or the which are rooted in an individual or the
surroundings
surroundings
- cultural norms which provoke or
- constructive family environment
promote problematic behaviours
- strong bond with parents
- local environment which promotes
- positive and supportive social
problematic behaviours
surroundings
- modelling risky behaviour at school and
- good personal relations with teachers
home
- constructive peer group
- indifference to or acceptance of
- respect for social norms and values
stimulants and risky behaviours from
family’s side
- success and interest in learning
- addiction or overuse in family
- aggressive behaviours and symptoms of
hyperactivity present in childhood
(engagement in one’s own future and
development)
- regular religious practice
- conflicts and experience of being lonely, - skill of dealing with difficult emotions,
naming and expressing them
isolation, rejection in childhood
- dysfunctional peer group
- easy access to psychoactive substances
- weak learning results, lack of interests
and goals in life
- presence of authorities, positive
meaningful people in life
- fashion for development
- reflective approach to life
- early initiation of risky behaviours
Source: Miłkowska 2012, p. 231 and Hawkins, Catalano, Miller 1992, pp. 64-105.
In contrast, M. Dziewiecki divides all the factors and circumstances that
favour addictions into two groups: “The first group concerns the internal
factors, so the factors related to the personal situation and the way of conduct
of a given boy or a girl. The second group concerns the external factors, so
the factors mainly related to the closes environment in which the young live
and the dominating social and cultural trends in our civilisation” (Dziewiecki,
2009, pp. 141-142).
The factors belonging to the internal threats:
• problems with emotions,
• desire to cheering oneself up,
• search for easy happiness,
• states of fear, anxiety, bitterness, depression,
• complexes,
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
internal emptiness,
disturbed relations,
lack of deepened desires and aspirations,
incapacity to use freedom,
lack of spiritual and religious maturity,
lack of taking responsibility for life and conduct,
search for interim pleasure and relief,
uncritical adoption of social tendencies,
lack of resistance to frustration,
search for strong emotions and sensations.
On the other hand, the external threats are:
• a family that does not function correctly (a lack of mature hierarchy of
values, conduct models and relations based on love, life consumerism);
• an unfavourable social context (a lack of positive educational values,
showing the real meaning of life, chasing easy profits, presenting youth
as the fullness of life and not as a difficult phase of development);
• a bad cultural context (a warped concept of democracy and the free
market, fashionable educational systems – stress-free and liberal);
• mass media (promoting an irresponsible philosophy of life, pushing for
misunderstood tolerance shown as a ban on distinguishing the good and
the truth from the evil and the lie (Dziewiecki, 2009, pp. 142-144).
Sustaining the guarding factors and the elimination of the risk factors can
cause the decrease of the amount of the occurring threats, both the internal
and external ones.
How to counteract?
A man who is developed totally, integrally and spiritually is internally
well-organized, thanks to which he/she is resistant to the external. Hence, this
is the best way for the prevention of all the risky behaviours. An interesting
practical solution that integrates our previous analyses can be the pedagogy
of experiences, which:
“is a method orientated towards action, which, through the characteristic
process of learning when young people face physical, psychological and
social challenges, wants to support their personality development and enable
them to shape their life environment responsibly” (Werner, 2011, p. 14).
The key element here is individually working out and changing life
happenings and sensations (nature, sport, other people, special challenges)
91
92 Roman Solecki
into events over which a reflection is carried out, and, as a consequence,
an experience is created. Then, from these experiences which are enriched
by a pedagogical instruction (the authority of a master-guide) knowledge
and cognition is built which is transferred into everyday life (Michl, 2011,
pp. 12-13). A measure that is necessary as well, at least once in a while, is
a technological detox, which is coming back to the roots, in order to search
for such a place where there are no new technologies and media, where one
can stop, rest, hush, in beautiful nature surroundings, where one can take
a trip into the deep of oneself, talk to oneself, learn to talk to another person,
appreciate the value of that which exists without the digital civilisation and
is enough for a man to get the fullness of happiness, in order to take a proper
attitude towards the cyberspace and the information-communication tools
which are here only to make some elements of our every-day reality more
efficient and which are not here to substitute the real life.
Bibliography:
1. Babik W. , O natłoku informacji i związanym z nim przeciążeniu
informacyjnym [in:] J. Morbitzer, Człowiek. Media. Edukacja, KTiME
Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny w Krakowie, Kraków 2010.
2. Chmielewski M., Sto jeden pytań o życie duchowe, Lublin 1999.
3. Chrzanowska A., Jak odnajdywać drogowskazy w społeczeństwie
informacyjnym? O znaczeniu osobistych standardów wartościowania
[in:] J. Morbitzer, Człowiek. Media. Edukacja, KTiME Uniwersytet
Pedagogiczny w Krakowie, Kraków 2010.
4. Dziewiecki M., Kochać i wymagać, Wyd. ESPE, Kraków 2006.
5. Dziewiecki M., Nowoczesna profilaktyka uzależnień, Wydawnictwo
Jedność, Kielce 2009.
6. Frankl V. E., Człowiek w poszukiwaniu sensu , Wydawnictwo Czarna
Owca, Warszawa 2009.
7. Grzelak Sz., Profilaktyka ryzykownych zachowań seksualnych młodzieży.
Aktualny stan badań na świecie i w Polsce, Wydawnictwo Rubikon,
Kraków 2009.
8. Hawkins J. D., Catalano R. F., Miller J. Y., Risk and Protective Factors for Alcohol and other Drugs Problems in Adolescence and Early
Adulthood: Implications for Substance Abuse Prevetion, “Psychological
Bulletin”, 1992, vol. 112, no. 1 [in:]: K. A. Wojcieszek, Na początku
była rozpacz. Antropologiczne podstawy profilaktyki, Rubikon, Kraków
2005.
9. Kocowski T., Potrzeby człowieka. Koncepcja systemowa, Ossolineum,
Wrocław 1982.
10. Ledzińska M., Człowiek wobec czasu i techniki – refleksje psychologiczne
[in:] J. Morbitzer, Człowiek. Media. Edukacja, KTiME Uniwersytet
Pedagogiczny, Kraków 2010.
11. Majchrzak P., Ogińska-Bulik N., Uzależnienie od Internetu, Wydawnictwo Akademii Humanistyczno-Ekonomicznej w Łodzi, Łódź 2010.
12. Michl W., Pedagogika przeżyć, WAM, Kraków 2011.
13. Miłkowska G., Działania profilaktyczne w pracy szkoły, [in:] Nowosad I,
Mortag I, Ondrakova J (red.), Jakość życia i jakość szkoły, Zielona Góra
2012.
14. Obuchowski K., Przez galaktykę potrzeb. Psychologia dążeń ludzkich,
Zysk i S-ka Wydawnictwo, Poznań 1995.
15. Olearczyk T., Pedagogika ciszy, WAM, Kraków 2010.
16. Oleś P. K.., Wprowadzenie do psychologii osobowości, Wydawnictwo
Naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 2011.
17. Sarzała D., Cyberprzestrzeń jako źródło zagrożeń procesu socjalizacji
i wychowania, [in:] B. Chrostowska, E. Kantowicz, C. Kurowski (red.),
Pedagogika społeczna wobec problemów współczesnej młodzieży. Polska pedagogika społeczna na początku XXI wieku, Toruń 2010.
18. Siemieniecki B., Odbiór informacji a działanie w Internecie [in:]
J. Morbitzer, Człowiek. Media. Edukacja, KTiME Uniwersytet
Pedagogiczny w Krakowie, Kraków 2010.
19. Turkle S., Samotni razem, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego,
Kraków 2013.
20. Young K., Klausing P., Uwolnić się z sieci. Uzależnienie od Internetu,
Księgarnia św. Jacka, Katowice 2009.
Netnography:
1. Makaruk K., Wójcik Sz., EU-NET ADB Badanie nadużywania Internetu
przez młodzież w Polsce. Źródło: http://fdn.pl/eu-net-adb (dostęp:
6.02.2013).
2. Szafraniec K., Młodzi 2011. Źródło: http://kprm.gov.pl/Mlodzi_2011_
alfa.pdf (dostęp: 4.06.2012).
3. http://www.sbp.pl/repository/SBP/sekcje_komisje/komisja_ds_
edukacji_informacyjnej/Wytyczne.pdf
93
Part II
Challenges and Opportunities
of Socio-Educational Activities
Poverty and Social Exclusion as a Challenge for Contemporary Social Pedagogy...
Małgorzata PRZYBYSZ-ZAREMBA Prof. Dr.
Academy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza (Poland)
Justinas SADAUSKAS Assoc. Prof.
Mykolas Romeris University, Faculty of Social Technologies,
Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work (Lithuania)
Agata KATKONIENĖ, M.Ed.
Mykolas Romeris University, Faculty of Social Technologies,
Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work (Lithuania)
Poverty and Social Exclusion
as a Challenge for Contemporary Social
Pedagogy – Chosen Contexts
and Theoretical Implications
Abstract:
The paper presents issues related to notions of poverty and social exclusion.
The authors show the scale of this problem, redefine notions of poverty
and social exclusion pointing at differences and similarities between
them. The key issue, which is not frequently discussed in the literature, is
presentation of selected actions undertaken by the social pedagogy within
the scope of fighting against poverty and social exclusion.
Key words:
poverty, social exclusion, education.
Introduction
The issues of poverty and social exclusion are more and more often
discussed by the Researchers in literature nowadays. George Simmel and
Max Weber are thought to be the precursors of the deliberation on these issues.
98 Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba, Justinas Sadauskas, Agata Katkonienė
Further deliberations on these issues were undertaken by Mancur Olson and
James Buchanan. The authors in their theories referred to groups which were
sharing some goods and at the same time were excluding others from using
them (see: Szarfenberg, 2005).
Nowadays, the issues of poverty and social exclusion begin to be of
civilization character. It cannot be compared with the phenomenon of poverty
in such countries as: Haiti, Nepal, Swaziland, Liberia, Chad, Madagascar,
Mozambique or Zambia, in which, as the report of the World Bank
shows – more than 50% of population lives for less than 1.25 USD a day
(Małuszyńska, Gruchman 2010, p. 279). At the level of the European Union
countries poverty refers mainly to an unemployed or low-income individual
or a family, which hinders leading a normal life and social functions. Such
individuals or families tend to live in poor housing, have hindered access to
medical care and experiences barriers and all kinds of obstacles in access
to education and widely understood recreation. Social exclusion threatens
functioning of an individual limiting possibility of expressing views and
also active participation in the social life (Małuszyńska, Gruchman 2010, p.
279).
Economically well-developed countries are becoming more and more
concerned about the problem of poverty. According to Eurostat (2012) 24,8%
of population (corressponding to 125 million persons) was at risk of poverty
or social exclusion, compared with 24.3% in 2011 and 23.7% in 2008. In
2012, the highest shares of persons being at risk of poverty or social exclusion
were recorded in Bulgaria (49%), Romania (42%), Latvia (37%) and Greece
(35%), and the lowest in the Netherlands and the Czech Republic (both
15%), Finland (17%), Sweden and Luxembourg (both 18%) (Eurostat News
Release, 2013). Continual globalization of the world leads to conjectures and
forecasts that the level of poverty in the world will increase and priorities and
guidelines in the fight against poverty and social exclusion worked out by the
European Union prove these speculations. Therefore, according to the authors
of the paper it is crucial to familiarize with these issues and present chosen
propositions of actions aiming at fighting against poverty and exclusion as
challenges for contemporary social pedagogy.
Poverty and social exclusion.
Attempt to redefine the notions
It is impossible to define poverty explicitly and precisely at the same
time. However, as the literature shows this notion is of a multidimensional
nature – it is defined not only by the experts and Researchers of this issue
but more and more often the poor themselves undertake attempts to do it.
The international project Voices of the Poor,1 which was commenced by the
World Bank, shows that poverty can be referred to different dimensions and
different ways of reasoning.
Picture 1. Chosen redefinitions of poverty formulated by the poor
Source: own research on the basis of: R. Szarfenberg, Social-economic status in the
context of anti-discriminatory and social policy2.
General outline of presented definitions of poverty according to the poor,
who experience it themselves, presents subjective image of experienced poverty,
which excludes the person from the society. Life in poverty often forces (adults)
parents to lie their children, who while being hungry demand food from their
parents. One of the poor, who participated in the above mentioned project gave
a “heart-breaking” account of poverty: ”My children were hungry and I was
telling them that rice is being cooked, so that they could fall asleep out of being
hungry”- and old man from Egypt recalled. Poverty formulated by the poor
determines the image of deep subjectivity resulting from experienced poverty,
famine, humiliation and constant dependency from others. Researchers define
poverty in broader extent referring it to deprivation of possibilities and choices,
Project Voices of the Poor consisted in collecting information about understanding of poverty by women and men from different 60 countries from all over the world.
60,000 people took part in the project. Quotation after: R. Szarfenberg, Social-economic
status in the context of anti-discriminatory and social policy. Material comes from the
project: Net for promoting equality and diversity in actions of the public administration
”Equality and Diversity – in praxis” carried out by the Fund of Cooperation and The
Anti-discrimination Education Association.
2
Material comes from the project: Net for promoting equality and diversity in actions of the public administration ”Equality and Diversity – in praxis” carried out by the
Fund of Cooperation and The Anti-discrimination Education Association, p. 7.
1
99
which are fundamental for the human development, for healthy and creative
life, freedom, dignity and respect to oneself and caring for being respected by
others (Szarfenberg, 2005, p. 7-8).
The review of scientific literature devoted to problem of poverty indicated
that definitions of this notion, which are made by researches, refer to lack of
satisfying of basic and socially recognized needs. The authors identify poverty,
as the issue of contextual nature – it differs depending on the territory and
often changes along with the time. Continuous evaluation and development
of societies causes broadening of the scope of needs which are recognized
as the basic ones (Wójcicka-Żołądek, 2012, p. 1). Therefore the scope and
depth of poverty are established on the basis of different indexes. Poverty
can be recognized in an absolute and relative way. In the absolute approach it
includes individuals, families, or households, which are not able to fulfil their
basic needs. The level of life of these people is established irrespective of
level of life of different members of the society. In turn, poverty of individuals
in the relative approach is referred to the level of fulfilment of needs of other
members of society (Wójcicka-Żołądek, 2012, p.1-2).
Experiencing of poverty is very often bound with social exclusion, which
in literature is understood widely. People who are not able to satisfy their basic
needs themselves, because of their life situation - face poverty and that is how
the process of social exclusion is defined. These are people who e.g. do not
possess their own income, do not obtain unemployment benefit, pre-retirement
benefit, or any other financial benefits (structural pension, pre-retirement
pension, social pension etc.). Homeless, alcohol and drug addicts, mentally
sick, handicapped, people leaving prison and refugees are the most exposed
to poverty and social exclusion (Siudem, 2008, p. 11-12). Concept of social
exclusion includes social aspects - quality of social relationships in everyday
networks (family, relatives, friends, coworkers) and problem of stigmatization
(when people from socially excluded groups, in order to reintegrate into society,
must overcome contempt and isolation (see: Sadauskas, 2008). Other views on
social exclusion redefined as process are presented in picture no. 2.
As it results from the material presented in Diagram 2, social exclusion
as a process is effect of not only lack of resources, or refusal of social works,
but also refers to total, or partial ”cut off”, limitation of access to different
systems leading at the same time to widely understood deprivation.
According to the French Researchers (Robert Castel, Alain Touraine, Didier
Lapeyronnie) social exclusion is: ”a new process of disqualification resulting
from increase of risk of social problems because of crisis of employment and
processes, which weaken social bonds; transition from vertical society, where
people were either on the top, or at the bottom, to the horizontal one, where
Picture 2. Social exclusion, as a process – selected redefinitions
Source: own research on the basis of: I. Siudem, Selected issues concerning social
exclusion (Siudem, 2008, s. 9-12)
the problem is not whether one is on the top, or at the bottom, but whether one
is inside, or outside; formulation of ”excessive” population, useless subclass,
which will probably be permanently not adapted, and with which nobody
knows what to do” (quotation of: Siudem, 2008, p. 12-13).
The above presented selected redefinitions of the notion of social exclusion
include explanation of poverty; therefore one can say that sometimes these
notions are identical. According to K.W. Frieske, relation between poverty
and social exclusion can be described in the following way: ”poverty [...] is
such peculiar circumstances, which do not let people participate in collective
life [...], in substantial way it decreases their possibilities in participation in
basic social institutions starting from family and ending on the judiciary”
(quotation of: Szarfenberg 2006). Ryszard Szarfenberg (2006, p. 25-26)
connects relations between poverty and social exclusion with ways of
conceptualization of poverty, as multidimensional process, social standards
and differentiation of the population of the poor. Social exclusion may
substitute poverty as a description of unfavourable situation of an individual,
be a crucial element in counting the poverty line taking into consideration
such elements as individual’s (family) income, or consumption. It can also be
reason and consequence of the material poverty. The author points out that
“social exclusion is a normative notion basing on the idea of social justice,
which differs from this which dominates in utilitarianism which is basis of
the most of (but not all) ways of thinking about the poverty” (Szarfenberg
2006, p. 26). Distinct differences in redefinitions of notions of poverty and
social exclusion are presented in Diagram 3, which was worked out on the
basis of propositions of Peter Abrahamson and Ryszard Szarfenberg.
101
Picture 3. Poverty and social exclusion. Differences in defining notions
Source: own on the basis of: R. Szarfenberg (2006, p. 26), Marginalization and social
exclusion.
Graham Room, quoted by R. Szarfenberg (2005, p. 26) also points at
differentiating poverty from social exclusion. According to him poverty
has nature of financial deficit, which for some time worsens financial-living
conditions of an individual and/or family. There is lack of money for basic
needs connected with life and social functioning (i.e. paying rent, buying
basic food etc.). Poverty is the low part of the scale of inequality. Social
exclusion in turn is of multi-dimensional and interactive nature; it is longlasting and can be passed on by generations (dynamics of the process). There
is lack of social involvement, integration, power, social relationships. There
is total break of bonds with society (Szarfenberg, 2006, p. 27). Ryszard
Szarfenberg analysed differences prepared by Graham Room in defining
poverty and social exclusion and indicated that these notions have similar
meaning (notion of poverty, especially the relative one in reference to
functioning in society). According to Szarfenberg, undertaken efforts within
the scope of distinguishing differences between these notions can lead to
considerable oversimplifying or limitation of issues connected with poverty
(e.g. only income aspects and states) or social exclusion (e.g. lack of income
aspects and only dynamic aspects (Szarfenberg, 2006, p. 27).
Determinants of poverty and social exclusion.
Chosen implications
The above mentioned differences in defining poverty and social exclusion
indicate that the border between these notions is very thin – some authors
indicate that these notions have similar meanings. The process of forming
social exclusion depends to some extent on poverty which is influenced very
often by low education (or its lack) which leads to more frequent experiencing
of unemployment. The schematism of casual relationships leading to social
exclusions is presented in Diagram 4.
Picture 4. Typical patterns of casual relationships concerning social
exclusion
Source: own research on the basis of literature.
The causes of poverty leading to social exclusion are of objective and
subjective nature according to the report ”Problem of poverty and social
exclusion in opinion of social workers from the Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship”
which was worked out in 2010 within the frames of the European Social Fund.
The group of objective determinants includes a set of factors so called external
ones and these are economic, sociodemographic, social-political and random
factors. Subjective determinants in turn point at differences in individual
possibilities, beliefs, and attitudes (passive), behaviours which sometimes
make people choose a given lifestyle intentionally (Zespół Obserwatorium
Integracji Społecznej, 2010, p. 5). Subjective determinants of experiencing
poverty depend on so called external determinants, very often including
complex groups of factors which general outline is presented in Diagram 5.
The process in which social exclusion comes into being is the effect
of poverty, which depends on individual traits of the person and socialdemographic factors. Due to this fact it may be shaped in various ways.
Individuals, who are unemployed for a long time, much more often face
103
Picture 5. Selected causes of poverty
Source: Municipal Centre of Family Support in Zamość, Guide for social workers,
Zamość 2008.
poverty and social exclusion, which in consequence has impact on methods
of work with them during making the process of inclusion (see: Błeszyński,
2012, p. 139-153).
Determinants of poverty and social exclusion are very wide both in the
subjective and objective context. However, because of limitations related to
volume of the papers, the authors resign from making deeper analyses in this
direction consciously. However, one has to indicate that subjective dimension
of determinants is very individual and therefore it depends on many factors,
which are stuck in the individual themselves. That is why it would be difficult
to determine full dimension of these determinants.
Propositions of exemplifications
of social pedagogy actions in fight against poverty
and social exclusion
The results of observations of the social environment, as well as scientific
research (see: London, Anupindi, Sheth 2010; Gupta 2010) indicate that
people experiencing poverty possess valuable “reserves” of intellectual
property, which they are not able to use without help. They are not able
to participate in a “global knowledge net”. Social exclusion, which is
experienced by poor people in contemporary market economy, which is based
foremost on the knowledge, should be recognized as ”disability”, because it
has negative influence on possibilities of promotion to different levels. H.
de Soto (2000, p. 6) indicates that there is ”dead capital” in the poor, which
because of lack of development possibilities, exclusion, so lack of access to
the “global knowledge network” is not used. According to Sridev Shivarajan
and Aravind Srinivasan (2013, p. 382-406) it is necessary to provide the poor
with access to full education, which is available for rightful participants of the
social life, what can contribute to complete use of the “intellectual resources”
and decrease of poverty and foremost social exclusion. Possibilities of
broadening and using knowledge as the ”market capital” not only improve
general physical and mental state of the poor, but first of all human’s value
and dignity. Through experiencing social integration the poor become more
self-confident and open for the needs of the market.
Making conditions, which would facilitate access to education and
knowledge constituting basis for the globalizing world, is the challenge for
the contemporary social pedagogy. The key for fight against poverty and
social exclusion is facilitating access to numerous subjects of the ”global
knowledge net”, shaping bonds in order to build trust for the poor and the
ones who are socially excluded and vice versa. The great potential of the poor
is the priority element in making the first contact step with non-governmental
organizations and international corporations. International actions, which are
led as voluntary actions and which make the excluded (poor) people participate
in actions undertaken by other members of society such as: learning, work,
possibilities of spending free time, are helpful in making such contacts. As
Ireneusz Siudem (2008, p. 81-90) indicates, voluntary service ”gives chance
of using one’s own abilities and experiences, developing interests, getting
105
experience in new disciplines, making friends and being engaged in social
life”.
Preparation of a reliable diagnose on the areas, where this problem is the
most serious, constitutes the crucial issue in fight against poverty and social
exclusion from the point of view of actions which are undertaken by the
social pedagogy. It is proposed that not only adults (parents, supervisors),
but also children should be included in the holistic diagnose, as more and
more often this problem is transmitted by generations –”children brought
up in poor and excluded families inherit it”. European Union (2008) also
pays attention to it and in elaborated priorities and guidelines points at
“intergenerational transmitting of poverty, and also poverty experienced
by children in institutional forms of care”. Therefore all non-governmental
institutions, associations, foundations, institutions and centres conducting
learning-educational process, so all subjects functioning locally, which
possess knowledge about problems of the local society, should be included in
the fight against poverty. The assumption of actions of these subjects should
be elimination in the broad scope of all inequalities in access to education
(in reference to adults participation in trainings concerning acquiring of new
competences e.g. in the scope of IT skills) and promoting equal access to new
information-communication technologies. The age and gender of individuals
should be taken into consideration in diagnosing the problem and creating
appropriate tools which are indispensable in fight against poverty and social
exclusion, because they are important factors in undertaken actions.
Facilitation of access to cultural institutions and recreation especially on
the rural and small-town areas, where despite substantial financial support
provided within frames of carried out EU projects, inequalities on this
field still can be noticed, constitutes a real challenge for social pedagogy
in the fight against poverty and social exclusion. Access of the youth to
rich and foremost free ”range” of forms of recreation lets fill excess of the
free time appropriately what at the same time (to some extent) protects it
against negative influence of the youth subcultures in which alcohol, drugs
or different kinds of designer drugs are nearly for the asking (see: Jędrzejko,
Netczuk-Gwoździewicz 2013; Jędrzejko 2012, Przybysz-Zaremba 2013, p.
145-164; Dončevová, 2014. p. 77 – 101).
Conclusion
Summing up, the above presented selected exemplifications of actions do
not exhaust full possibilities undertaken by the social pedagogy within the
scope of poverty and exclusion. They just signal actions, which not always
are noticed, or undertaken by schools and institutions. The priority action
within this scope is necessity of diagnose of the first symptoms leading to
poverty and social exclusion, which may to some extent prevent from e.g.
experiencing intergenerational poverty. It is advisable to promote voluntary
service among students, as it is unfortunately rare nowadays.
Bibliography:
1. At risk of poverty or social exclusion in the EU 28 // Eurostat News Release, 184/2013-5 December 2013. [on-line] : http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.
eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/3-05122013-AP/EN/3-05122013-AP-EN.PDF
2. Błeszyński J. J., Miejsca „Innego” w edukacji w Polsce w kontekście
rodziny z dzieckiem z autyzmem, [in:] Społeczno-pedagogiczne aspekty
życia rodziny, L. Hurło, M. Przybysz-Zaremba (red.), Olsztyn 2012.
3. Cekiera Cz., Ryzyko uzależnień, Wydawnictwo Naukowe KUL, Lublin
1985.
4. Czapiński J., Panek T., Wykluczenie społeczne. Diagnoza społeczna 2011.
Warunki i jakość życia Polaków – Raport, Warszawa 2011.
5. de Soto, H., The mystery of capital: Why capitalism triumphs in the west
and fails everywhere else, Basic Books, New York 2000.
6. Dončevová, S., Problém rodu a násilie páchané na deťoch a mladistvých. In Sociální pedagogika/ Social education. Roč. 2014.
7. Gupta, A. K., Innovation, investment, enterprise: Generating sustainable livelihood at grassroots through honey bee philosophy. Dr C. V. Seshadri Memorial Lecture at Chennai, December 4, 2010, IIMA WP 2012-06-04. http://
www.iimahd.emet. in/-anilg/selectedpub.php (accessed April 30, 2013).
8. Hroncová J., Emmerová I., Zbornik vedeckovýskumných prác. Katedry
pedagogiky, Belianum, Banská Bystrica, 2013.
9. Jędrzejko M., Netczuk-Gwoździewicz M. (red.) (2013), Człowiek wobec
uzależnień. Wybrane problemy, Oficyna Wydawnicza ASPRA-JR, Warszawa – Zielona Góra 2013.
10. Jędrzejko M., Marihuana – fakty. Marihuana – mity, Wydawnictwo Naukowe ALTA 2,Wrocław 2011.
11. Komisja Europejska, Europejski Rok Walki z Ubóstwem i Wykluczeniem
Społecznym. Strategiczny dokument ramowy, Bruksela 2008.
12. Kwieciński Z., Wykluczanie. Badania dynamiczne i porównawcze nad
selekcjami społecznymi na pierwszym progu szkolnictwa, Toruń 2002.
13. London, T., Anupindi, R., Sheth, P., Creating mutual value: Lessons
learnt from ventures serving the base of the pyramid producerp. Jour-
107
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
nal of Business Research, 63: 582-94. http://dx.doi.Org/10.1016/j.jbusrep.2009.04.025
Małuszyńska E., Gruchman B., Kompendium wiedzy o Unii Europejskiej, red., Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2010.
Przybysz-Zaremba M., Alkohol i nieletni – rekapitulacja problemu, [in:]
Rodzina. Uzależnienia. Bezpieczeństwo. Studium Socjopedagogiczne,
(red.) L. Hurło, M. Przybysz-Zaremba, W. Ziarek, Oficyna Wydawnicza
Prospekt, Olsztyn 2013.
Sadauskas J., Benamiai, kaip socialinės atskirties grupė = [Social exclusion of the homeless] // Socialinis darbas: mokslo darbai = Social work:
academic papers, 2008, Nr. 7(1). p. 127-136.
Shivarajan P., Srinivasan A., The Poor as Suppliers of Intellectual Property: A Social Network Approach to Sustainable Poverty Alleviation,
„Business Ethics Quarterly” 2013, Vol. 23, No. 3.
Siudem I., Wolontariat jako wsparcie pomocy społecznej, [in:] Poradnik
dla pracowników socjalnych, Miejskie Centrum Pomocy Rodzinie w Zamościu, Zamość 2008.
Siudem I., Wybrane zagadnienia na temat wykluczenia społecznego, w:]
Poradnik dla pracowników socjalnych, Miejskie Centrum Pomocy Rodzinie w Zamościu, Zamość 2008.
Szarfenberg R., Status społeczno-ekonomiczny w kontekście polityki antydyskryminacyjnej oraz społecznej. Materiał powstał w ramach projektu: Sieć na rzecz promowania równości i różnorodności w działaniach
administracji publicznej – „Równość i Różnorodność – praktycznie”
realizowany przez Funduszu Współpracy i Towarzystwa Edukacji Antydyskryminacyjnej.
Szarfenberg R., Marginalizacja i wykluczenie społeczne. Wykład monograficzny, Instytut Polityki Społecznej UW, Warszawa 2005.
Wójcicka-Żołądek M., Ubóstwo i wykluczenie społeczne w Polsce, „Infos” Biuro Analiz Sejmowych 2012, nr 4(118).
Zespół Obserwatorium Integracji Społecznej [eng. Group Observing the
Social Integration], Problem ubóstwa i wykluczenia społecznego w opinii pracowników socjalnych województwa świętokrzyskiego, Kielce
2010.
Education of a Child in an Ethnically Diverse Family
Auksė ŠERSTOBOJEVA, M.Ed.
Vilnius University (Lithuania)
Tomas BUTVILAS, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ph.D., M.Ed.
Education of a Child
in an Ethnically Diverse Family
Abstract:
Child’s education and its implementation may become a very sensitive issue
in a family where both parents are of a different cultural background. As
the number of multilingual families has been increasing all over the world,
including Lithuania, it is important to find out how multilingual parents
deal with child’s education within a family from different perspectives. Only
few researches of Lithuanian scientists concentrate on this phenomenon
however in the context of emigration. Thus the article is important because
of the analysis of the characteristics of children‘s education in ethnically
diverse families that live in Lithuania. In this article the term ethnically
diverse family is used when considering the parents that are of a different
nationality and more than one language is used within a family.
The main issue of the article is what characteristics of child’s education in
an ethnically diverse family can be distinguished from linguistic, social,
cultural and value education perspectives? What theoretical-empirical
model can be applied for child’s education in an ethnically diverse family?
The object of the article is child’s education in an ethnically diverse family
from parents’ point of view. The aim of the research is to examine the
characteristics of child’s education in an ethnically diverse family.
Having analyzed questionnaires, distributed to each parent, and qualitative
data, gathered from semi-structured interviews, it was revealed that all
families apply a strategy of trilingualism and it can be already seen in 1 year
old child’s behavior. In order to develop child’s multilingualism parents
mostly read books or play songs on CD in different languages. Child’s social
110 Auksė Šerstobojeva, Tomas Butvilas
education takes place within family, in Lithuanian kindergarten, when seeing
other families, mostly Lithuanian, constantly communicating with relatives
who live abroad by using technologies and regularly visiting the country of
foreign-born parent. Children are introduced to both cultures mostly through
food variety in daily life and events as well as by incorporating various
traditions in calendar celebrations. The values that unite family have an
effect on child’s education. Parents in an ethnically diverse family transfer
intercultural values, such as respect, tolerance, openness, flexibility, to
children. Although parents encounter issues such as child’s identity problem,
they are much more focused on the advantages: openness, multilingualism
(related to more possibilities in life), flexibility, broader world-view, cultural
richness, personal maturity and curiosity.
Keywords:
education, cultural values, multilingualism, trilingualism, ethnically
diverse family.
Introduction
It is known that migration of people began thousands of years ago. In
recent decades the impact of globalization, communication and transportation
has been spreading throughout the whole world. The disjunction between
different cultures starts disappearing and the number of bilingual (when
two languages are used in a family) and multilingual (when two or more
languages are used in a family) families increases every year in Lithuania
and other countries.
Statistics shows the increase of ethnically diverse families: 2.2 million
couples get married every year in European Union, 16% of them are
ethnically diverse. In such families cultural differences become very
distinct. Statistics of Lithuania also reveals the growth of ethnically diverse
families: 9 years ago 2 400 Lithuanians got married to foreigners, 3 100
of them got married in 2010 year, 3 300 (16%) Lithuanians got married to
foreigners 3 years ago.
The attitude towards ethnically diverse family was negative in the 20th
century in Lithuania. It was caused by the occupation of Lithuania and Global
Wars. Research of ethnically diverse families conducted in the middle of the
20th century (according to Darcy, Smith, Carrow, McDermott, Fukunaga)
revealed the domination of one of the parents cultural values and the neglection
of other parent’s values: “Mixed marriages lead into death” (Girnius, 1969, p.
49). During the last decades of the 20th century more and more advantages of
child’s education in ethnically diverse family were revealed. Thus the attitude
towards such families started to change. Unfortunately, even nowadays many
people are intolerant to other cultures, afraid of cultural interactions in order to
prevent their own culture. Only few Lithuanian researchers (Norvilas, 1981;
Aleksandravičius and Kuzmickaitė, 2008; Jasilionienė, 2010; Mazolevskienė,
2010; Bobinienė, 2012) have examined child‘s education in ethnically diverse
and transnational families from various perspectives.
The aspect of multilingualism has been studied mostly during the last few
decade (Innis, 1973; Harding & Riley, 1997; Grosjean, 1999; TokuhamaEspinosa, 2001; Baker, 2006; King, Mackey, 2007; Auer, Wei, 2009), other
aspects of child‘s education in an ethnically diverse family have been
conducted not so often (Innis, 1973; Grosjean, 1983; Locke, 1992; Greenfield,
& Cocking, 1994; Cummins, 2000; Adler, 2002; Tamis-Lemonda, 2004;
Leeds-Hurwitz, 2005; Hong, Wan, No & Chiu, 2006; Crippen & Brew, 2007;
Romano, 2008; Choudry, 2010.
Values play a very important role in ethnically diverse families. The
cultural heritage can be transmitted through traditions, religion, languages,
communication with the people outside the family and a very important
aspect – children‘s education. When two different cultures overlap, it can
cause many conflicts. That is why parents have to decide what languages
have to be chosen and how they will be used, what edutainment devices will
be picked in order to educate children, what values and cultures to engraft,
and how to construct and build child’s multicultural identity (see PrzybyszZaremba, 2011, 2011a).
Thus this article is important because of the analysis of the characteristics
of children‘s education in ethnically diverse families that live in Lithuania.
The term ethnically diverse family is used when considering the parents
that are of a different nationality and more than one language is used within
a family.
Having analyzed the corresponding literature on this topic, the scientific
research problem was formulated: what characteristics of child’s education
in an ethnically diverse family can be distinguished from linguistic, social,
cultural and value education perspectives? What theoretical-empirical model
can be applied for child’s education in an ethnically diverse family?
The object of the research is child’s education in an ethnically diverse
family from parents’ point of view. The aim of the research is to examine the
characteristics of child’s education in an ethnically diverse family.
In order to achieve the aim of the research, the following objectives have
been set:
111
To present linguistic and social education features of a child raised in an
ethnically diverse family:
(1) To analyze the importance of parents‘ cultures and values from child‘s
education perspective.
(2) To examine the issues that parents who raise multilingual children,
encounter and distinguish parents’ attitude towards the advantages of
children who are raised in an ethnically diverse family.
Methodology of the research is based on the following theoretical
frames:
• Don C. Locke (1992) – a model of multicultural understanding.
The cultural components (acculturation, concept of poverty, history
of oppression, language and the arts, racism and prejudice, sociopolitical factors, child rearing practices, religious practices, family
structure, cultural values and attitudes) that make an effect on the
identity of an individual, family and community are distinguished
in this model.
• W. Leeds-Hurwitz (2005) theory, that connections between culture/
communication, process/product, conflict/consensus, details/whole,
individual/society, tradition/creativity, social interaction/ media,
private/public, sacred/secular have an influence on child‘s education
in an ethnically diverse family.
The following research methods have been applied to achieve these
objectives: theoretical analysis of scientific literature, survey methods,
organizing questionnaires, and semi-structured interviews with parents of
children who are raised in ethnically diverse families, qualitative data analysis.
The participants of the research: parents (N=9), who raise their children in an
ethnically diverse families (N=5).
Research on Child‘s Education in an Ethnically
Diverse Family: The Procedures, methods
and data collection
There were five ethnically diverse families participated in the research:
• one of the parent’s native language is Lithuanian;
• live in Lithuania at least since the first child was born;
• have children 0-6 years old;
• use three languages within a family.
The target group was parents whose native language differs, that come
from different cultural backgrounds, areas and who raise children aged 0-6
years old. Questionnaires were sent to every parent to get key information
concerning person’s age, gender, nationality, number of languages a person
can communicate in and the circumstances the languages were learnt.
The main method was the semi standardized interview that was carried
out either in English or in Lithuanian with one or both parents. The questions
for the semi standardized interview were prepared in advance and written
both in Lithuanian and English. During every interview more questions were
given to get specific information or to clarify it. The interviewer was guiding
interviewees but also let them to discuss freely. 5 families participated in
interviews (5 interviews were conducted in total): 3 families were represented
by both parents and 2 families by one parent. In total 8 parents.
To stay neutral the names of interviewees were not used or changed to numbers
(number stands for a particular family) and letters (“a” stands for a woman and
“b” for a man). The length of the interview was from 60 to 95 minutes.
Parents were given questions, concerning personal information, language
education of the children in the family environment, children’s education and
linguistic behavior outside the family, issues they come across and advantages
of children who are raised in multilingual family. After interviewing parents,
all the recorded data was transcribed the way it was recorded. Content analysis
was used studying each family case.
Analysis of Biographical Data of Parents
The dominant age group of research participants was between 31-40 years
old: 7 out of 10 parents.
Picture 1. Participants’ age groups (N)
113
One of the parents of each family is Lithuanian and another parent is of
a different nationality (see figure 2).
Picture 2. Participants’ nationality (N)
Speaking about the research participants’ education, it is worth to
mention that 9 out of 10 parents received at least Bachelor Degree in Higher
Education: one parent, who comes originally from India, has graduated from
the Lower Secondary School; 3 parents graduated in the field of philology
and one of them has a teacher qualification as well; others (6 parents) finished
their studies in another field and 4 of them have achieved the qualification of
a teacher (1 table).
Table 1. Parents’ obtained education
Parents
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Parent 1a
Parent 1b
Parent 2a
Parent 2b
Parent 3a
Parent 4a
Parent 4b
Parent 5a
Parent 5b
Field of Philology
YES
NO
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Qualification of a teacher
YES
NO
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
There is one case, where both parents are not officially qualified as teachers
but their jobs have been related to teaching. 9 out of 10 parents were raised in
monolingual families. The Danish father was raised in multilingual family.
The number of foreign languages parents can speak at various levels (basics
to proficiency) differs. Most of them can speak 2, 3 or 4 languages (4 parents – 2
languages, 4 parents – 3 languages), 2 parents can speak more than 4 languages. An
interesting fact is that a parent who can speak 6 languages and understands, but does
not speak Lithuanian, comes from multilingual environment himself. Whereas there
is one parent who was raised in a monolingual family, learnt two more languages
outside home before starting school, and stayed for 4 years in foreign countries, thus
can speak 5 languages and understand 3 more languages (see figure 3).
Picture 3. Parents’ linguistic capabilities (N)
In the beginning of the relationship all the couples were communicating
in a foreign language because of a lack of knowledge in partner’s native
language. All the families use three languages at home.
Table 2. Number of languages within each participant’s family
Families
Mother’
language
Father’s
language
Language
Good understanding of spouse’s
used between
native language
parents
Wife
Husband
1a-1b
Lithuanian Brazilian English
No
Yes
2a-2b
Lithuanian Danish
English
No
No
3a-3b
Lithuanian Hindi
English
No
No
4a-4b
Lithuanian French
German
Yes
Yes
5a-5b
Lithuanian German
English
No
No
* The names of interviewees were not used or changed to numbers (number stands for
a particular family) and letters (“a” stands for a woman and “b” for a man).
115
Most of the parents communicate to one another in English. However
parents from only one family have a good understanding of each other’s
native language. All the families raise 1 to 2 children, whose age is 7 months
to 6 years old.
The Aspect of Language Education of Children who
are raised in an ethnically diverse family
The data of the research revealed that:
• The strategy of trilingualism (when communicating in three languages
at home) was chosen before children were born. The main characteristics of the strategy is the use of “one person – one language” method
when talking to a child and communication in a foreign language between parents. Thus the main reasons when choosing language learning strategy are following:
a) linguistic situation of a family: lack of knowledge in spouse’s native
language;
b) positive attitude towards multilingualism;
c) a wish to transmit each parent’s native language and cultural heritage
to a child;
d) positive experience of their own, friends and relatives.
• Parents, that graduated in the field of philology, has a teacher qualification, read books about multilingual cases or attended special courses
on multilingual issues, are very consistent with the strategy (when parents communicate to: a) each other and b) the children). Those parents,
who are bad at Lithuanian language and seek to get a job as fast as possible, switches between languages often and experiences issues in the
application and implementation of the chosen strategy.
• In order to maintain children’s interaction with several cultures and
help them to develop good linguistic skills in all used languages within
a family, the main edutainment devices are books and songs.
• It was revealed by analyzing each family case, except the family where
a child is 7 months old, that all children over 1 year old show their
understanding by reacting to given instructions in both languages
already: a) children, who are around 18 months old, show their
understanding by reacting to given instructions in both languages
already; b) children, who are older than two, are able to give answers
in both languages, translate phrases or sentences; c) the child, who is 6
years old and is a quadralingual, communicates to each parent in their
native language (Lithuanian and German), shows her understanding of
English, and is a passive speaker of Russian.
Speaking about the aspect of social education of children who are raised in
an ethnically diverse family, the data of the research showed that these children
are mostly affected by Lithuanian environment because all of them attend or
will be attending Lithuanian kindergarten. Most families communicate with
Lithuanian monolingual families. All the families speak to their relatives that
live far away, regularly by using various technologies and by visiting them
from time to time.
The Aspect of Cultural Education of Children who
are raised in an ethnically diverse family
It was revealed that:
• Despite reading books and singing songs in different languages, children are exposed to their parents‘ cultures through family celebrations and food culture: a) if calendar celebrations are important of both
parents within an ethnically diverse family, national celebrations are
more of a personal celebration and is important only to some parents;
b) differences in food culture are obvious in all the families. Food culture, that has been transmited from a spouse, that comes from different
culture, plays a very important role within an ethnically diverse family.
Also traditional meals of both cultures, especially not Lithuanian, becomes a very important part of many celebrations, meetings, daily life
of a family;
• The minority of ethnically diverse families attend famous historical
places or museums in order to transmit cultural historical heritage to
their children. However various that presents both parents‘ cultures,
are a part of their home. Thus the introduction of children with the
importance of famous historical places and events, also as national celebrations, are considered as the function of kindergarten;
• All the parents wish that their children would understand themselves as
the part of both cultures. However, 2 out of 5 families the transmition
of the culture is considered as each parent‘s separate responsibility,
without coworking. Thus it might be assumed that a child will understand himself as a monocultural because of the strong influence of the
local environment. In other families parents cowork and consider the
transmition of both cultures to the children as their both responsibility.
117
It might be assumed that these children will identify themselves as
multicultural;
• Many families are united by the same so called intercultural values that
have been transmitted to the children. This unity is mostly caused by
the same religion. However religion is mostly understood as cultural
heritage thus religious values are not being transmitted in most cases.
Most families are united by positive attitude towards other cultures,
thus children get acuinted with intercultural values.
Some of the Issues and Advantages of Raising
Multilingual Children
Scientists (Crohn, 1995; Romano, 2008 et al.) claim that children’s
education in an ethnically diverse family is one of the areas where conflicts
may appear, especially if parents have never discussed about family’s values
and cultural differences. Parents point out issues concerning child‘s language
delay and the last, but not least concern is about children‘s identity. Also they
distinguish another problem concerning low knowledge of spouse’s native
language.
Despite the issues parents encounter, all of them think that there are much
more advantages of being raised multilingual: openness, multilingualism
(related to more possibilities and career), flexibility, broader world-view,
cultural richness, personal maturity, curiosity, intelligence, tolerance.
Conclusions
Thus, the research data make it possible to draw the following
conclusions:
(1) Most families are consistent when applying and implementing the
strategy of trilingualism and it can be already seen in 1 year old
child‘s linguistic behaviour. Children attend or will attend Lithuanian
kindergarten and communicates with not Lithuanian relatives by using
various technologies and visiting them regularly.
(2) Most parents try to cowork hard when trying to transmit both cultures
to their children by reading books, singing songs in different languages,
celebrating different calendar celebrations of both cultures, preparing
various meals. However national education is considered to be more of
a kindergarten‘s function. Families are united by intercultural values
that are transmitted to the children.
(3) The analysis of the research reveals, that the child‘s, who is raised
in an ethnically diverse family, education is closest to Wendy LeedsHurwitz theory, that connections between culture/communication,
process/product, conflict/consensus, details/whole, individual/society,
tradition/creativity, social interaction/ media, private/public, sacred/
secular, meaning construction have an influence on child‘s education
in an ethnically diverse family.
Bibliography:
1. Bobinienė, B., Dvikalbiškumas šeimoje ugdo toleranciją. Pasaulio
lietuvis. 2012, Nr.2. pp. 9-14.
2. Crippen, Ch., Brew, L.. Intercultural Parenting and the Transcultural
family: A Literature Review. The Family Journal, 2007, No. 15(2), pp.
107-115.
3. Crohn, J., Mixed Matches: How to Create Successful Interracial,
Interethnic, and Interfaith Relationships. The United States of America.
4. Edwards, J., Multilingualism. The United States of America.
5. Grosjean, F. (1999). Individual Bilingualism. Available from: URL:
http://www.bilingualfamiliesconnect.com/Individual%20Bilingualism_
Francois%20Grosjean.pdf
6. Harding, E. & Riley, P., The Bilingual Family: a Handbook for Parents.
The UK: Cambridge University Press 1996.
7. Hong Y., Wan C. et al. (2006). Multicultural Identities. URL: https://
docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:cl2e6AMUfncJ:www3.ntu.edu.
sg/home/YYHong/papers/handbook/Multicultural%2520identities.doc+
&hl=lt&gl=lt&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjububeiKGxj2jgbM0ygOMgCA
wZQbJtW70HnFPXMNMVUeZ7lKZfru3FwXOH6U9maonpxpVIMN
Dka9y0C2RTW1RjlYhGqI773-plJWCn3v7tqCt9xanuQqD227p16OTH
Kx0JexUj&sig=AHIEtbS81H-juY0f_03M6pHHkItXXkU8ew>
8. Innis, H. R., Bilingualism and Biculturalism. Canada 1973.
9. Jacikevičius, A., Daugiakalbystės psichologija. Mints, Vilnius 1970.
10. Leeds-Hurwitz, W., Wedding as Text: Communicating Cultural Identities
through Ritual. The United States of America 2005.
11. Locke, Don C., Increasing Multicultural Understanding: A Comprehensive
Model. The United States of America, 2010.
12. Mazolevskienė, A., Šeimoje – dvikalbis vaikas. URL: http://www.
ikimokyklinis.lt/index.php/straipsniai/teveliams/seimoje--dvikalbisvaikas/779
119
13. Przybysz-Zaremba, M., Family in the life of Polish youth – what value is
it?, “Journal of Educational Review”, Vol 4, No 4, December 2011, pp.
589-593.
14. Ramonienė, M., Guus, E., Multilingualism in Lithuanian Cities:
Languages at Home and School in Vilnius, Kaunas and Klaipėda.
Klaipėda 2011.
15. Romano, D., Intercultural Marriage: Promises and Pitfalls. The United
States 2008.
16. The Transnational Family: New European Frontiers and Global
Networks. The United Kingdom 2002.
17. Tokuhama-Espinosa, T., Raising Multilingual Children: Foreign
Language Acquisition and Children. Westport, Connecticut 2001.
Openness within Adoption: Challenges for Child’s Psychosocial Development and Self Identity
Tomas BUTVILAS, Assoc. Prof. Dr., Ph.D., M.Ed.
Openness within Adoption:
Challenges for Child’s Psychosocial
Development and Self Identity
Abstract:
Within this paper open adoption as such is discussed with possible both
positive and negative effects to those who are adopted or taken under the
foster care. On the other hand openness within adoption in most cases is
presented through positive side, when it is becoming increasingly common,
especially due to a growing recognition of the benefits of allowing an
adopted child to establish or maintain connections with the birth family.
Although many studies have showed a relation between adoption and
later difficulties, there is no clear evidence that adoption could cause
behavioral problems in child‘s later development periods. However,
many authors would argue that this process has much negative influence
as well, especially dealing with adoptees‘ self-identity formation, social
attachment and communication with others: much of attention is paid to
such children abilities to develop their own relations with other friends
and mainly with step-parents; especially teenage period is stressed when
identification challenges take over other developmental neccessities and
social bonds/attachment is developed. Thus the phenomenon of open
adoption in the childhood is mainly presented in the context of its influence
to a child‘s further psychosocial development and growth.
Keywords:
adoption, open adoption, child, self-identity, psychosocial development
difficulties.
122 Tomas Butvilas, Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba
Introduction
Open adoption, as it is stated in much of the literature, is a type of adoption
in which birth and adoptive families have some form of initial and usually
ongoing contact; also the open adoption allows adoptive parents (often the
adopted child as well), to interact with the child’s birth parents. Besides, the
type and the way of openness can vary from family to family and may change
over the time. Open adoption is becoming increasingly common, in part due to
a growing recognition of the potential benefits of allowing an adopted child or
youth to establish or maintain connections with his or her birth family (Child
Welfare Information Gateway, 2013). Within past few decades a greater
sophistication has emerged in the understanding of the concept of openness
and the professional practices related to the concept (Jones, Hackett, 2008).
Openness no longer refers simply to open communication between adoptive
family members but also relates to the degree to which information passes
between birth and adoptive families and to the level of contact and ongoing
relationship between these enmeshed families (Jones, Hackett, 2008). Yet,
on the other hand, the formation of an adoptive identity is one of the more
critical and complicated tasks that adoptees would face (Fall et al., 2012).
Having those aspects in mind, all EU Member States have ratified the
UNCRC, which provides a key framework to guide programme and policy
interventions with and for children deprived of parental care. The preamble
of the UNCRC emphasises the role of the family as “the fundamental group
of society and the natural environment for the growth and well-being of
all its members and particularly children” (Call For Action On Quality Of
Alternative Care For Children Deprived Of Parental Care, Eurochild, March,
2010). Articles within the convention seek to prevent separation of children
(Article 9), support family re-unification (Article 10), provide alternative
care for children when required (Article 20), provide regular reviews of care
plans, ensure attention to individual needs and development of each child
(Article 25), and assure the child the right to express his/her own views
(Article 12). Taking in account of the key principles of the Eurochild Policy
Position On Quality Of Alternative Care For Children Deprived Of Parental
Care (March, 2010, UNCRC), care responses must always be made in the
child’s best interests (Article 3).
Almost all countries in the world admit that every child needs a family,
security, and constant feelings (see: Hodgkin, Newell, 2007, PrzybyszZaremba, 2013, 2014). On the first hand, all neccessary instruments should be
taken in action while saving child‘s biological and unified family after some
serious problems occur. Only if the best solution is suspending from parents‘
rights or biological parents cannot take care of their own child any longer,
the adoption could take a serious part within child‘s wellbeing construction.
On the other hand, adoption is rather a complicated psychosocial process
even though a pretty frequent phenomenon in today‘s society. Researchers
(Rutter et al., 1998) have been stated that adopted children‘s behavior,
cognitive abilities as well as physical development in many cases are laden in
comparison with non-adopted peers. After the adoption a child needs to adapt
to the new environment – get used to some strange smells, cultural differences
and all of that undoubtedly differ from his/her previous experiences.
In Western cultures adopted children‘s behavior and the variety of their
experienced emotions are the focuses of many surveys. Besides, much of
attention is paid to such children abilities to develop their own relations
with other friends and mainly with step-parents. Especially teenage period
is stressed when identification challenges take over other developmental
neccessities and social bonds/attachment is developed (Goldman, 2000). It
is stated that early adoption factor plays much of the role within formation
of self-identity, social attachment and child‘s psychosocial characteristics –
better results are expected when child was adopted before 6 months of age
(Singer, Krebs, 2008). Open adoption, according to Singer and Krebs (2008),
is revealed as child‘s and his/her birthparents participation meaning at the
adoption process as a progressive tactic (Neil, 2007 et al.). Open adoption is
recommended as the best option for the child by Committee on the Rights of
the Child–actually it has been stated as the standard in the Quality4Children
Standards for Out-of-Home Child Care in Europe. It is almost taken for
granted by adoption services and adoption participants in the USA.
Thus the problematic situation in almost all research works is mainly
defined with the following questions that are much of interest to many
academics and practitioners/educators: i) experiences of adolescents adopted
from the care system in relation to the themes of grief and loss status; ii)
the reasons behind individual differences-why do some adoptive people feel
different to others (cultural differences, dependance of adoption type); iii)
birth parents and adoptive parents attitudes and values in relation to adoption
and openness in adoption; iv) how do self esteem, emotional and behavioral
development of adopted adolescents relate to pre-placement risk factors such
as length of time in institutions and care system?
The object of this observation is the phenomenon of openness within
adoption and its impact to the child’s further psychosocial development,
especially having in mind self-identity processes. The goal of this paper
is to analyze theoretically adoptees psychosocial variables that influence
their further development in the context of open adoption’s process. Main
123
method of this analysis is a meta-analysis and more theoretical observation
of previous researches in chosen area.
Approaches to Open Adoption
and Its Challenges within Childhood
Neil (2007) in her studies on post-adoption contact and openness reveals
that adoptive parents and children themselves mostly reported face-toface contact to be a positive experience and such contact appeared to have
a positive effect on the ability of birth relatives to adjust and accept the fact of
the child‘s adoption. For instance, in England and Wales, the 2002 Adoption
and Children Act obliges agencies to make post-adoption support plans for
every child, and gives adoptive parents, adopted children and birth relatives
the right to ask for an assessment of their support needs (see more at Neil,
2007). Neil states that providing support for post-adoption contact is an
important opportunity for social workers to facilitate communication between
children, adoptive parents and birth relatives, as well as helping all three
parties understand and manage their own feelings regarding the adoption.
Although many studies have showed a relationship between adoption
and later difficulties, there is no clear evidence that adoption could cause
behavior problems in child‘s later development periods (Adopted adolescents:
Attachment and behaviour problems, 20091). Indeed, many mechanisms are
likely involved in the adoption process, which may interfere with the parentchild relationship and the child’s development and well being. As the matter
of fact, fostering and adopting are both means by which children are given
new, safe, and supportive homes, because early stress, poor life conditions and
separation may constitute potential risk factors regarding the social-emotional
development; the period of adolescence, which involves separations and new
relationships may be especially sensitive in this regard (Pierrehumbert et
al., 2009). However, both fostering and adopting are important in order to
remove adoptees from usually unhealthy environments and allow them to
move towards a brighter future (www.teenissuses.co.uk).
On the other hand, along with the positive intentions of adults to foster
or adopt a child some psychological negative outcomes of child‘s adoption/
foster process may be seen as well, especially having in mind the international
adoption, that has some effect on emotional and social development in
adolescence, specifically in regard to attachment and separation processes
(Harf et al., 2006 cited in Adopted adolescents: Attachment and behaviour
1
Lausanne University Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Dept. (SUPEA), 2009.
problems, 2009). Also having been adopted may then constitute a risk
factor regarding psychological development, particularly at adolescence
(Pierrehumbert et al., 2009). A question raised in the literature is whether or
not adopted children exhibit more behavior problems than non adopted peers
in later development stages.
As Pierrehumbert et al. (2009) stress, there are other important issues
related to pre and post adoption processes that could be taken in account
within proposed research, such as the effect of early deprivation on the adopted
child, i.e. a late adoption frequently means a long time spent in institutions
in poor living conditions, without any attachment figure. Therefore these
factors increase the risk that the child encounters adverse life events with
probabilities of long term consequences on his/her psychosocial development
(Groza & Ryan, 2002; Pratti, 2005 cited in Adopted adolescents: Attachment
and behaviour problems, 2009). The data suggest that the impact of early
deprivation may last long after adoption and that a long stay in institution can
hinder the capacities of recovery.
The effect of early deprivation on parent-child attachment: that means
that poor relationships at pre-adoption phase may negatively influence the
development of emotional regulation and of later social adaptation. Putting
in other words, in case of adoption, child–caregivers bonds may have been
disrupted or remained unconstructed, increasing psychological vulnerability
(Howe, 1997; Cederbald et al., 1999; Verhulst et al., 1992 cited in Adopted
adolescents: Attachment and behaviour problems, 2009). Thus a late adoption
increases the risks of having been exposed to harmful and disruptive life
experiences, and to negative models of relationships.
Finally, the reactive attachment disorder (RAD) may be observed when
difficulties or impossibilities to create a significant relationship with anyone
occur. Among the long term consequences of RAD are the difficulties to
engage emotionally with other people, loneliness, social withdrawal, identity
problems, or loss of positive self-esteem. Adopted children with a RAD are
then likely to endure difficulties regarding emotion regulation as they cannot
trust the attachment figures in stressful situations (Adopted adolescents:
Attachment and behaviour problems, 2009).
Adoptive parents and their representations concerning their children is
a significant factor that may influence child’s wellbeing while in the new
environment. Many authors (Pierrehumbert et al., 2009; Fonagy et al., 2003)
have pointed out that parents’ representations towards their children mainly
could be described as a consequence of the capacity to understand their own
behaviors and those of their children in terms of mental states, intentions and
needs, and to reflect their children’s psychological experiences. Parents of
125
children who had been placed relatively late, experience a greater need for
support, and report higher levels of children’s aggression, rejection, control
behaviors, and overfriendliness; this contrasts with children placed earlier
in infancy, whose adoptive mothers report higher levels of joy, competence,
confidence, warmth, happiness, and affection. Lastly, adoptive parents who
were themselves insecure or unresolved in relation to attachment seem to
be more likely to represent their adoptive children, and the relationship
with them, in negative ways (Steele, 2003 cited in Adopted adolescents:
Attachment and behaviour problems, 2009).
Thus it is of great importance to understand which–and how–underlying
factors may intervene in the pre and post adoption processes, in order to prevent
difficulties and vulnerabilities, and to optimize chances for an optimal child‘s
psychosocial development (Neil, 2007 et al.). Secure attachment has been
pointed out as a protective factor regarding behavior problems in childhood.
Attachment is also influenced by several individual and environmental
factors such as parental competencies regarding interactions, sensitivity to
the child’s demands, and parental representations (mentioned above), as well
as characteristics of pre-adoption context (age at adoption, origin, adoption
from care, early institutional/environmental experiences etc.).
To be more specific, the experience of adoption makes the adopted child
deal with more rather complex emotional issues, such as rejection and grief
at an early age (Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 2002).
Even though adopted children can grow up joyfully, as stated above, but they
grow up differently as well, and both internal and external factors could have
an impact for adoptees further development (Smit, 2002). Many believe the
increased incidence of referral for adjustment problems is the result of the
psychological impact of adoption on children (Brodzinsky, 1993; Brodzinsky
& Schechter, 1990; Brodzinsky, Schechter, & Henig, 1992; Kaye, 1990;
Melina, 1986, 1989; Smit, 1996; Watkins & Fisher, 1993 cited in Journal of
Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 2002).
Therefore the psychological impact of adoption means that adopted children
and their both biological and adoptive families face unique challenges: loss,
grief, rejection with accompanying feelings of guilt/shame, identity, and
intimacy/relationships issues etc. (Neil, 2007 et al.):
• Loss is the primary adoption-related matter from which the other issues
flow. Adoption involves many losses for the child (Journal of Child and
Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 2002). Adopted children have lost the
chance to be “normal” like their friends who are growing up in their
biological families. Child also may have lost siblings, birth order, and
other connections with the biological family. Another unique feature of
adoption is that the adopted child must cope with losses that are less
obvious, e.g. in the case of death, society provides the rituals of funerals
and the gathering of people to support the person who is mourning
(Tunncliffe and Briggs, 1997; Grollman, 1990 et al.). However, losses
of adoption frequently are not recognized, nor are there established
rituals or ceremonies to mourn such losses. For the adopted person,
loss in adoption is not a single event but a series of ongoing losses:
birthdays, Father’s Day, and Mother’s Day can be viewed as a reminder
of the original loss and the ongoing nature of that loss (Smit, 2002).
• Adopted children have experienced significant losses, and grieving
these losses is rather important for healthy adaptive development
(Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 2002). Grieving
is a natural and necessary response to the adoptive experience as
well as to the death of a loving one, parents’ divorce, migration etc.
(Goldman, 2000). The losses of adoption may be less obvious and less
likely to be acknowledged, thus the adopted child and others may deny
the grief being experienced. Behavioral changes seen in elementary
school-age adoptees that reflect grieving include anger, aggression,
oppositional behavior, and uncommunicativeness, depression, and selfimage problems. Feelings of anger, resentment, and sadness may be
projected onto the people available to the child, especially the adoptive
parents. Besides grief in adolescence may be expressed with anger and
defiance.
• The child’s feelings of loss are heightened by feelings of rejection
(Silverstein and Roszia, 1999 see in Smit, 2002). As the child matures,
he/she begins to wonder why his/her birthparents or someone from the
extended family did not choose to care for him or her. Adopted children
may view themselves as responsible for the birth family decision not to
parent them. Because of egocentric thinking, they feel they were bad,
defective, unlovable, and unworthy (Journal of Child and Adolescent
Psychiatric Nursing, 2002). A sense of deserving the loss and rejection
may lead them to feel guilty and ashamed.
Taking in account those challenges and the models of coping with them,
the possible consequences in later child’s development stages could become
obvious, i.e. at the moment of expanding social network in adolescence, many
adoptees, in regard to their specific “internal working model of attachment”
may present a difficulty in establishing selective bonds with others, leading
to social withdrawal and feelings of helplessness (Pratti, 2005; Sroufe, 2005
cited in Adopted adolescents: Attachment and behaviour problems, 2009).
127
Conclusions
(1) Open adoption is mainly seen as the phenomenon that allows the
adopted child freely communicate with both birth and adoptive parents
and this process leaves no place for any hidden psychological or
even identity obstacles within child’s interaction with his/her closest
environment. Openness no longer refers simply to open communication
between adoptive family members but also relates to the degree to
which information passes between birth and adoptive families and to
the level of contact and ongoing relationship between these enmeshed
families.
(2) Along with the positive intentions of adults to foster or adopt a child
some psychological negative outcomes of child‘s adoption/foster
process may be seen as well, especially having in mind the international
adoption, that has some effect on emotional and social development
in adolescence, specifically in regard to attachment and separation
processes.
(3) It becomes also much clear that the psychological impact of adoption
in many cases means that adopted children and their both biological
and adoptive families face unique challenges: loss, grief, and rejection
with accompanying feelings of guilt/shame, identity, and intimacy/
relationships issues.
(4) Therefore it is of great importance to understand which and how
the underlying factors may intervene in the pre and post adoption
processes, in order to prevent difficulties and vulnerabilities, and to
optimize chances for an optimal child‘s psychosocial development.
Secure attachment could be as a protective factor regarding behavior
problems in childhood and social support along with networking may
assure this secure attachement to be fulfilled.
Bibliography:
1. Child Welfare Information Gateway. Openness in adoption: Building
relationships between adoptive and birth families. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Children’s Bureau 2013.
2. Fall, K. A. et al., An Existential Approach to Adoptive Identity Development
in Adulthood. The Family Journal. Sage Publication, 20/2012.
3. Fonagy, P. et al., The Importance of Shared Environment in Mother–Infant
Attachment Security: A Behavioral Genetic Study. Child Development.
Vol. 74 (6)/2003.
4. Goldman, L., Life & Loss: A Guide To Help Grieving Children. 2nd Ed.
Accelerated Development: Taylor & Francis Group, KY 2000.
5. Hodgkin, R., Newell, P., Implementation Handbook for the Convention
on the Rights of the Child. UNICEF House: New York 2007.
6. Jones, C., Hackett, J., Communicative openness within adoptive families:
adoptive parents narrative accounts of the challenges of adoption talk and
the approaches used to manage these challenges. Adoption Quarterly,
10 (3-4)/2008.
7. Neil, E., Post-Adoption Contact and Openness in Adoptive Parents’
Minds: Consequences for Children’s Development. Oxford University
Press 2007.
8. Pierrehumbert, B. et al., Gender and attachment representations in the
preschool years: Comparisons between five countries. Journal of CrossCultural Psychology. 40(4)/2009. doi: 10.1177/0022022109335181
9. Przybysz-Zaremba M., Relations between mother and child and parental
attitudes analysis, – SOCIALINIS DARBAS „Social Work” 2014, Vol.
13, No. 1.
10. Przybysz-Zaremba M., Selected Forms of Aid to (Non)dysfunctional
Family: Polish Aspect, “Journal of Educational Review” 2013, vol. 6,
no. 1.
11. Rutter, M. et al., Key Study: Romanian Orphans Investigation.
Interactive: http://www.integratedsociopsychology.net/romanian_orphans
_investigation.html [last check 2013-10-11].
12. Singer, E., Krebs, M., Assisting adoptive families: children adopted at
older ages. Pediatric Nursing. 34(2)/2008.
13. Smit, E. M., Adopted Children: Core Issues and Unique Challenges.
Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing. Vol. 15 (4)/2002.
14. http://www.teenissues.co.uk/fostering-adopting-teenagers.html
[last
checked 2013-09-18].
129
Entrepreneurial Competencies of Children Living in Foster Homes
Jolita DUDAITĖ Dr
Mykolas Romeris University, (Lithuania)
Entrepreneurial Competencies of Children
Living in Foster Homes
Abstract:
The aim of foster homes for children is to ensure care, education, social
services and other appropriate conditions to children, as well as to
maintain the environment where they could grow, develop and prepare for
independent life in the society. Educational activity of foster homes must
be focused on developing social competences of children which would help
them to be more successful in various social contexts, integrate into society
and live active social life. Development of the entrepreneurial competencies
is also particularly significant in achieving those goals. The entrepreneurial
competencies allow finding your place in the society and promoting your
social advancement which is particularly important to children who have
lost parental care and live in foster homes. So, to what extent are children
in institutional care in Lithuania ready for life? The survey tries to find out
whether education of children living in foster homes in Lithuania covers
entrepreneurship, whether the children consider that they have enough
entrepreneurial competencies, and how they understand entrepreneurship.
Purpose of the survey is to ascertain the attitude of children living in
foster homes towards their entrepreneurial competencies. Persons aged
10 to 19 from 4 foster homes participated in the survey. In the opinion
of children who live in foster homes, their entrepreneurial competencies
are not sufficient. It was found out that entrepreneurial competencies are
related with education philosophy and living conditions in foster homes,
i.e. the more conditions are provided for entrepreneurship education, the
better development of entrepreneurial competencies is observed.
Keywords:
entrepreneurial competencies, children, foster homes.
132 Jolita Dudaitė
Introduction
Over the last decades, an increase in the number of studies and scientific
work on the problems of children who have lost parental care has been
observed. This was influenced by numerous studies on the negative impact of
separation of children from their parents and placement in institutional care
to their development and integration into social life (Pringle, 1986, Vorria
et al., 1998; Hukkanen et al., 1999). In Lithuania, the number of studies on
problems of children who have lost parental care is not large, but lately it has
been increasing.
The aim of foster homes for children is to ensure care, education,
social services and other appropriate conditions to children, as well as to
maintain the environment where they could grow, develop and prepare for
independent life in the society. Educational activity of foster homes must
be focused on developing social competences of children which would help
them to be more successful in various social contexts, integrate into society
and live active social life. Development of the entrepreneurial competencies
is also particularly significant in achieving those goals. The entrepreneurial
competencies allow finding your place in the society and promoting your
social advancement which is particularly important to children who have lost
parental care and live in foster homes.
To what extent are children in institutional care in Lithuania ready for life?
Barkauskaitė (2001) analyzed social skills, peculiarities of communication,
and relationship of children living in foster homes, Žukauskienė and
Leiputė (2002) – emotional and behavioural difficulties, Braslauskienė
(2000) – education peculiarities, Leliūgienė (2003) and Kvieskienė (2003) –
socialization problems, Raudeliūnaitė and Paigozina (2009) – expression of
social skills, Samašonok and Gudonis (2008) compared social competencies
of teenagers living in foster homes and those living in full families, Justickis
and Ramanauskaitė (2006) surveyed whether children living in foster homes
in Lithuania know their rights. Meanwhile, research on entrepreneurial
competencies of children in institutional care has not yet been carried out
in Lithuania. Therefore, it is interesting to find out whether education of
children living in foster homes in Lithuania covers entrepreneurship, whether
the children consider that they have enough entrepreneurial competencies,
and how they understand entrepreneurship. The said questions define the
problem of the survey.
The purpose of the survey is to ascertain the attitude of children living in
foster homes towards their entrepreneurial competencies. The object of the
survey is entrepreneurial competencies of children living in foster homes. The
objectives: to define the concept of entrepreneurship; to find out what children
living in foster homes think about their entrepreneurial competencies; to find
out what determine the difference between entrepreneurial competencies of
children from different foster homes. The methods of the survey: analysis
of scientific literature, analysis of documents, questionnaire, descriptive
statistics.
Theoretical background
Scientific literature presents a great variety of definitions of entrepreneurship.
To summarize various definitions of entrepreneurship provided in scientific
literature, they can be divided into the following three groups (Kaufmann and
Dant, 1998; Župerka, 2010):
• the definitions that highlight traits and qualities characteristic to entrepreneurs, such as the ability to take risks, leadership, motivation, ability to solve problems, creativity, ability to make decisions, etc.;
• the definitions related to entrepreneurship process and its results,
which cover establishment of new enterprises, introduction of new
products or their analogues, merger of innovative and valuable resources in the environment of new changes;
• the definitions focusing on the activity of an entrepreneur, which
cover participation in the new markets, overcoming of market deficit,
development and reorganisation of new leadership structures, search
for supply sources and market places, initiation, sustaining and development of profit-oriented business, satisfaction of needs, and organisational management control.
In terms of the concept of entrepreneurship, Henderson (2002) indicates
innovation as an element common for and unifying many definitions of
entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship is considered as one of the main factors
ensuring innovation, competitiveness and economic growth of the country;
it refers to the creation not only of economic but also social value added,
a chance for self-realization, quick and effective adaptation to environmental
changes, improvement of quality of life.
According to Kiškis and Lunevičiūtė (2011), entrepreneurship implies
noticing the existing opportunities and using the skills of risk-taking, taking
the initiative and bringing the like-minded persons together in order to achieve
the set goal of exploiting these opportunities. According to these scholars,
people possessing entrepreneurial competencies are responsible, confident
in their skills and success, they demonstrate personal vitality, organizational
133
134 Jolita Dudaitė
skills, they are future and achievement oriented, take reasonable risks and
feel the need for feedback.
When defining entrepreneurship, Mincienė (2000) pointed out the following
key components of entrepreneurship: belief in success and ambition to achieve
goals, wish to be independent, creativity, estimated risks, determination.
Green (2006) indicates the following traits of people having entrepreneurial
competencies: independence, self-confidence, perseverance, concentration,
search for new challenges and high demands on oneself, creativity, prompt
decision making. Jasinavičius (2007) describes entrepreneurship as a result of
unlimited wishes based on which a person is encouraged to seek new things.
Having analysed definitions of entrepreneurship provided by various
scholars, Župerka states that entrepreneurship is often conceived as an
expression of traits and abilities of a person during activity (Župerka, 2010).
Vázquez-Burgete et al. (2012) present entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial
competence as knowledge, skills and attitudes.
In summary, it can be concluded that scientific literature provides different
definitions of entrepreneurship, but two key approaches to entrepreneurship
can be distinguished: the narrower one emphasizes personal characteristics
required for creation of economic value, the wider one, those required for
creation of social value.
Can entrepreneurship be taught? Scholars agree on this point by stating
that it is possible to teach functional abilities of entrepreneurship, to transfer
knowledge, but natural abilities of entrepreneurship cannot be taught. People
are born with entrepreneurial abilities, but higher level of entrepreneurial
competence will be reached if entrepreneurial skills are developed (Strazdienė,
Garalis, 2006).
Survey methodology
Sample. Persons aged 10–19 from 4 foster homes participated in the survey.
224 persons of the age group live in the foster homes. 173 persons (77.2%)
agreed to participate in the survey. The age group was chosen according to
the following principle: the lower limit was selected according to the test
theory principle whereby it is not recommended to carry out a survey by
interviewing children younger than 10 years of age; the upper limit – the
age of graduation from secondary school. All foster homes are located in the
same region of Lithuania, they are similar in size, comprise households of
10–13 children. Thus, it is true to say that the context of social environment
of all 4 foster homes is similar.
Data collection tool – questionnaire. The respondents had to answer
closed-ended questions. The questions were prepared following the analysis
of scientific literature.
Survey ethics. Participation in the survey was voluntary. 51 persons
(22.8%) aged 10–19 refused to participate in the survey.
Survey results
The results of the analysis of the answers of the respondents to the question
of what entrepreneurial competencies they consider themselves to have are
provided in the table below.
Table 1. Self-assessment of entrepreneurial competencies
Entrepreneurial competencies/components
Number of respondents (%)
Independence
46.8
Public spirit
45.6
Estimated risk
44.3
Ability to make decisions
44.3
Quick reaction
44.0
Communication skills
41.8
Logical thinking
41.7
Open to innovation
30.4
Planning for the future
30.4
Time management ability
30.2
Intuition
30.0
Being active
1.3
Knowledge on business
0
Practical skills of entrepreneurship
0
Ability to bring people together for common activity
0
Self-realization
0
Self-confidence
0
Positive thinking
0
Management skills
0
Critical approach
0
Ability to sell yourself
0
The table shows that in case of every entrepreneurial competence
(component of entrepreneurial), less than half of the respondents admit
having that competence. Most respondents state that they are independent,
135
136 Jolita Dudaitė
public-spirited, take estimated risks, are able to make decisions, know how to
react quickly, have communication skills, and are able to think logically. It is
surprising that quite a lot of competencies were not indicated at all. After all,
positive thinking, self-confidence, critical approach are important not only to
the expression of entrepreneurship but a fully-fledged life as well.
The respondents mostly indicated only 3 or 4 entrepreneurial competencies
(27.8 and 25.3% respectively). However, there were respondents who
indicated only 1 competence (6.3%). The largest number of the competencies
indicated by respondents was 7 (only 2.54 % of respondents), while the list
consisted of 21 entrepreneurial competencies. It is obvious that children
and young people living in foster homes do not consider themselves to have
enough entrepreneurial competencies.
How do respondents conceive entrepreneurship itself? What competencies
do they relate with entrepreneurship? Comparison between their conception
of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial competencies they ascribe to
themselves showed that the difference is big (see Table 2).
The table shows that part of competencies ascribed by the respondents
to themselves is not ascribed by the respondents to entrepreneurship itself.
Such competencies include the ability to make decisions, quick reaction,
public spirit, planning for the future, intuition. However, there are a lot of
competencies that are ascribed by the respondents to entrepreneurship but are
not ascribed by the respondents to themselves, e.g. being active, knowledge
of business, practical skills of entrepreneurship, ability to bring people
together for common activity, ability of self-realization, self-confidence,
positive thinking. The respondents consider those competencies important
to entrepreneurship but admit that they do not have them. The result of more
detailed analysis of the data received and their comparison by various sections
was interesting – findings on 4 foster homes show their grouping into pairs
(see Figure 1, where A, B, C and D refer to foster homes).
Comparison of the average number of competencies ascribed to the
conception of entrepreneurship and the average number of entrepreneurial
competencies of respondents by foster homes showed that the results of the
pair of foster homes A and C and that of foster homes B and D differ (in the
chart, the results of these pairs are merged). Conception of entrepreneurship
of respondents of both pairs of foster homes is almost similar (confidence
intervals strongly overlap – blue line), while the same thing could not be
said in terms of self-assessment of entrepreneurial competencies which
respondents ascribe to themselves (green line). It is clear that the average
number of entrepreneurial competencies of respondents in foster homes A and
C is considerably higher than in foster homes B and D. It means that children
Table 2. Comparison between self-assessment of entrepreneurial
competencies and conception of entrepreneurship
Self-assessment
(%)
Conception
(%)
Independence
46.8
48.1
Public spirit
45.6
0
Estimated risk
44.3
20.3
44.3
0
Quick reaction
44.0
0
41.8
25.3
Logical thinking
41.7
25.2
Openness to innovation
30.4
44.3
30.4
0
30.2
40.5
Intuition
30.0
0
Being active
1.3
27.8
Knowledge on business
0
34.2
Practical skills of entrepreneurship
0
34.0
Ability to bring people together for common
activity
0
29.1
Self-realization
0
25.3
Self-confidence
0
20.4
Positive thinking
0
20.1
Management skills
0
0
Critical approach
0
0
Ability to sell yourself
0
0
Entrepreneurial competencies/components
and young people living in foster homes A and C consider themselves to have
more entrepreneurial competencies than those living in foster homes B and
D. This difference is statistically significant. The differences between pairs
are provided in detail in Table 3 (the competencies which were not marked
by respondents are not included in the table).
137
138 Jolita Dudaitė
Picture 1. Comparison between conception of entrepreneurship (blue
line) and self-assessment of entrepreneurial competencies (green line) by
foster homes
Table 3. Self-assessment of competencies in foster homes A and C against
foster homes B and D
Respondents from foster Respondents from foster
Entrepreneurial
homes A and C (%)
homes B and D (%)
competencies/components
Independence
50.0
43.9
Public spirit
55.3
36.6
Estimated risk
47.7
41.2
47.4
41.5
Quick reaction
47.3
41.3
39.5
43.9
Logical thinking
60.5
56.1
Openness to innovation
44.7
17.1
47.4
14.6
52.6
9.8
Intuition
46.7
14.1
Being active
2.6
0
The table shows that as regards most competencies, respondents from
foster homes A and C indicated having the competencies. The figures in
bold show a significant difference between the two pairs of foster homes
(independence, public spirit, openness to innovation, the ability to plan for
the future, time management ability, and intuition). Therefore, respondents
from foster homes A and C consider themselves to have more entrepreneurial
competencies than those from foster homes B and D.
What determines the difference, if all 4 foster homes were selected from
the same region of Lithuania and are of similar size and structure? To find the
answer, documents presenting the philosophy – visions, missions, aims and
tasks – of all 4 foster homes were analysed. The results are presented in the
table below (see Table 4).
Table 4. Main objectives of foster homes
Foster home A
emotional
and spiritual
satisfaction of
needs,
harmonious
personality,
community,
future love,
establishment
in life
What household kitchenette,
has
kitchen garden,
garden,
flower garden,
greenhouse
Responsibilities in the
of children
kitchenette,
in the kitchen
garden,
in the garden,
in the flower
garden,
in the
greenhouse,
cleaning
Focuses on
Foster home B
protection,
care,
welfare,
education,
provision and
development
of social
services
kitchenette
-
Foster home C
encouragement
of independence,
projecting of
future, search for
effective forms
of education,
emotional side of
education,
wellbeing of
children
kitchenette,
kitchen garden,
garden,
flower garden,
part of pond
in the
kitchenette,
in the kitchen
garden,
in the garden,
in the flower
garden,
cleaning
Foster home D
protection,
ensuring
subsistence,
care,
personal
growth,
individual
application of
services
kitchenette
in the
kitchenette
It is apparent that foster homes B and D focus on welfare, care, provision
of services, i.e. on giving something, while foster homes A and C focus not
on giving but on the satisfaction of emotional needs of children, as well as
139
140 Jolita Dudaitė
community, independence, projecting of future. It is particularly important
to note that the objectives of foster homes A and C include projecting of
future, establishment in life, and encouragement of independence – these
things are closely related with entrepreneurship education. Furthermore, in
foster homes A and C, in comparison to B and D, there is clear difference
in requirements for the responsibilities of children, as well as different
opportunities are provided for those responsibilities (kitchen garden, garden,
greenhouse, flower garden, kitchen). These differences in objectives and
provided conditions may be the answer to the question why children and
young people who live in foster homes A and C and those who live in foster
homes B and D see their competencies differently, and, in that context, their
preparation for independent life differ.
Conclusions
(1) In the opinion of children and young people who live in foster homes
their entrepreneurial competencies are not sufficient.
(2) Entrepreneurial competencies are related with education philosophy
and living conditions in foster home, i.e. the more conditions are
provided for entrepreneurship education, the better development of
entrepreneurial competencies is observed.
Bibliography:
1. Braslauskienė R., Bešeimių vaikų ugdymo ypatumai globos institucijose (socialinis ir psichopedagoginis aspektas). Daktaro disertacija,
Klaipėdos universitetas, 2000.
2. Greene C. L., Entrepreneurship: ideas in action. South-Western/Thomson, 2006.
3. Henderson, J. R., Building the Rural Economy With High – Growth Entrepreneurs. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, Economic Review,
2002.
4. Hukkanen R., Sourander A., Bergroth L., Piha J., Follow-up of children
and adolescents in residential care in children‘s homes. Nord Journal of
Psychiatry, 1999, 53.
5. Jasinavičius R., Nacionalinio darbdavio ugdymo programa. Vilnius,
2007.
6. Justickis, V., Ramanauskaitė, E., Vaikų namų globotinio teisinio statuso
psichologinis įvertinimas. Socialinis darbas, 5(2), 2006.
7. Kaufman P., Dant R. P., Franchising and the domain of entrepreneurship
research. Journal of Business venturing, 14 (1), 1998.
8. Kiškis M., Lunevičiūtė G., Verslumas elektroninėje erdvėje. Vilnius:
MRU, 2011.
9. Mincienė L., Verslumo integravimas į pirminį profesinį rengimą. Pedagogika, 46, 2000.
10. Pringle M. K., The needs of children. Suffolk: Hutchinison, 1986.
11. Samašonok, K. ir Gudonis, V., Paauglių, gyvenančių globos institucijose
ir pilnose šeimose, socialinė kompetencija: lyties ir amžiaus ypatumai.
Ugdymo psichologija, 19, 2008.
12. Strazdienė G., Garalis A., Verslumas: ugdymo programos ir jų efektyvumo raiška. Organizacijų vadyba: sisteminiai tyrimai. 38, 2006.
13. Vázquez-Burgete J. L., Lanero A., Raišienė A. G., García M. P., Entrepreneurship Education in Humanities and Social Sciences: are Students
Qualified to Start a Business? Verslas: Teorija ir Praktika, 1(13), 2012.
14. Vorria P., Wolkind S., Rutter M., Pickles A., Hobsbaum A., A Comparative Study of Greek Children in Long-term Residential Group Care and
in Two-parent Families: Social, Emotional and Behavioural Differences. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines,
39(2), 1998.
15. Žukauskienė, R., Leiputė, O., Vaikų ir jaunimo globos namų auklėtinių
ir vaikų, gyvenančių su abiem tėvais, emocinių ir elgesio problemų ypatumai. Socialinis darbas, 2(2), 2002.
16. Župerka A., Studentų verslumo ugdymo plėtra Lietuvoje. Daktaro disertacija. Kaunas: VDU, 2010.
141
Attitude to Communication with a Disabled Person
Jautrė Ramutė ŠINKŪNIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Mykolas Romeris University, (Lithuania)
Attitude to Communication
with a Disabled Person
Abstract:
The destiny of a disabled person is determined not by his disability by
itself but its social consequences. When seeking increased self-reliance
for disabled people, improvement of social skills must be considered
important, as it helps to have confidence in yourself, allows for more
efficient communication, provides inner energy, enables the person to
persevere through a traumatic experience and helps the general quality
of life. Disabled people with higher social skills find it easier to start
meaningful relationships with others, are able to gather caring and
reassuring people around themselves.
This article analyses the particulars of communication with a disabled
person, recent qualitative data of research on the topic is presented,
revealing the attitude of disabled persons and their friends and families,
concerning the communication process.
Key words:
communication, disability, Disability etiquette, social skills.
Introduction
Self-reliant life of people with disabilities is a whole philosophy of equal
opportunities, decisions and self-respect. As Adolf Ratzka (2005) – writer
and person with disability said: “Self-reliant life does not mean that we have
to do everything ourselves and we do not need any help, or that we have to
separate ourselves from others. For us, self-reliant life means asking for the
same opportunities of choice in our everyday lives that are taken as granted
144 Jautrė Ramutė Šinkūnienė
by our brothers and sisters, neighbors and friend. We want to be raised in
our own families, attend the local school, use public transport, have a job
that matches our education and start a family.” Disabled people are the best
authority on their own needs, so it is them who have to show the decisions that
need to be made, they themselves have to be responsible for their lives, think
and speak for themselves, like everybody else. For this purpose, we have to
learn to support each other, to organize ourselves and work for ensuring the
protection of disabled people and political change of civil rights.
Only by accepting their disability and learning to live with it, people will
be able to feel and act right with people surrounding them. How much joy the
world around us ignites in our hearts, how good is our life, what we achieve,
how much confidence in ourselves we have – this is what decides our selfimage. Everybody knows that you are who you think you are. It is not such
a rare thing to see a disabled person living with an expectation of care, i.e.
waiting for initiatives targeted at their own quality of life, expecting help
from others. This attitude creates the mentality of a closed circle of disabled
people, a way of thinking and acting, that results in disappointment, passivity,
looking for scape-goats, premature acceptance of failure, fear of change.
Learned powerlessness is formed: a disabled person, not experiencing any
influence his actions have on the environment, loses motivation to initiate
changes in his behavior and environment.
Purpose of the article – to present two approaches to communication with
a disabled person and to reveal the perception of communication.
How to accept and understand a disabled person?
“Why do people find it so hard to talk to me? I am sure that everyone
can communicate. […] Some people express they thoughts wordlessly. Many
believe that if you have a physical disability that also goes hand in hand
with mental as well…”; “…It bothers me when people around me stare at
me…”, “I need more self-confidence […], people find it hard to understand
me. Despite looking like this, I feel the same as you inside. This is only my
exterior”, - these are some of disabled people’s thoughts about their feelings
while communicating with strangers.
It could be said that it is hard to communicate with and understand the
disabled. However, is it really easy for people who can verbalize perfectly
to understand each other? Each person, while seeking to understand another
person, including his needs, emotional state and ways of communication, is
met with various difficulties. The way a disabled person acts is his way of
communication, so mastered ways of expressing yourself via the way you act
ensure the quality of his ability to communicate and social adaptation, i.e. the
way his personality is suited to his social environment.
Communication can be successful only if both sides are prepared to use
all possible verbal and non-verbal ways of communication. The conversation
requires greater concentration and patience from the conversant, however
the essential requirement is to acknowledge the person and not his disability
(Ruškus, 2002). The philosophy of attitude towards the disabled is most
often discussed in the context of the society, however, in situations of
communication that are found in everyday life, it is the attitude and efforts to
solve the psychological problems of the disabled person by people close to
him that mostly influence the decisions which can’t be made by the person
himself.
The book “How to Help Your Child” (1992) by T. J. Weighs, written
in the empathic method, it is advised to anyone who desires it to find and
develop the ability to immerse himself in a disabled person’s state of being
and experiences. In the book there is an example: the relationship between
a child with developmental problems and people could be likened to a pianist,
playing an off-tune piano and his audience. If we are only interested in the
“instrument”, we’re like a tone-deaf audience to this child. Only by getting
to know the spiritual state of the child, the deep essence of his special needs,
will we begin to allow for the abilities of the disabled child to be revealed, his
way of self-expression and communication to be developed (Weighs, 1992).
Communication is split into two levels – rational, which consists of
the contents of communication and emotional, which is manifested by the
ways information is being expressed. The emotional side of communication
represents the interpersonal relationship between the parties and is most
often expressed by non-verbal means – gestures, postures, facial expressions.
It can be very meaningful when, for example, encouraging the disabled to
take initiative and teaching them to use means of non-verbal communication
for their purposes (Steman, 2000). Research in the subject of problems in
communication reinforced the point that verbal communication is only the
external coating of what is being said, communication without signs, their
meaning and purpose, summaries and definitions is impossible. However,
it is possible to read the thoughts of others, to express your mood and state
without verbalizing. Sometimes, the “language” of silence and gestures is
deeper, more meaningful than words (Лоуэн, 1997).
Every communication reveals a certain relationship that is very important
when seeking understanding of the contents of the communication. When the
plane of communication is important, the content of it is almost beside the
145
point; it is also possible to agree on content but have a confrontation on the
emotional plane. Paradoxical communication occurs when verbal information
goes against the information that is being transferred non-verbally (tone of
voice, facial expressions, etc.). When the content of text and intonations are
conflicted, the disabled person does not understand the point of directions,
so it is important to pay attention to both rational and emotional part of
information about the appropriateness of his behavior, about the importance
of what is being said (Phillipot, Feldman, 1999; Лоуэн, 1997).
Attitude towards communication with the disabled:
views of social workers
Social work is widely accepted as a multidimensional, difficult and
emotionally tense activity. Social workers, as representatives of an assisting
profession, sometimes work feeling immense psychological and/or emotional
pressure from their organization or environment (Collins, 2009). They have
to juggle the problems of their clients while adapting themselves to their
personal situation and the requirements of the families of the disabled and
their organization. Personal values of the social worker influence his views
on a disabled person, his family, and the communication process itself. Two
viewpoints of the disabled are noted – subjective and objective, or positive
and negative (Ivoškienė, 2003).
Subjective point of view – the disabled person is communicated with by
accepting the specifics of his way of communication, i.e. personal initiative is
expressed by supporting and strengthening the people who need it. Objective
point of view – the disabled is thought of as an object with functions that can
possibly be understood and influenced. It is attempted to change his special
behavior without any regard to the fact that his behavior is the person’s way
to communicate, express his needs and inner turmoil. The way that a worker
consciously or unconsciously chooses when trying to influence the client
always represents his attitude towards the disabled person. For example, when
following the subjective way, activities in the day care center are organized
by taking into account the needs and requests by the client group. By the
objective way, there is no contact between the worked and the disabled person,
there is only orders to be obeyed and commands to be followed. The disabled
person can be manipulated, the attitude towards him can be overprotective,
stifling the client’s initiative (Ivoškienė, 2003).
The data of a half-standardized interview “Social work supervision needs
analysis of people with disabilities in day care centers“ (Šinkūnienė, Laucytė,
2009) will be present. The interview was carried out with six social workers,
employed at six day centers in Vilnius, catering to the needs of adults with
mental disabilities. A social worker places the same importance on the
attitude of society as the disabled person or his family because it influences
his professional self-worth. By participating in public events together with
the disabled, he feels the reaction of the public. When analyzing social
workers thoughts about other people’s opinions concerning their work, it is
apparent that negative or inadequate perception has influence on the worker’s
satisfaction with his work:
• “… the attitude is, how do I say this, quite negative, I think, that
a disabled person is somehow a burden on society… he’s not interesting; personally, this dismissal by others bothers me, it makes me
feel as if I work with those who are not valuable members of society.”
• “Sometimes, when walking down the street, you look at people from
head to toes and feel as if you’re like one (disabled) yourself; then
I think to myself – that’s okay, you’re no smarter yourself; … there’s
this attitude that you’re somehow strange for being able to work with
them; most people think like that.”
Popular opinion states that social work with mentally handicapped is
only a game, a way to spend your free time because they “can’t do anything
anyway”. It makes it apparent that in the matter of work with the disabled, both
people around them and the social workers themselves must realize that the
role of a social worker is necessary and has to be conducted in a qualified and
professional manner. Three interviewees said that people often inadequately
values their work by saying that it is very hard and then likening the workers
to “martyrs” despite the fact that they don’t feel like that at all:
• “… and most people look at us like martyrs; I don’t feel like that
at all, I like my work, I’m good – I’m not in danger of getting my
screws loose or anything.”
• “There’s this attitude towards our work… It gets through when people
come to visit: “Oh, how can you do this, I would go mad,” they say.”
• „Mostly... people are, like, fascinated; „Oh, I don‘t know, you have to
get yourself ready spiritually to work with people like that or something“ they say. Okay, it‘s nice to be appreciated but come on, there‘s
nothing to be fascinated about, too much credit.“
Social workers desire their work to be appreciated, however “over the
top” adulation is not welcome.
One social worker noted that the most difficult thing about her work is that
some clients don’t speak or express their emotions in not quite pleasant ways
(by shouting, aggressive behavior):
147
“For me, it’s hard to get used to the fact that L. doesn’t speak. I feel like
I’m communicating with myself. Despite the fact that he looks at you, you
can’t figure out if he understands you (…) sometimes, they have different
ways to express their emotions, D. for example, can’t speak in level tone, (…)
starts screaming… sometimes even gets hysterical…. sometimes screams for
the whole day, and it can get very tiring.”
Going by these declarations, one could say that work is not being spread
between the staff correctly, no attention is being paid to communication with
people who do not speak, and organized activities might not suit the needs
of their clients (or there are not enough activities being scheduled). When
speaking about things that are important when working with mentally disabled
people, some social workers stated that it is not just a job, it’s a way of life.
The education, knowledge of work methods of the staff is not the only thing
that matters, the ability to develop personal relationships is just as important.
Analyzing the interviews, two important aspects were realized: the education
and values of the worker. Thoughts on the matter by the interviewees:
• “I don’t know, I think that you can graduate with the degree but if you
don’t have the personal connection with the person, it won’t help. You
will never be a good social worker.”
• “Education is important, of course, but a lot depends on the person
himself.”
Two social workers started working at a day center by following a inner
calling:
• “Oh, I was in “Tikėjimas ir šviesa“(a community for the disabled in
Lithuania) for a year or so, liked disabled people very much (…) caught
wind of the fact that this center is opening, so I came.”
• “… I had some dealings with the mentally disabled, they intrigued me
a lot… and I really wanted that experience...”
On personal qualities of a social worker, they noted:
• „... I think tolerance and empathy are very important.“
• „... Mostly humanity, I think...“
Almost all social workers, speaking about their work, noted that it is
important to them to ensure good condition of their clients and to promote
communal environment:
• “… so that they feel like a family, like a community…”
• “… we try so hard to work towards a good atmosphere, to create a feeling of safety, to provide quality, quality of the connection between
us.”
Conclusions
The results of the interviews, the opinions of the social workers confirmed
that communication with disabled people requires not only adequate education
but also special abilities to establish a relationship, taking into account the
client‘s personality. Specifics of work and communication emerged:
• inadequate views on social work with a disabled person by society;
• difficulties in communication due to the specifics of the client’s mental disability (aggressiveness, explosive bursts of emotions, activities
with no results);
• the importance of empathy, creativity, and personal relationships when
solving problems of communication.
The system of social readiness should help social workers in raising their
communicational competence. This is also a problem of the education of social workers: institutions of higher learning do not pay enough attention to
contents, forms and methods of communication, practices of self-education,
social ethics, and social psychology. However, such problems does not reflect
the state of institutions where community relationships are developed consciously and methodically.
Social self-reliance of the disabled
Self-reliance is a universal personal ability to discover, think and act.
Self-reliance is necessary for any person who aspires to meaningfully, creatively and socially participate in community life. Progress of self-reliance
is tightly connected with the person’s social experience and environment.
Self-reliance of the disabled is interwoven with realistic opportunities to
participate in social life: to make everyday decisions, to plan future activities, to stand for himself. This is especially important to people with disabilities.
Successful socialization of a disabled person is one of the most important
tasks in creating a community. One of the disturbances in the process is
the focusing of text of communication towards external items instead of
people, while ignoring or allowing analysis of self and development of
communicational skills to occur naturally, as if these things were not worth
learning or even impossible to learn. The community should be the place
where the person can learn basic skills that help to live together with others –
to communicate and cooperate, to learn to be meaningfully, to help discover
and reveal their own capabilities. The community basically develops the
disabled person’s abilities to, essentially, live his life.
149
Research interviews “Social independence of people with disabilities: skills
and environmental assessment“ (Šinkūnienė, Slavinskaitė, 2011), where six
social workers, working with mentally handicapped people and develop their
social skills, to discovered which social skills, according to social workers, are
the most important to their clients (in Bernardine Day Center for the Disabled,
J. Matulaitis Social Center’s division for the Integration of the Disabled to
Society “Open Community” and Vilnius Children’s and Youth’s Center).
It was discovered that these skills are most important:
• “<…> they are communication, self-care and behavioral skills. I would
say that those are the most important for mentally handicapped and
would prioritize them.”
• “I think it’s all the social ones, you know, communication, expressing
their emotions, knowledge how to act in stressful situations, new situations, how to ask for help.”
In all interviews, communication skills were noted as the most important
for a mentally handicapped person, no matter if it is a child or an adult, who
seeks self-reliance. Disabled people who have good communication skills
are able to connect with not only their loved ones but strangers too. These
skills inspire courage, self-confidence, mentally handicapped people learn
to establish a connection with other people. This is illustrated by these
statements:
• ”Also, children know that they have to come up and greet other people,
to say goodbye, they are taught politeness, they can use these skills not
only in the institution but in other situations too.”
• “<…> I think that it’s communication skills, because you can plainly
see if the person can have contact, to come up and greet a person he
doesn’t know.”
• “<…> first of all, I see great progress when a new person comes in,
let’s say a volunteer or some other… new person, and they come up by
themselves, extend their hand and say “Hello…”
It is important to start developing communication skills as early as
possible, because that’s the only way they can communicate politely, connect
to a person they don’t know or ask for help when they are adults.
“It’s also apparent when we leave the center, when they are surrounded by
people they don’t know or in some other center, concert hall or theater.”
Being able to connect to new people, to communicate with self-confidence,
to start a conversation with someone without fear of greeting him, to ask for
something or just chat changes their attitude towards the disabled.
Social workers also emphasized the importance of developing good stress
management skills, the ability to recognize their emotions (not only good
or bad emotion, but more concretely – happiness, fear, jealousy, etc.) and to
know how to express them properly (double for negative feelings), without
self-destructive actions and without putting others in danger, hurting them.
According to social workers, the disabled person becomes more self-reliant
when he is able to react to other people’s feelings, understanding them and
trying to help the one who is experiencing them:
• “Children understand that the other person is sad, angry or happy, they
feel that very strongly.”
• “They try to provide comfort to the sad or lift his mood.”
It is important not only to understand your emotions but also to be able
to control them, especially fits of anger control:
• „… that is... a great level of self-awareness to understand and realize
that you are angry.“
• „… it‘s an achievement when they don’t express their anger in a group,
instead, they walk away, then come back and apologize… You talk to
them about it and they calm down.”
• “… helping each other out with it… you know, not only yourself but
others too. You’re stressing out but you see others too… You support
each other, make each other stronger…”
Controlling your emotions is an especially important skill because a person
who can’t control himself, is hysteric or even aggressive is never welcomed,
especially if he’s disabled too.
• “You don’t stand out, don’t draw attention to yourself, then other people accept you. If something’s wrong, if you’re angry… or something,
everybody’s looking at you, thinking that there’s something wrong
with you.”
According to social workers, development of these skills allow disabled
people wider opportunities to participate in activities, to be understood and
accepted:
• “It’s just that those skills help you to be human, to show people that
you are just like them, and there’s no need to fear you.”
• “Skills help them to feel like they’re a part of the world, help them
break free from the separation…”
Conclusions
The results of the research proved that social skills are the key to self-reliant
life, the basis for socialization of a disabled person, which lets him successfully
integrate with his community. According to social workers, there is not enough
151
methods for adult mentally handicapped clients so they use the methods for
development of social skills in children, which are modified according to specific
needs of each person. The progress is carefully evaluated by observing clients
during everyday activities, discussing it in staff meetings and conferences.
This research data revealed that behavioral, communicational, emotional
awareness and self-control skills in medium difficulty mentally handicapped
clients, no matter their age, do help to involve themselves in the community,
positively impact their self-reliance in various situations. Social workers most
often mentioned appropriate behavior in public places, polite communication,
establishing a connection, emotional control, positive change in attitude
towards the disabled from other people.
Self-reliance in people with disabilities
The objective of the research paper „The Peculiarities of Communication
with People having different disabilities” (Šinkūnienė, Mikulevič, 2012) was
to analyze communication from the position of a disabled person: to reveal
how people with various disabilities feel while communicating, how they
rate their communicational abilities. To understand their disability, the person
first has to accept himself as he is, to discover, reveal and get to know his true
self, to trust and respect himself.
Three categories were concentrated on: 1) personal ability to communicate,
2) frequency of communication and activity, 3) psychological aspects of
communication. Six adults (20 to 37 years old) with different disabilities
(from day care centre) were interviewed: a male with a hearing disability, 20
y.o. (V1 kl/n); a male with a mobility disability, 27 y.o. (V2 j/n); a male with
a mental disease, 33 y.o. (V3 ps/n); a female with a vision disability, 37 y.o.
(M1 r/n); a female with a mental disability, 26 y.o. (M2 p/n); a female with
a developmental disability, 28 y.o. (M3 rd/n).
We asked the respondents about their need to communicate, their social
circle, the way the establish new contacts, understanding between people,
help that they require while communicating, personal qualities concerning
communication and their self-evaluation. All six interviewees feel a desire to
communicate, which is confirmed by these statements:
• <…> I can’t hear very well, but I like to communicate with everyone
<…> (V1 kl/n)
• <…> I have to communicate because I don’t like to be alone <…> (V2 j/n)
• <…> I have contact with people, of course <…> (M1 r/n)
• <…> I like to talk to people <…> (V3 ps/n).
When trying to determine the environment these people communicate in
and who are their most frequent conversational partners, we found that only
two people (with hearing and movement disabilities) have friends who do not
share their condition but socialize with others as well:
• <…> I have friends who can hear fine <…> (V1 kl/n).
The man with a movement disability said that he has disabled friends
who do not visit the social services center and also socializes with his
neighbors:
• <…> I have friends in wheelchairs and other friends, who live nearby
<…> (V2 j/n).
However, the other four only socialize with their colleagues or employees
in their day center. The woman with a vision disability stated that she does
not have any friends, the only people she trusts to understand her are her
family members:
• <…> don’t have friends, my family is closest to me, especially my
parents, sister <…> (M1 r/n).
The male (with mental disease) and two females (one with mental, the
other developmental disability) stated that their closest friends are visitors of
the day center. Also, family members:
• <…> all of my friends come to this center, also, mother and sister <…>
(V3 ps/n)
• <…> I have many friends here… don’t know others, also parents and
sister… <…> (M2 p/n).
It is confirmed that disabled people limit themselves to their closest
environment at the social services center. That allows them to partially
experience the sense of safety, trust and love, while avoiding loneliness.
However, the lack of relationships with “healthy” people obviously reveals
the social divide which hinders the development of social skills and proves
the existence of a ”closed wheel of communication”.
When asked about new relationships and starting new friendships, three
out of six interviewees (having vision, developmental and mental disabilities)
stated that new friendships are not reliable and unsafe:
• <…> I’m quite careful with people I don’t know, feel too afraid to talk
to them <…> (M1 r/n)
• <…> I wouldn’t find anything in common with a person I don’t know
<…> (M2 p/n)
• <…> You can’t talk to strangers, they can be bad <…> (M3 rd/n).
The remaining three persons (with movement, hearing disabilities and
mental disease) stated that relationships with new friends or strangers could
be real and safe, they stated that they could initiate a connection:
153
• <…> no problem, I’m not afraid, could come up an greet them <…>
(V2 j/n)
• <…> I like new people, I can start a conversation, tell them about myself <…> (V3 ps/n)
• <…> I think I could start a chat first, there’s no need to be afraid <…>
(V1 kl/n).
To the question – how successful respondents are at expressing and
receiving information, three people (with hearing, movement disabilities and
mental disease) stated:
• <…> If they need somebody to listen, I’m always ready, give advice…
when I need to talk my heart out, they listen too <…> (V1 kl/n)
• <…> I like it when people listen to me, ask me questions <…> (V3 ps/n)
• <…> I’m good at listening to people, however sometimes… I talk too
much <…> (V2 j/n).
These people are able to speak and listen to their friends, loved ones, by
actively communicating, they have an opportunity to understand and know
themselves better, they feel like they are equal participants in a conversation.
The other three (with vision, mental and developmental disabilities) were
more passive when communicating, however that is not necessarily because
of lack of communicational skills, it could be due to their personal qualities:
• <…> it’s interesting to listen <…> (M1 r/n)
• <…> I like listening more but I can talk too <…> (M2 p/n).
When asked, what kind of help do you need when speaking to your friends
of family, four out of six persons (with mental disease, hearing, movement
and vision disabilities) said that they like everybody else, often need advice,
help and lessons on how to act in certain situations, how to solve problems
in their life:
• <…> friends, workers try to calm me down, if the attack is big, they
call the ambulance <…> (V3 ps/n)
• <…> same as everybody, just need some advice <…> (V1 kl/n)
• <…> I want them to listen, advise me… Sometimes, I need a travel
companion <…> (V2 j/n)
• <…> when they need to teach me something… when I fall down…
when I need to fill out some documents <…> (M1 r/n).
The person with a visual disability mentioned that she needs help of others
in shops, banks, government institutions – to read labels, prices or fill out
documents. The person with a mental disease stated that he sometimes needs
emergency medical services. The person with a movement disability needs
a companion outside the boundaries of the center. The other two persons –
one with mental, the other with developmental disability, stated that they do
not require the help of their friends or family because they are self-reliant (it
turns out that they value their self-reliance highly):
• <…> I don’t need help, I’m self-reliant <…> (M2 p/n)
• <…> I don’t need the help of others<…> (M3 rd/n).
However, this evaluation of their self-reliance is not adequate because,
according to others and knowing the particulars of mental and developmental
disabilities, possibilities for self-reliance are not high. Self-reliance of the
people with such disabilities is the object of methodic, diligent development
of social and communicational skills.
During the course of these conversations, personal qualities and selfevaluation named by the participants themselves were revealed. Three
participants (with hearing, mental disabilities and mental disease) stated their
positive qualities and proved that their self-image is quite good:
• <…> I’m friendly… I can give advice, don’t tell other people’s secrets
<…> (V1 kl/n)
• <…> I have many talents… I like attention, when I’m being praised,
I am very active <…> (V3 ps/n)
• <…> I am self-reliant <…> (M2 p/n).
The other three (with movement, vision and developmental disabilities)
were more self-critical, said that they are shy, closed-off and not prone to
seek attention:
• <…> I try to avoid being in the center of attention <…> (M1 r/n)
• <…> When I have to speak, I’m quite embarrassed, try to avoid it
<…> (M3 rd/n).
Seeking to discover frequency of communication and activity, we created
four subcategories that represent activities, manners of communication, most
visited places and events, and individual activities, when people can socialize
and improve their skills. While trying to find out what activities are disabled
persons favorite, it was discovered that three out of six people (having
hearing, movement and vision disabilities) have more varied communication
and leisurely interests outside the bounds of the institution:
• <…> we collect some information, chat, discuss, go to the city to have
a walk… do a photoshoot <…> (V1 kl/n)
• <…> we go to the countryside, sit at a café, and joke around, share
news <…> (V2 j/n)
• <…> I go to the country, we do chores around the house together, go to
the shops, and celebrate holidays <…> (M1 r/n).
The other three persons (with mental disease, developmental and mental
disabilities) most of the time are happy with the activities offered at the center,
develop their social skills there:
155
• <…> we play “Alias”, “Bingo”; solve crosswords, math problems, go
shopping <…> (V3 ps/n)
• <…> cook… go for a walk… do gymnastics… dance, prepare for concerts, listen to the music. Go shopping with mother <…> (M2 p/n)
• <…> we draw, play ball, sing, we do everything <…> M3 rd/n).
Activities, where people (with hearing, movement disabilities and mental
disease) acquire personal experience at communication, are:
• <...> we take photographs <...> (V1 kl/n)
• <…> active, fun ways to spend time, to avoid being at home and sitting
at the computer <…> (V2 j/n)
• <…> poems, jokes, greeting cards… I like to create <…> (V3 ps/n).
The other three interviewees (with vision, mental and developmental disabilities) revealed that they can be found doing something artistic at the center:
• <…> handcrafts, coloring mandalas… musical activities <…> (M1 r/n)
• <…> embroidery, working with clay… sit at the computer… watch
TV, do chores at home, I especially like to clean dust <…> (M2 p/n)
• <…> singing <…> (M3 rd/n).
When asked, do you visit others, participate in excursions, city events,
three out of six persons (with hearing, movement and mental disabilities)
answered that they visit their relatives or friends, but only go to excursions or
events with the help of their social institution:
• <…> I only go to excursions with the rest of the people from center…
I visit people on weekends <…> (V1 kl/n)
• <…> I participate in sports… with my friends… we see each other
often <…> (V2 j/n)
• <…> to excursions if the center organizes them… <…> (M2 p/n).
The other three (with mental disease and developmental as well as visual
disability) only visit their relatives:
• <…> 1-2 times a month, I visit my mother and sister… on weekends,
I call a friend, he comes over for tea <…> (V3 ps/n)
• <…> on Christmas and Easter, we go to my sister’s <…> (M2 p/n)
• <…> we go to visit relatives <…> (M1 r/n).
While researching the psychological aspects of communication, the
frequency of contacts and meetings, relations with other people, evaluation of
their own initiative, their fears and doubts, as well as the society’s indifference
towards them as perceived by the themselves, were discovered.
When asked, how often do you spend time with friends, three interviewees
(with mental disease, developmental and mental disabilities) answered that
they meet friends on the days they visit the center:
• <…> two times a week, sometimes on weekends too <…> (V3 ps/n)
• <…> on Monday and Thursday <…> (M3 rd/n)
• <…> I see the girls every day, however I always spend Saturday and
Sunday at home, with my parents <…> (M2 p/n).
Other two persons (with hearing and movement disabilities) stated that
they meet their friend 1-2 times a week by setting up a meeting earlier:
• <…> during the week, we’re busy with studies, don’t have time, so we
use the phone, and then meet on the weekends <…> (V1 kl/n)
• <…> when the weather is warm, we meet more often… I see some of
them 1-2 times a week, the others – more rarely <…> (V2 j/n)
It was interesting to know how the disabled person evaluate their bond
with friends. These are the responses we got:
• <…> very strong, friendly, tested by time… relationship based on trust
<…> (V1 kl/n)
• <…> we have a friendly connection <…> (V2 j/n).
All interviewees have a safe, trustful bond of mutual respect with their
friends from the social center and their families, they value them greatly.
When asked, who initiates and organizes meetings, four people (with
hearing, movement, vision disabilities and mental disease) stated that
sometimes they take initiative themselves and plan meetings or offer to do
something together, thus feed their contacts:
• <…> sometimes I do, sometimes my friends… it’s all the same <…>
(V1 kl/n)
• <…> more often, it’s me, I get everybody to meet <…> (V2 j/n).
The most popular way of communication between the disabled is the
cellphone (both calling and text messaging) – it was named as the main way
to communicate by the persons with visual, developmental disabilities and
mental disease:
• <…> I have a phone. I call or text when I need to… Also have Skype
but don’t use it yet, haven’t tried… Haven’t started finding contacts on
facebook either <…> (M1 r/n)
• <…> I call my friends <…> (V3 ps/n).
The other three interviewees (with hearing, movement and mental
disabilities) use a more varied slate of technology, including the cellphone,
Skype, e-mail, social networks (one.lt, facebook).
• <…> I text, speak on the phone… Skype, facebook, sign language
<…> (V1 kl/n)
• <…> Skype, one.lt, facebook, e-mail, telephone… I have everything
<…> (V2 j/n)
• <…> I know how to text, call… I have Skype and a webcam… a gmail
address, use facebook too, sometimes <…> (M2 p/n).
157
These answers show that the disabled use the tools that any other person
in the world uses, they try to command technology for their purposes – their
disability does not influence that at all.
What fears and doubts do the disabled have to face when communicating?
The interviewees (with vision, mental and developmental disabilities)
answered, that they are afraid of being rejected and don’t trust people from
other environments they don’t know:
• <...> you can never know how they might take my honesty <...> (M1
r/n)
• <…> you can’t trust them, can’t know what they think, if they tell the
truth or lie <…> (M2 p/n)
• <…> I’m afraid to go somewhere <…> (M3 rd/n).
It’s not a big leap to figure that lacking social experience, strangers
don’t look trustworthy or safe to talk to. We decide to inquire if they feel
and understand other people’s misunderstanding and indifference towards
themselves. Answers (from interviewees with mental, developmental
disabilities and mental disease) revealed that despite the existence of a circle
of close friends, negative thoughts are still experienced sometimes:
• <…> they don’t always understand what I’m writing, my thoughts
<…> (V3 ps/n)
• <…> my sister… has her own life. From school… my friends grew
up, got married, we don’t talk anymore <…> (M2 p/n)
• <…> they have other friends… I’m not needed <…> (M3 rd/n).
The details of communication of different people with different disabilities
depend on their character, behavior, communicational skills and abilities.
Conclusions
(1) All disabled persons agreed that they feel a desire to communicate,
however most (four out of six) only have regular contact with their family,
relatives or the visitors of their center for social services because they don’t
trust anyone else. Three individuals stated that they would try to seek new
relationships if needed, however, when socializing with strangers or their
neighbors they fear to be misunderstood or to be met by a wall of indifference, they are afraid to get rejected and don’t trust strangers. So, the negative
effect of a “closed circle of communication” is proved in practice.
(2) It was revealed that people with disability have a strong motivation
to communicate. Four people sometimes take initiative, plan meetings and
organize activities. Two interviewees meet their friends 1-2 times a week,
when their center for social services holds activities that interest them. Three
people communicate and sometimes spend time with their friends outside the
center.
(3) Four people think of themselves as open, friendly, active, partially
self-reliant personalities who need help in certain cases (to do their shopping,
fill out documents, in case of an attack), two of them show signs of lower
self-esteem, revealed that they are shy and difficult to get close to.
(4) The answers show that independently from the disability or the difficulty of their condition, the disabled can use all tools of communication
that are accessible to every person in this day and age: every single interviewees uses a cell phone (three of them also use Skype, e-mail and social
networks).
Social workers, who work with the disabled are recommend to aspire to
create an environment of active communication, organize social activities
that encourage contact with each other, according to their mean, include
local community into the activities at the day center. Seeking increased selfreliance of these people, it is important to develop their socializing skills and
encourage the activeness of the disabled themselves. Skills can be developed
in the form of art, sports, play, and professional activity and by teaching to
complete simple chores that would need to be done at home.
Ways to increase experience
of communicating with disabled
J. Cohen, in his book “Disability Etiquette: Tips On Interacting with
People With Disabilities” (2003) writes that someone with a disability is
first a person, with his own family and relatives, some of them have jobs or
studies, their interests, problems and joys. Despite the fact that disability is
a part of their lives, it’s not the essence of their self that defines who they
really are. The author emphasized the mistakes of accepting disabilities and
stated: “Do not turn the disabled into heroes or victims, see them as a person
first” (Cohen, 2003, pg. 5). The first rule of disability etiquette is to act and
communicate in the same way that you wish you were acted towards or
communicated with.
The main rules of disability etiquette seem simple, however they have
to be understood properly. For example, before you help, ask if it is needed
(in a TV show, one girl in a wheelchair recalled an anecdote, where two
men in a bus stop decided to help her and without asking lifted her into
the wrong bus). Speak and communicate with the person himself, not his
159
companion, according to the situation, try to be at his eye level, be sensitive
during the moments of physical contact – a person with disability thinks
of his wheelchair as his personal space. The disabled themselves are the
best experts on what they can and what they cannot do – do not decide for
them without giving them an opportunity to make the decision themselves.
In “Disability Etiquette” (Cohen, 2003), there are many phrases that could
involuntarily hurt the self-worth of the disabled person. For example, saying
“chained to the wheelchair” could summon the feelings of powerlessness
and pity in people around you, however the wheelchair is a compensational
tool of mobility, and the person himself views it as a part of his body, which
provides him with the freedom of mobility.
Some adults with a severe disability can be as old as a baby in terms of
their physical development, i.e. their physical functional age can be incredibly
different than their biological age. In those cases, while speaking to the person,
adults often unconsciously choose a way of acting phrasing themselves as if
they were speaking to a child. Such disconnect hurts the disabled person’s
identity. You must communicate at the appropriate level for the age of the
person. When the evidence of severe disability is readily apparent from the
looks of the person, people around him often ignore elementary etiquette,
demonstrating “unhealthy” attention, avoidance, ignoring or even being
scared of the person. However, seeing the limited physical abilities of the
person, you should not forget the fact that often the disabled understands his
strangeness and different range of communicational tools, and, even more,
in turn evaluates people surrounding him, making up his own mind about
them.
The only book in Lithuanian “Disability Etiquette: Communicating With
People Who Have A Disability” (Muceniekas, Vėliuvienė, Henring, 2004),
where rules for acting towards people with different disabilities are provided,
was created to act as methodical material for seminars, seeking to introduce
various social groups (social workers, teachers, employers, etc.) to the way
people with various disabilities communicate. Unfortunately, the book was
not very popular, there were no specialists interested in making similar
information more public and, also, there was no interest in such training.
When communicating with a disabled person, most of the ways of
nonverbal communication are not used (facial expressions, symbolic
gestures, graphical tools, movement, musical sounds, etc.). A sign, a word or
a sound are not the only tools for communication. It could be said that there
is too much importance placed on words when communicating, forgetting
that there are worlds that cannot be fully expressed by words (music, for
one). Understanding of nonverbal communication is important when seeking
quality of communication and understanding of each other, so will reveal
some relations between interpretation of nonverbal expression, improvisation
according to some rules and reciprocity (Šinkūnienė, 2012):
- to experience a sense of safety, to create a free, calm atmosphere,
- to express in verbal and nonverbal means, trying to establish and keep
contact,
- to increase activity of communication, initiate communication, providing an opportunity to use emotional means of artistic expression,
- to cooperate until the person’s self-expression via facial-expressions,
movement and sight turns into social communication,
- to encourage the creation of original movements, combinations of
sounds (own language), sign system and to use them while communicating,
- to try various role-playing scenarios that help develop social skills,
- to use visual aids that increase communicational experience.
Disability starts the road to acceptance in the family of the child. Parent’s
sense of guilt, anger towards destiny, sadness and tears, discomfort in front of
strangers, who look at and comment on their child’s disability, understandable
unwillingness to visit public places influences the child’s psychological
state, hinder his social development. Born from great desire to create a safe
environment, parents often seek not to encourage their children to live by
themselves but to stifle and control them. The preparation and inner efforts
of parents, social workers and teachers to understand what is most important
in the lives of a person with a disability influences the solutions to their
psychosocial problems. The strategy of cooperation – finding and developing
empathic abilities in yourself to feel another’s troubles, using positive
influence from the environment, resulting in a nurturing and supporting
environment.
Credo of communication with disabled people could be: “Don’t do the
work for me – let’s work together, don’t live for me – let’s live together, don’t
be for me – let’s be together!” (Ratzka, 2005). Every single one of us could
name many things he cannot do, does not know or who he is never going to
be, in some sense, this is another form of disability. To truly accept a disabled
person means to, at first, know yourself, to perfect your own personal
existential quality. Of course, it is not easy. However, only after feeling the
need to change, people can discover the meaning of life of a person with
disability, their right to be not only near us but among us.
161
Bibliography:
1. Cascella P. W., McNamara K. M. Empowering Students With Several
Disabilities to Actualize Communication Skills. Teaching Exceptional
Children, 2005, 37 (3).
2. Cohen, J., Disability Etiquette. Tips on interacting with people with disabilities. New York: United Spinal Association Publications, 2003.
3. Collins S. Effective Communication: A Workbook for Social Care Workers. Jessica Kingsley, 2009.
4. Fromas Ė., Menas mylėti. Vilnius: Valstybinis leidybos centras, 1992.
5. Ivoškienė N., Personalo problemos ir jų etinis aspektas / Socialiniai neįgalumo aspektai: žmogui reikia žmogaus. Straipsnių rinkinys. Kaunas:
Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto leidykla, 2003, p. 95–102.
6. Лоуэн A., Язык тeлa. Caнкт-Пeтepбypг: Гуманитарное aгенство
„Aкадемический npoeкт“, 1997.
7. Muceniekas G.; Vėliuvienė, V.; Hering, E., Negalės etiketas: bendravimas su žmonėmis, turinčiais negalę. Vadovėlis. Vilnius: Baltic Partners
for Change Management, 2004.
8. Philippot, P.; Feldman, R. S. The social context of nonverbal behavior.
Cambridge University Press, 1999.
9. Ruškus J., Negalės fenomenas. Monografija. Šiauliai: ŠU, 2002.
10. Sutton C., Socialinis darbas, bendruomenės veikla ir psichologija. Vilnius: VU Specialiosios psichologijos laboratorija, 1999.
11. Steman C., Socialinio darbo su proto negalios vaikais pagrindai. Metodinė medžiaga: Nyderlandų socialinio darbo ir gerovės tyrimų institutas.
Vilnius: Socialinių darbuotojų rengimo centras, 2000.
12. Šinkūnienė J. R., Bendruomeniškumas, komunikacija ir muzika: sociokultūriniai negalios aspektai/ Monografija. Mykolo Romerio universitetas, 2012.
13. Ratzka A., http://www.disabled-world.com/disability/
Research papers:
1. „The Peculiarities of Communication with People having different disabilities” (Šinkūnienė, Mikulevič, 2012).
2. “Social independence of people with disabilities: skills and environmental assessment“ (Šinkūnienė, Slavinskaitė, 2011).
3. “Social work supervision needs analysis of people with disabilities in
day care centers“ (Šinkūnienė, Laucytė, 2009).
Integration of Music Therapy Elements into the Programs of Formal and Non-Formal Primary...
Miglė DEVENSON, B.Ed.
Rasa KIRLIAUSKIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Vilmantė ALEKSIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Integration of Music Therapy Elements
into the Programs of Formal
and Non-Formal Primary Music
Abstract:
The article analyses the opportunities for integration of music therapy
elements into the programs of formal and non-formal primary music
education. A brief overview of the music therapy research in the field of
education is presented. A survey exploring the experience and feasibility of
the integration of music therapy elements into music lessons carried out in
Lithuanian schools is presented, as well as the analysis of the results and
findings derived from the data obtained from the students’ questionnaires
and teachers’ interviews. According to the findings, the integration of music
therapy elements plays a significant role in promoting positive emotions
in the classroom, improving student motivation and developing a healthy
personality. It has been determined, that the integration of music therapy
elements into the programs of formal and non-formal primary music
education is significant both for the students, as the proposed classroom
activities better correspond with their wishes, and for the teachers, as it
helps to improve the psychological climate and discipline in the classroom
and enhance involvement and motivation of the students.
Key words:
primary music education, music therapy.
164 Miglė Devenson, Rasa Kirliauskienė, Vilmantė Aleksienė
Preface
Relevance. The development of a healthy personality is important for each
educational process, including the music education of students, therefore, it is
essential for teachers of music education to consider strategies for music lessons
as well as for non-formal music education. On the basis of music therapy ideas,
teachers can solve a number of problems encountered in the classroom. The
integration of music therapy elements provide opportunities to deal with such
issues as classroom management, organization of activities, enhancement of
students’ motivation during the process of learning. Music therapy allows active
participation of the children who are not musically gifted, as music therapy is
aimed not at the result but rather at the process of learning, including the learning
of the children with special needs, timid and indrawn children, by encouraging
them to express themselves, to play together, to get to know each other better
and to learn to communicate and cooperate. The integration of music therapy
into the music curriculum of the general education programs makes the role of
the teacher more idiosyncratic as well, because the teacher has to select learning
materials which are conducive and attractive to students, and to create a positive
emotional and psychological climate in the classroom.
The problem. The use of music therapy in educational contexts has been
studied by Elefant, 2010; Foulkrod, Davenport, 2010; Goodman, 2011; Hall,
2012; Mcferran, Stephenson, 2010; Pachetti, Mancini, Aglieri, Martignoni,
2000; Pethybridge, Robertson, 2010; Watson, 2012. The above mentioned
music therapy researchers revealed the effectiveness of music therapy
methods in optimizing education (learning) processes and emphasized the
need for research in this area.
Although the issues of the use of music therapy in education system is
extensively investigated by foreign researchers, it remains an entirely new
initiative in the general education schools in Lithuania, and there is no research
related to the use of the elements of music therapy in the music lessons of
general education classes1. The “Project on Implementation of Preventive
Non-Traditional Education Models Using Art and Music Therapy”2 held in
In 2013, the application was submitted to the Lithuanian Ministry of Education
and Science requesting to provide information on the music education programs which
integrate music therapy techniques carried out at general education schools. The reply
was that such programs are not implemented.
2
“Project on Implementation of Preventive Non-Traditional Education Models Using Art and Music Therapy”. Agreement No. VPI – 2. 2 – ŠMM – 05 – K – 01 – 085.
Funded by the European Social Fund. Available at: http://www.rafaelis.lt/projektai/2prevenciniu-netradicinio-ugdymo-modeliu-panaudojant-dailes-ir-muzikos-terapija-igyvendinimo-projektas.
1
2011-2013 was the first project in Lithuania involving the preparation of
music therapy methodology (Implementation of the music therapy model
in schools)3, the training of music teachers and the integration of music
therapy methods into the formal and non-formal music education. Practical
implementation of the latter part of the project constitutes the object of this
survey.
The aim of the survey. To examine the experience and opportunities of
the integration of music therapy elements into the formal and non-formal
primary music education programs.
Objectives of the survey:
(1) To reveal the opportunities for the integration of music therapy
into the music education programs on the basis of the scientific and
methodological literature.
(2) To present students’ views on the music therapy elements integrated
into music classes.
(3) To analyse the opinion of music teachers about the opportunities for
music therapy integration into music education programs.
The survey methods:
(1) Questionnaire-based survey;
(2) Interview;
(3) Qualitative and quantitative (absolute frequency and percentage
frequency counting) analysis of the obtained data.
The existing research on the topic
In terms of music therapy in contemporary culture and its application for
the educational environment, it would be appropriate to present the following
classification of music therapy methods: listening to music, improvisation,
performance and creation of music. These are the primary music therapy
methods and they may have multitude of variations, however, there are two
principal ways to engage in music activities: receptive music therapy (listening
to music) and active music therapy (active musicing) (Bruscia, 1998).
In modern practice, the therapist not only offers its customer to listen to
a music composition, but also provides the opportunity to sing, dance and
improvise. While the traditional passive music therapy techniques remain
the most popular, more and more attention is paid to the research of the
active methods (Evans, 1986). Quite a few active music therapy techniques
The publication in Lithuanian language (Muzikos terapijos modelio įgyvendinimas mokyklose. Metodinė priemonė. Vilnius: Justitia, 2013).
3
165
have already been created in Western Europe and the US, and they are being
continuously improved (Pacchetti et al, 2000).
However, in terms of the educational music therapy, it would be
appropriate to mention, that the therapeutic music games are of particular
relevance to this area. This is well confirmed by the survey carried out by
A. Pioch and K. Drieschner (2002), during which 30 music therapists with
an average work experience of 14 years were interviewed. The authors state
that 92% of the surveyed therapists confirmed that they usually apply music
therapy games for interactions with children. Apart from this, it was found by
K. Foulkrod and B. Davenport (2010) that therapeutic music games are the
most effective for aggressive children. In addition to music games, traditional
music activities (playing musical instruments, singing, moving to the music,
improvising, composing music, listening to music) are selected and offered,
however, the aim is not musical achievements: the activities are aimed at the
physical, mental and social health.
By the use of music therapy ideas teachers can solve a number of problems
encountered in the classroom. Setting health-oriented goals and applying
usual methods non-traditionally, can help to solve classroom management
and activity organization problems, enhance students’ motivation to
engage in activities, help to rally a class or the members of an art group to
achieve common goals, and to get timid students or students with special
needs involved in activities (Implementation of the music therapy model in
schools, 2013). Rudiskaitė R. (2006) states in her article that the use of music
therapy elements in music education programs may be a quality tool aimed
at promoting communication, moral education as well as understanding and
conceptualisation of music, oneself and the world. When overviewing music
therapy as a treatment method, Ž. Dubelova and R. Mačiulaitis (2012) observe
that the educational nature of the art of music is of particular importance. J.
Hall (2012), in respect of her experience as a music pedagogue and a music
therapist working at school, notes that, this way, she has achieved significantly
better results in the field of training than acting only in one “role”. J. Hall
highlights the increased student motivation at music lessons and better results
achieved in music. In the book published in 2011, the author K. D. Goodman
outlined the theoretical and practical knowledge, based on which she advised
on the use of music therapy in pedagogical activities. The benefits of the
integration of music therapy elements into the music curriculum are supported
by the research carried out on the subject by other researchers as well.
Katerina McFerren and Jennifer Stephenson (2010) conducted a survey
with the purpose to find out the benefits of music therapy for children with
significant developmental disorders in the context of general education.
It was hypothesized that the children with significant disorders will show
more communicative action through music therapy intervention than they
would through other activities while interacting with the same therapist. Four
students, ranging in age from 7 years to 10 years, and four music therapists
participated in the survey. The music therapy sessions with each student
were held once a week and lasted from 20 to 30 minutes. In order to identify
the impact of the music selected by the music therapist on the interaction
between the adult and the child, the ABAB pattern was used to conduct the
survey. During the sessions of the A phase the interaction of the therapist and
the student was based on the topics of favourite activities, whereas the likings
related to music were not discussed. The interaction of the B phase sessions
was based on the use of music therapy techniques and involved familiar
songs. The survey results showed that during the B phase sessions, which
involved the use of music therapy techniques, the interactions of the surveyed
were more articulate, and they tried to express their thoughts and opinions.
Emma Pethybridge and James Robertson (2010) conducted a study
aimed at finding out the possibility of the implementation of the theoretical
foundations of educational music therapy into practical context. This study
covered five music therapy group work projects of limited time, which took
place at two general education schools. The data were collected by the means
of direct observation and questionnaires (parents and teachers filled in the
questionnaires on children’s behaviour before and after the project). Each
project group (10 groups in total) was made of 4 to 6 children, the group work
took place each week for 30-40 minutes, and the whole project lasted 20
weeks. The results revealed that once the children had learned to positively
connect to the development of music environment in the context of the
school and to take responsibility for the musical interaction in small groups,
it became easier for them to achieve musical and non-musical educational
goals. This discovery substantiated the hypothesis that there is the continuum
between music therapy and music education.
Cochavit Elefant (2010) carried out a survey on “Communication in
Children with Severe Developmental Disabilities in Music Therapy”, the
participants of which were seven girls aged 5-10 years with retro syndrome.
The surveyed were presented 18 pre-selected familiar and unfamiliar
children’s songs. The aim of the survey was to assess whether the girls were
able to consciously choose, learn, set preferences to songs, etc. The research
methodology consisted of multiple testing methods of one case (multipleassay variation). The results confirmed that pre-selected children’s songs
in music therapy played a special role in detection of the potential of the
population which was considered not susceptible to education and did not
167
know to consciously communicate. This survey revealed that the songs had
caused a meaningful motivation for children, and this enabled them to discover
and express their interaction potential. In view of the results of this survey,
it is also worth noting that the survey illustrates the effectiveness of music
therapy integration into educational environment as well as its suitability for
the work with individuals who have developmental disorders.
Analysis of the survey data on the experience and
feasibility of the integration of music therapy
elements into music education programs
Students’ attitude towards music therapy elements integrated into
music lessons
Date and location of the survey. The survey was conducted at Vilnius’
Kindergarten-School Dainorėliai on 26 April 2013 – 5 May 2013. The students
filled in the questionnaires in their classrooms, i.e., their usual surroundings,
which made it possible to avoid the negative impact of the surroundings that
would influence the results of the survey.
Data collection method and procedure. Sixty-three students aged from 7 to
10 years participated in the survey. The survey was discussed separately with
the teacher of each class. A confirmation that the parents of the students are
not against the questionnaire-based survey was obtained before conducting
the survey. Prior to the survey, the students were given instructions, which
specified the aim of the survey, the purpose of the received data application,
questionnaire filling instructions, and confidentiality guarantee. The
time needed for the respondents to fill in the questionnaires was about 30
minutes.
Selection of participants. The selection method – purposive selection.
The schools, music teachers and students who participated in the “Project on
Implementation of Preventive Non-Traditional Education Models Using Art
and Music Therapy” were selected.
Analysis of the survey data
While investigating the feasibility of the integration of music therapy
elements into music education programs, it was important to identify the
satisfaction / dissatisfaction with music lessons of the students who attended
that kind of lessons (Table 1).
Table 1. Students’ satisfaction with music lessons
Options
Completely satisfied
Sometimes satisfied and sometimes not
Dissatisfied
Answers (qty.)
39
20
4
Answers (%)
62%
32%
6%
The smallest proportion of responses (6%) is made of the negative
answers of the students. The largest share (62%) represent positive answers,
i.e., students are completely satisfied with the music lessons. 32% of the
students said that they sometimes liked the music lessons, and sometimes
not. This indicates that the student satisfaction with music lessons is high,
which allows an assumption that the students participate in the classroom
activities willingly.
Table 2 presents data on students’ emotional state during a music lesson.
Table 2. Students’ feel at music lessons
Options
Interested and active
Cheerful and relaxed
Indifferent and bored
Insecure and tense
Answers (qty.)
31
23
5
4
Answers (%)
49%
36%
8%
7%
The results show that almost half (49%) of the respondents indicated that
they were interested and active during the music lesson, and more than onethird of the students (36%) indicated that they felt cheerful and relaxed during
the music lesson. However, the opposite tendency regarding the emotional
state at the music lesson was also revealed: a small proportion of students
(15%) indicated that they felt indifferent and bored (8%) or insecure and tense
(7%) at the music lesson. Despite this, the results show that the majority of
the students (85%) selected the option indicating positive feelings, therefore,
the assumption can be made that positive states of mind felt by the students,
such as interest, activity, happiness, and relaxation, are more common during
the music lessons.
The data in Table 3 presents the music activity indicated by the students as
the most frequent activity at the music lessons which integrate the elements
of music therapy.
Thus, the classroom activity most emphasised by the students is playing
music games (79%). However, playing musical instruments (68%) makes
169
Table 3. The most frequent music activities performed during the lesson
Options
Playing musical instruments
Singing of the learned songs
Moving by the music
Playing of music games
Improvising, composing music
Learning new songs
Listening to music
Talking about the music
Drawing while listening to music
Learning music notation
Listening to the teacher’s stories
Answers (qty.)
43
27
15
50
39
25
30
26
16
20
21
Answers (%)
68%
43%
24%
79%
62%
40%
48%
41%
25%
32%
33%
another majority of the selected options. The least popular activities are
moving by the music (24%) and drawing while listening to music (25%).
This allows an assumption that, in terms of the integration of music therapy,
the main activities in the context of primary music education are therapeutic
music games and playing musical instruments.
Once the most frequent activities of the music lessons have been indicated,
it is purposeful to review the students’ opinion on the activities in which they
would like to engage for a largest part of the lesson time, and in which the
shortest time. The students’ choices are presented in Table 4.
The largest number of students (41%) would like to allocate the largest part
of the lesson time (15 min) for music games or playing musical instruments
(33%). None of the students would like to spend the largest part of the lesson
time talking about the music, learning music notation or a new song. The
review of the results reveals that the students would like to spend less time on
the activities of improvisation, composing of music and listening to music,
and the students would allocate the shortest time period (1 min) for music
notation, listening to the music teacher’s stories or talking about music, as
well as quite a large proportion of the students (22%) selected the learning to
sing or dance options as the least desirable.
The most relevant value of the table is 15 minutes (the largest part of
the lesson time), which the students would like to allocate for music games,
and this choice corresponds to the music activity which was indicated by the
teachers as the music activity carried out most frequently during the classes
(Table 3). Thus, the most frequent music activities carried out during the
classes and the children’s desirable music activities coincide, therefore, it can
Table 4. Distribution of the duration of desirable music activities in the
lesson
Duration (min)
Music activities
Playing musical instruments
Singing of the learned songs
Moving by the music
Playing of music games
Improvising, composing music
Learning new songs
Listening to music
Talking about the music
Drawing while listening to music
Learning music notation
Listening to the teacher’s stories
15
10
8
5
3
2
1
33%
5%
8%
41%
5%
0%
3%
0%
3%
0%
3%
21%
11%
10%
30%
8%
5%
8%
0%
6%
0%
2%
21%
10%
3%
13%
13%
8%
13%
3%
10%
0%
8%
8%
8%
10%
3%
20%
10%
19%
5%
8%
2%
8%
8%
14%
8%
5%
6%
5%
18%
10%
20%
0%
6%
3%
16%
10%
3%
3%
11%
11%
14%
11%
10%
8%
5%
22%
22%
0%
8%
10%
13%
22%
18%
38%
43%
be concluded that the students’ experience during the lessons as well as their
attitude towards the music lessons which have integrated elements of music
therapy is positive.
Music teachers’ attitude towards the opportunities
for integration of music therapy elements into
music education programs
Date and location of the survey. The survey was conducted at Vilnius’
Kindergarten-School Dainorėliai and Vilnius’ Balsiai Secondary School
on 26-30 April 2013. The interviews with each teacher were carried out
individually in the classroom or a separate room.
Data collection method and procedure. The interviews were coordinated
individually with each respondent. Prior to the survey, each of them
individually were explained the aim of the survey and the purpose for which
the survey data will be used. Upon consent of the respondents, the interviews
were recorded, in order to accurately reproduce the interview so that to avoid
the researcher’s personal opinion or inaccurate interpretation of the interview.
Average duration of the interviews was from 45 min up to 1 hour.
Selection of participants. The target group of respondents was selected: six
music teachers who participated in the project-based training and integrated
music therapy elements into the formal and non-formal music education
programs during the latter academic year.
171
Analysis of the survey data
While examining the results of the interview, the questions were grouped
into four sub-categories: the objectives of the integration of music therapy
elements; music therapy methods and tools; the experience of music
teachers in integrating the elements of music therapy; the revealed need and
opportunities for integration of music therapy elements. Thus, the following
analysis of the interview results is presented in accordance with the above
sub-categories:
The objectives of the integration of music therapy elements. The overview
of the survey results revealed the following objectives of music therapy
integration:
(1) Student’s relationships;
(2) Compliance with the rules of the group;
(3) Recognition and management of emotions;
(4) Improvement of the psychological climate of the class;
(5) Children’s self-expression;
(6) Communication and cooperation;
(7) Music education.
The revealed objectives allow an assumption that the aim of the integration
of music therapy is not only musical training: the objectives of psychological
and social nature are present as well.
Methods and tools of integration of music therapy elements. The analysis
of the interview data revealed that the teachers usually use music games:
it was stressed in the answers of each teacher (“It is also the most efficient
method, because it is what children of such age need, and they learn best
through play.”). It was found out that the most commonly used games
were those where playing musical instruments was involved. However, the
teachers also recognized that the potential of all three main methods of
music therapy, i.e., active, receptive and integrative activities, are used in
music therapy games.
The interview revealed the lack of tools: the teachers acknowledged that
they did not have enough musical instruments to work with larger groups.
Experience of music teachers in integrating the elements of music
therapy. The results of the interview show that the experience of the teachers
in integrating music therapy elements into music education programs is
favourable and positive as all the respondents pointed out that it answered the
purpose. They stated that the integration of music therapy elements made the
communication with the students and between the students more efficient,
the children had the opportunity to express their emotions and feelings, and
the music education lesson became diverse and enjoyable.
The unfavourable aspects of the activities were also revealed. Several of
them can be distinguished: the students are not used to the discussions which
follow the therapeutic music games or improvisations, it is not easy for them
to reflect on the experience and to identify emotions. However, the teachers
feel that the progress in these areas is noticeable after each class.
The revealed need and opportunities for integration of music therapy elements
music therapy helped them to manage the class, improve the psychological
climate, and resolve the problems arising between the children. This facilitated
the work of the music teacher. The need for prevention activities, which would
be of relevance to all school children, was also accentuated. In addition, the
teachers would recommend individual music therapy application to several
groups of children attending school, i.e., the children with speech disorders and
special needs, as well as hyperactive children. The need for integration was
viewed differently. The teachers noted that the application of
Based on their practice, the respondents stated that they would recommend
the integration of music therapy to other music teachers, however, they
stressed that it would require at least basic preparation (knowledge of music
therapy, psychology).
In the broader view of the opportunities for the integration of music therapy
into music education programs, it was noticeable that all the respondents
identified the lack of methodological material, the importance of training
in music therapy, and stressed the willingness to continue to deepen their
knowledge in the field.
The analysis of the interview results also reveals that each teacher uses
music therapy elements in view of the peculiarities of the class, students’
needs and their capabilities. However, for a teacher to be able to apply music
therapy methods in general education schools, the theoretical and practical
knowledge is required. The respondents of the survey had the opportunity
to participate in the training courses organized by the Lithuanian Music
Therapy Association4. The teachers stated that it gave them the opportunity
to integrate music therapy on the basis of the knowledge gained during the
courses and the individual capacities of each teacher, as well as to customize
various elements of music therapy and to apply various aspects of them
during the lesson in accordance with the needs of the class.
United Nations Organization for Education, Science and Culture was working on
“Project on Implementation of Preventive Non-Traditional Education Models Using Art
and Music Therapy”, one of the partners of which was Lithuania Music Therapy Association [accessed 24 02 2013]. Available at: http://www.rafaelis.lt/projektai/2-prevenciniunetradicinio-ugdymo-modeliu-panaudojant-dailes-ir-muzikos-terapija-igyvendinimoprojektas.
4
173
Conclusions
(1) Following the analysis of the methodical, scientific literature it can be
concluded that the integration of music therapy into music education programs is helpful for children with developmental impairment, children
with special needs, and the prevention of child’s behavioural problems.
The authors exploring this topic highlight the relevance of the topic and
its significance in optimizing music education classes.
(2) The results obtained from the children’s questionnaires show that the students’ attitude towards the music lessons with integrated elements of music therapy is positive; the students willingly participate in the classroom
activities; they feel interested, active, cheerful and able to relax during the
lessons. Analysis of the survey data revealed that the most desirable activity of the children, as well as the music activity most frequently used by
the teachers during the lesson, is therapeutic music games aimed to cover
a wide range of objectives in music education as well as physical, emotional and social education. Based on the results of the survey, it can be
concluded that the integration of music therapy elements is significant in
terms of promoting positive emotions in the classroom, improving student
motivation and developing a healthy personality.
(3) According to the results of music teachers’ interview, it can be stated
that the integration of music therapy into music education programs is
an effective and useful means aimed at children’s relationships, facilitating compliance with the rules of the group, recognition and management
of emotions, improvement of the psychological climate in the classroom,
self-expression of the children, communication and cooperation and music education. The analysis of the teachers’ experience in integrating music therapy elements has also revealed that the teachers’ attitude towards
the matter is positive as it helps to improve the communication quality in
the classroom and make the music education lesson more diverse. Based
on their experience, the music teachers recommend other music teachers
to integrate music therapy.
Bibliography:
1. Bruscia K., Defining Music Therapy. Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers
1998.
2. Dubelova Ž., Mačiulaitis R., Meno terapija kaip gydymo metodas
asmenims, turintiems specialiųjų poreikių (psichikos sutrikimų),
Visuomenės sveikata, 22(4)/2012.
3. Elefant C.,. Unmasking Hidden Resources. Communication in Children
with Severe Developmental Disabilities in Music Therapy, In: V. Karkou
(ed.), Arts therapies in schools. Research and practice. London: Jessica
Kingsley Publishers 2010.
4. Evans J.-R., Clynes M., Rhythm in psychological, linguistic and musical
processes. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas 1986.
5. Foulkrod K., Davenport B., An examination of empirically informed
practice within case reports of play therapy with aggresive and oppositional
children, International Journal of Play Therapy 19(3)/2010.
6. Goodman K. D., Music therapy education and training: from theory to
practice, book review (reviewed by Phillipe Mauskapf), Psychomusicology:
Music, Mind and Brain, 22(1)/2011.
7. Hall J., The School Challenge: Combining the Roles of Music Therapist
and Music Teacher, In: Williams F. (ed.), Music Therapy in Schools.
London: Philadelphia 2012.
8. Lietuvos muzikos terapijos asociacija. (2013). Muzikos terapijos
modelio įgyvendinimas mokyklose. Metodinė priemonė. Vilnius: Justitia
11.37/2013.
9. McFerran K., Stephenson J., Facing the challenge. A Music therapy
investigation in the evidence-based framework, In: V. Karkou (ed.), Arts
therapies in schools. Research and practice. London: Jessica Kingsley
Publishers 2010.
10. Muzikos terapijos modelio įgyvendinimas mokyklose. Metodinė priemonė.
Vilnius: Justitia 2013.
11. Pacchetti C., Mancini F., Aglieri R., Martignoni C. F. E., Nappi G., Active
music therapy in Parkinson’s disease: An integrative method for motor
and emotional rehabilitation, Psychosomatic Medicine, 62/2000.
12. Pethybridge M., Robertson J., Educational music. Theoretical foundations
explored in time-limited group work projects with children, In: V. Karkou
(ed.), Arts therapies in schools. Research and practice. London: Jessica
Kingsley Publishers 2010.
13. Pioch A., Drieschner K., Therapeutic methods of experienced music
therapist as a function of the kind of clients and goals of therapy, Music
therapy today, 10/2002.
175
14. Rudinskaitė R., Muzikos terapijos elementų panaudojimo ypatumai ugdant
mokinių komunikacinius gebėjimus. Straipsnis pristatytas respublikinėje
mokslinėje – praktinėje konferencijoje „Studentų saviraiškos būdai ir
galimybės aukštojoje mokykloje“. Panevėžys, Lietuva 2006.
15. Watson T., Music therapy with adults with learning disabilities, book
review (reviewed by Ergina Sampathianaki), Music Therapy & Special
Music Education, 4(1)/2012.
Prosocial Upbringing in the Context of Influences of Family Environment
Dariusz SARZAŁA Dr. Ph.D.
University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn (Poland)
Mariusz JĘDRZEJKO Prof. Dr.
Prosocial Upbringing in the Context
of Influences of Family Environment
Abstract:
The study addresses issues concerning the role and importance of family
environment in shaping social attitudes. The motives and specificity of
prosocial behaviors and their determinants are presented. The author
also showed factors affecting the proper conduct of the process of
prosocial upbringing in a family environment, and signaled the problem
of a dysfunctional family as a source of antisocial behavior.
Prosocial attitudes play important role in human life allowing him to be
able to take action accepted and respected by society and simultaneously
determining the quality of his relationships with other people. The person
presenting this kind of attitude can achieve goals in life in a way, acceptable
by both closer and further environment (family, school, group of peers,
professional environment, neighborhood, etc.), and fully integrate with
the social environment.
Key words:
upbringing, family environment, pro-social attitudes.
Specificity and motives of prosocial behavior
The characteristics of prosocial behavior that distinguishes it from many
other human acts is the willingness to pursue the not personal objectives
designed to meet needs of others and to protect the interests and growth of
others (Reykowski, 1980, p. 167).
178 Dariusz Sarzała, Mariusz Jędrzejko
Regardless of the diversity of definitional approaches the term prosocial is
associated especially with such concepts as altruism, helping in the material
or spiritual sphere, sharing with others, social commitment, solidarity,
orientation to the common good. The component that connects all these
concepts is selflessness, willingness to take risks or sacrifices for individuals,
groups, communities, institutions, and other “social objects”. In contrast
to the ipsocentric behavior that focuses on personal goals and benefits, the
reference system of the prosocial behavior are other individuals, groups,
institutions, ideas (Reykowski, 1976, p. 806).The purpose of prosocial
behavior is primarily to induce positive impact on other people, self-interest
is merely a side effect of it.
Depending on the subject of social activities, these actions can be divided
into allocentric and sociocentric. Allocentric behaviors cover a range of acts
directed to a single man, and their main goal is one’s welfare (protection
or growth). However, in case the addressee of social activities is a social
system such as a group, institution, idea, these activities can be described as
sociocentric prosocial behaviors (Reykowski, 1980, 173).
Substrates of prosocial behavior may be found in all kinds of themes,
selection and gradation of which depend mainly on the personality of a man,
his environment, stage in life and biography. The layer of prosocial behavior
combines a number of motives, among which the most important is empathic
motivation (Tyszkowa, 1984, 94–122; Gołąb, 1980; Reykowski, 1986)
concerning self-esteem and identification (related to perceiving similarities
between each other and other people) and normative.
The first of these motivations - empathic, is most often understood as
a complex perceptual ability to notice other people’s emotions and give
emotional responses to them or to comprehend the meaning of a situation of
second person (Stojanowska, 1996, p. 84). An important role is also played by
the motivation concerning self-esteem - in the sense of self-acceptance resulting
from positive and at the same time realistic assessment of the one’s self-image.
Positive attitude to oneself entails a positive attitude towards other people, thus
allowing a good social adaptation. Another factor that plays an significant role
in taking prosocial actions is the identification motivation(related to perceiving
similarities between oneself and other people).
A normative motivation also plays an imperative role in undertaking social
activities. In this case, important source of prosocial behavior are moral
standards, accepted and striven to achieve in one’s demeanor (Stojanowska,
1996, p. 85).
Prosocial behavior is also affected by other motives apart from ones
mentioned above. An example would, among others, be so-called selfish
motivation (self-centered), which is not accompanied by positive emotional
association, but by the human tendency to focus attention on oneself and
one’s needs. It affects prosocial motivation, it also occurs in many social
situations (i.e. the presence of witnesses and number of them, appearance
and outfit of one asking for help, previous experience of help, experiencing
a sense of danger) (see: Szewczyk 1976, p.573 – 583).
Factors determining the proper course of prosocial
upbringing in a family environment
Shaping social attitudes occurs as a result of influences of educational and
social environment in which one functions every day (grows and matures).
Among many communities that have a significant impact on prosocial
attitudes, a family as the first and most significant educational and social
environment plays a special role.
Family environment is very significant in human life (Sikorska, 2011,
p. 529). “In a family one goes through the most important period in life,
which shapes his personality, lifestyle, style of preferred values and view of
the world. Other environments such as school, peers are already derivative
environments and they either strengthen the influence of the family, or
modify and enhance it” (Wielewska, Sikorska, 2011, p. 303). It should be
emphasized; however, that social relationships are stemmed from parents child relations (Obuchowska, 1996, p. 7).
Issues concerning the importance of the family in the education and
socialization of a man inspire many scholars who perceive this aspect as
a specific and unique social environment and define it in many aspects (see:
Hurlock, 1985; Earth, 1973; Tyszka, 1974; Adamski, 2003; Rębowski, 1986;
Satir, 2002; Smith, 1997; Kawula, 2012). As pointed out by Stanisław Kawula,
“whatever one might say about the current dynamics and factors of fluctuations
in the structure and functioning of the modern family, there is no doubt that it is
still the basic unit of growth and development of human personality.”
In contrast, Wojciech Piestrzyński points out that the family should be
seen as a group in which, “multiplied interactions occur between particular
members of the group (internal interactions) and as a group, members of
which interact with other members of the public (external interactions)
representing their own interests, interests of particular family members and
of the whole family” (Piestrzyński, 2011, p. 198).
It should also be emphasized that next to the family, an important role in
shaping social attitudes is also played by the school that equips young people
179
not only with the relevant knowledge, but also the competencies and skills
that will allow them to function properly in the society (Piestrzyński, 2012A,
p. 360).
A number of factors that contribute to the shaping of social attitudes, that
should be given special consideration by parents and educators in their efforts
to influence education, can be pointed out.
Among the basic conditions of prosocial development of a child, parents’
care for his nervous system expresses itself not only in reducing the damaging
stimulus ( nicotine, alcohol, ionizing radiation ), but also the creation, (already
in the prenatal stage of life) positive references to the child. It should be noted
that the ways of one enduring the difficulties i.e. in professional life or other
areas of social life are resolved during the prenatal period and the first years
of life outside the mother’s body (Piestrzyński, 2012B, p. 102 - 114). First of
all, it is vital to demonstrate love toward the child, which is not only the basis
for providing him with a sense of security, but it also positively affects the
development of child’s friendly attitudes toward other people.
In the later years of child’s life, an important role in the prosocial educational
process plays the method of “induction”, which relies on identifying the natural
consequences of behavior. In this circumstance it is necessary to indicate the
child the consequences of his behavior, both positive (joy, contentment) and
negative (distress, annoyance) that arise to other people. This method allows
to develop the ability to notice others’ needs, feelings and experiences, and
thus it shapes the ability to “enter” in the position of another person and it
improves so-called learned empathy which constitutes a significant feature in
prosocial behavior.
In the process of shaping social attitudes it is also essential to entrust the
child with the prosocial assignments, so that he can learn taking responsibility
for others or for a specific “not personal” good. Children, who actively
perform certain tasks at home for the family, become more prosocial than
those who do not execute these chores. (Reykowski, 1986).
The imperative role in the prosocial education plays an adaptive bond
between a child and a parent, which is vital source of implementation of the
elementary human needs, especially such as: the need for love, belonging and
security (Kaźmierczak, Rostowska, 2010, p. 110-111).
In a situation when the listed needs have been met one can not only develop
his potential in terms of knowledge, abilities, interests and achieving his goals
(Rogers, 1961, p. 24), but he may also take transgressive actions (see: Nosal,
2011, p. 7-27 ), characterized by expansiveness, creativity, expressivity,
therefore, gaining the ability to continuously overcoming his limitations and
imperfections (Kozielecki, 2009, p. 333).
In contrast, pathological and disorganized bond between the child and
the parent is a “risk factor for mental disorders, behavioral and personality
disorders in childhood, adolescence and adulthood alike” (see: Senator, 2010,
43-62). The long-term effects of this kind of disorganized relationships during
the child’s early experiences, in older childhood or adolescence may appear in
the form of emotional disorder or criminal behavior, and after the entry into
adulthood in the form of psychic disorder. Irregularities in the development
of attachment bonds are also linked with depression, phobias, difficulties in
interpersonal relationships, and even tendency of complete social elimination
expressed in suicidal ideation (Bowlby, 1989, p. 58-59). In the process of
prosocial education the acquisition of psychosocial skills by a child is also of
great significance. A person who posses this kind of ability can in fact interact
with other people in a social context and behave in such a way which is accepted
or socially appreciated and at the same time personally beneficial, mutually
beneficial or beneficial primarily to others (see. Argyle, 1994, p. 454 – 481).
There are many classifications of social skills, among which special
attention should be paid to such kinds as self-expression (i.e. displaying
affection, expressing opinion, accepting compliments); strengthening others
(i.e. agreeing with someone’s opinion, praising others); assertiveness (i.e.
asking someone for a favor, disagreeing with opinions of others, refusal in
the event of unjustified requests); communication (i.e. having a conversation
or solving variety of interpersonal problems); cooperation and concern for
others; learning and problem solving, self-presentation (see: Weist, Ollendick,
1991, p. 213-227; Król-Fijewska, 1992; Gilbert, Allan, 1994, p. 295-306).
Among the important factors related to the process of education, the
prosocial parenting styles and types of educational practices used by parents
toward their children should also be mentioned. In the style of prosocial
education learning to anticipate the effects of various behaviors should
primarily be taken into account, especially the consequences that follow both
for oneself and others.
Conclusions
Based on the analysis, one can conclude that the family environment is
not only a school of prosocial behavior, but also the environment that shapes
sensitivity toward other people, which makes it possible to form altruistic
motivation that plays a vital role in undertaking social activities.
However, it should be noted that the family can play both the role of the
most significant environment shaping prosocial attitudes or become a source
181
of destructive antisocial behavior. There are many factors disrupting the
process of prosocial family education (Jędrzejko, 2009; Przybysz-Zaremba,
2013). These factors are associated with various irregularities within the
process of socialization and education, they are especially caused by improper
attitudes and mistakes of parents concerning undertaking activities connected
with education and socialization (Sarzała, 2005, 2011; Piestrzyński, 2013a,
Przybysz-Zaremba, 2010).
The most beneficial in shaping social attitudes is a well structured
educational environment that provides predictability, spontaneity, it is also
confident and independent (Vasta, Haith, Miller, 1995).
It should be also emphasized that in the sphere shaping social attitudes
coherence of activities of the family and the school is necessary. (Piestrzyński,
2012C, 2013b, 108). These institutions as they play imperative role in human
development must mutually enrich and support in every sphere of educational
activity.
Bibliography:
1. Allan S., Assertiveness, submissive behaviour and social comparison,
,,British Journal of Clinical Psychology”, 33, 1994.
2. Argyle M., Social skills, in: Companion Encyclopedia of Psychology vol.
l, Routledge, London 1994.
3. Bowlby J., Una base siura. Applicazioni cliniche della teoria
dell’attaccamento, Milano 1989.
4. Budzyńska E., Rodzina środowiskiem wychowania prospołecznego, in:
D. Kornas-Biela ed. Rodzina. Źródło życia i szkoła miłości, Pub. KUL,
Lublin 2001.
5. Gilbert P, Allan S., Assertiveness, submissive behaviour and social
comparison, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1994, 33.
6. Gołąb A., Normy moralne a gotowość do udzielania pomocy innym, [in:]
J. Reykowski ed., Osobowość a społeczne zachowanie się ludzi, Pub.
KiW, Warszawa 1980.
7. Hurlock E. B., Rozwój dziecka, Warszawa, Pub. PWN, 1985.
8. Kaźmierczak M., Rostowska T., Percepcja relacji małżeńskich
i poziom empatii a jakość życia. [in:] T. Rostowska. A. Peplińska ed.,
Psychospołeczne aspekty życia rodzinnego, Pub. Difin, Warszawa 2010.
9. Jędrzejko M., Resocjalizacja i terapia resocjalizacyjna w zderzeniu
z nowymi tendencjami przestępczymi i typami zachowań destrukcyjnych,
[in:] A. Rejzner, P. Szczepaniak ed., Terapia w resocjalizacji, cz. 1:
Ujęcie teoretyczne, Pub. „Żak”, Warszawa 2009.
10. Kawula S., Pedagogika wczoraj i dziś, Pub. Akapit, Toruń 2012.
11. Kozielecki J., Psychotransgresjonizm- zarys nowego paradygmatu, [in:]
J. Kozielecki ed., Nowe idee w psychologii, Gdańskie Wydawnictwo
Psychologiczne Gdańsk 2009.
12. Król-Fijewska M., Stanowczo, łagodnie, bez lęku czyli 13 wykładów
o asertywności, INTRA, Warszawa 1992.
13. Nosal Cz. S., Teoria transgresji po 30 latach: główne założenia, problemy
i niektóre mechanizmy transgresji, in: B. Bartosz, A. Keplinger, M. StraśRomanowska ed., Transgresje-innowacje-twórczość, Pub. Uniwersytetu
Wrocławskiego, Wrocław 2011.
14. Rembowski J., Rodzina w świetle psychologii, WSiP, Warszawa 1986.
15. Obuchowska I., Kochać i rozumieć, Poznań 1996.
16. Piestrzyński W., Sexual violence as a traumatic situation for both the
victim and the perpetrator [in:] A. Lymar ed., Deviation, Pub. Gallea,
Moskwa 2013.
17. Piestrzyński W., Zajęcia – Wychowanie do życia w rodzinie w percepcji
młodzieży in: M. Borkowski, M. Stańczyk – Minkiewicz, I Ziemkiewicz
– Gawlik, Edukacja dla bezpieczeństwa, Wyzwania i zagrożenia w XXI
wieku, Prawo i edukacja jako gwarant bezpieczeństwa jednostki Poznań
2013b.
18. Piestrzyński W., Wybrane stany emocjonalne, jakie towarzyszą
nauczycielom w trakcie wykonywania pracy w szkole w: Edukacja dla
bezpieczeństwa. Człowiek wobec problemów bezpieczeństwa w XXI
wieku, t. 3, Wyzwania dla nauk społecznych wynikające z zagrożeń
współczesnego świata, eds. A. Piotrowski, M. Ilnicki, Poznań 2012a.
19. Piestrzyński W., Higiena psychiczna i seksuologia w kontekście
interdyscyplinarnego postrzegania człowieka in: Zadania Współczesnej
Humanistyki, Człowiek i Nauka, J. Bartoszewski, J. Lisiecka, Swędrak
ed. WSH– Ein Sieradz, Kraków 2012.
20. Piestrzyński W., Poczucie bezpieczeństwa uczniów w kontekście ich
poziomu otwartości wobec nauczycieli, [in:] A. Piotrowski, M. Ilnicki
(red), Edukacja dla bezpieczeństwa. Człowiek wobec problemów
bezpieczeństwa w XXI wieku, t. 3, Wyzwania dla nauk społecznych
wynikające z zagrożeń współczesnego świata, Poznań 2012.
21. Piestrzyński W., Zaburzenia osobowości współmałżonka jako czynnik
psychogenny, zagrażający jakości i trwałości małżeństwa i rodziny, Zeszyty
Naukowe AMW, Rok LII, Nr 187A, Zeszyty Naukowe AMW, Gdynia 2011.
22. Przybysz-Zaremba M. Rodzina, praca, edukacja – obszary przestrzeni
życia kobiet. Sukcesy, konflikty, problemy, Wydawnictwo PWSZ
w Elblągu. Elbląg 2013.
183
23. Przybysz-Zaremba M. (ed.), Sukcesy i porażki w edukacji dzieci
i młodzieży, Oficyna Wydawnicza „Prospekt”, Olsztyn, 2010.
24. Reykowski J., Osobowość jako centralny system regulacji i integracji
czynności, w: T. Tomaszewski ed., Psychologia, PWN, Warszawa 1976.
25. Reykowski J., Nastawienia egocentryczne i nastawienia prospołeczne,
in: J. Reykowski ed., Osobowość a społeczne zachowania się ludzi, Pub.
KiW, Warszawa 1980.
26. Reykowski J., Motywacja, postawy prospołeczne a osobowość, PWN,
Warszawa 1986.
27. Rogers C., On Becoming a Person, Boston 1961.
28. Sarzała D., Rola rodziny w zapobieganiu przemocy i agresji wśród
młodzieży, in: A. Rejzner ed., Systemowe rozwiązywanie problemu
przemocy i agresji w szkole, TWP, Warszawa 2011.
29. Sarzała D., Rodzinne uwarunkowania przestępczych zachowań
młodocianych, in: W. Woźniak ed., Przestępca i skazany nie tracą
godności osoby, ,,Episteme” 2005, 44.
30. Satir V., Rodzina. Tu powstaje człowiek, GWP, Gdańsk 2002.
31. Senator D., Więź zdezorganizowana Jako czynnik ryzyka patologu
w dzieciństwie i dorosłości, [in:] B. Tryjarska,ed., Bliskość w rodzinie.
Więzi w dzieciństwie a zaburzenia w dorosłości, Pub. Scholar, Warszawa
2010.
32. Sikorska D., Wspomaganie rodziny w wychowaniu osoby
niepełnosprawnej poprzez uczestnictwo w zajęciach terapii zajęciowej
w środowiskowych domach samopomocy, [in:] S. Bębas, E. Jasiuk ed.,
Prawne, administracyjne i etyczne aspekty wychowania w rodzinie, T.II,
Pub. WSH in Radom, Radom 2011.
33. Smith P K., Rozwój społeczny, [in:] PE. Byrant, A. M. Colman ed.,
Psychologia rozwojowa, Pub. Zysk i S-ka Poznań 1997.
34. Stojanowska E., Czy jesteśmy egoistami? [in:] E. Stanisławiak ed., Szkice
z psychologii społecznej, Pub. WSP TWP, Warszawa 1996.
35. Szewczyk W., Altruizm jest problemem w psychologii dla psychologii,
,,Znak” 4/1976.
36. Tyszka Z., Socjologia rodziny, Pub. PWN, Warszawa 1974.
37. Tyszkowa M., Uspołecznienie dzieci jednych i mających rodzeństwo,
[in:] L. Wołoszynowa ed., Materiały do nauczania psychologii, seria 2,
t. 11, PWN, Warszawa 1984.
38. Wielewska I., Sikorska D., Postawy rodzicielskie a funkcjonowanie
dziecka w grupie rówieśniczej, [in:] S. Bębas, E. Jasiuk ed., Prawne,
administracyjne i etyczne aspekty wychowania w rodzinie, t. II, Pub.
WSH w Radomiu, Radom 2011.
39. Vasta R., Haith M. M., Miller S. A., Psychologia dziecka, WSiP, Warszawa
1995.
40. Weist M. D., Ollendick T. H., Toward empirically valid target selection.
The case of assertiveness in children, ,,Behavior Modification”1991,
15.
41. Ziemska M., Postawy rodzicielskie, Wiedza Powszechna, Warszawa
1973.
185
PART III
Socio-Educational Problems
in the 21st Century
Andrzej RADZIEWICZ-WINNICKI Prof.
University of Zielona Góra
Acedemy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza (Poland)
Marek WALANCIK Prof. Dr.
Acedemy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza Poland (Poland)
The Future of Applied Social Pedagogy
(A Polish Perspective)
Abstract:
Social pedagogy – treated very wide in its ideological sense both as
a theoretical set of ideas, some kind of contents or social practice trying
to influence on the successful form of social participation – fully deserving
of the futurological development scenario, which we present in this text.
We can consider the future perspective of its growing into the cultural
and organizational unity (community) of social sciences, point at constant
elements but also probably change, emphasizing the variety of reflectivity
in this field of knowledge. Similarly temporary adult education (or as the
majority of contemporary sub disciplines of native pedagogic) is based,
among the others, in Poland on the paradigm of industrial and sociocultural
modernization, promoting civilized pro- west model of rationality and
individual self realization. It can also form – in some spheres of human
universal community – the sign of power and development dynamics, by
the active (units and groups) mass social participation. This sub-discipline
of education is concentrating both on the individual and group targets, in
which these dominate: personal self realization and competences allowing
(easing, favouring) to survive in dynamically changing reality (Walancik,
2007) and in more and more demanding (and difficult) employment
markets. It gives the knowledge and arguments on the modernization and
change of surroundings to individual structures.
Keywords:
social pedagogy, perspective, future, Poland
190 Andrzej Radziewicz-Winnicki, Marek Walancik
Introduction
Post-communism in Central and Eastern Europe has most recently been
analyzed in reference not only to democracy and/or market economy but also to
EU accession and reconstruction. The European dimension of current change
in this part of Europe has been mostly ignored by educators, sociologists and
other experts of social sciences in more remote areas (Kurczewska, 2000:
211). The purpose of our paper is to present several thoughts –concerning
such important theoretical and practical issues consisting of diagnosing the
future of institutionalisation and the subdiscipline of social pedagogy in
Poland and other European countries.
Social pedagogy, in relation to the whole family represented by its
subdiscipline social sciences, considers that the permanent factor of
development consists not only in theoretical, but also in social practice ideals.
Even historically set and possibly permanent structures of social institutions
can be unstable, as they are only forms of social group activities. If we see
any errors or absurdities in standing diagnosis or later conclusions as failed
convictions, incompetence making the reality (and it is undoubtedly the lack
of rational ideas and advice decentralized to needs of economic and social
politics, in contemporary civil structures, which could make the traditional
archetype of organizational actions more flexible), the main reason we should
search within the low index of people with university degrees in our country.
We mention by the way, these analytic reflections are taken from a Polish
perspective of interpreting the activity of this sub-discipline over the last
150 years. The aspect of this discipline by the representatives of different
countries and educational schools remains diverse.
Of course the environmental educational activity, based on experimentation
and observation, dates from a much earlier time. With a variety of issues to
choose from, most of the theoretics exposed the problems of prevention and
compensation, as the principle matter, connected with the aims set of this
science.
The origin and development of reflections on the social, and environmental
aspects of education is connected with the great historical process of forming
and making modern communities. In this way research and analysis were
taken even earlier. Name recognition of this developing field of science
intensified towards the close of last century but unfortunately has yet to be
fully unified in the world, in the accepted system of knowledge classification
(Radziewicz – Winnicki, 2004, p. 28 - 30)
In many countries the issue traditionally follows set conventions to social
pedagogy- dealing with sociology of education, social psychology. This fact
The Future of Applied Social Pedagogy (A Polish Perspective)
surely forms the obstacle in getting objective judgment of the social pedagogy
in Poland. Until very recent times, further studies on the systematisation of
the problems of environmental pedagogical researches trailed behind the
education. Certainly this requires determination of ambiguous borders,
between the social pedagogy and the sociology of education. For purposes
of classifying specific works and conducting empirical research it would be
useful to differentiate between social pedagogy and sociology of education,
and educational sociology or sociological pedagogy (Włodarek, 1992,
p. 53-56). The mutual relations could be of controversy (in the author’s
presentation) between the social and welfare pedagogy.
We are fully aware that we are not able to present all the trends of thinking
occurring in these wide time frames, in the discipline, which forms social
pedagogy. We are not undertaking normatively settling division, proper
interpretation of cognitive state in separate sub-disciplines in the family of
social sciences, which would demand paying attention to the way of defining
subjects of their researches and analysis. In other words it would be an analytic
isolation in the category of theoretical class of phenomena typically forming
the object of research presentations of other closely connected social studies,
especially: sociology, pedagogy and psychology. It is known, that typical
problems in contemporary pedagogy connected directly with the research
of certain educational relations running in some social situations, demands
an understanding of the majority of basic psychological or sociological
categories. It finds its reflection in the manner of formulating research
questions and also in universally accepted typologicality – classifying
procedures in the systematisation of cognitive results. Within the framework
of each discipline inquiring the science, the history of pedagogy, sociology,
psychology or political science, the same target is understood differently.
(com. Strachanowska, 2008)
Comparing the Czech and Slovakian lands – Poland’s southern neighbours
– we dealt in the individual phases of development with the social, protectivenursery pedagogy, in a great measure protective (Bakosova, 2007, p. 387–399;
Tokarova, 2007, p. 342 – 347), but in Poland the majority of the individual
conceptions by Helena Radlinska and her successors (Aleksander Kaminski,
Ryszard Wroczynski) or Stanislaw Kowalski didn’t limit itself to the kind of
actions signalised later (Radziewicz – Winnicki, 2008, p. 153–160). They
are very similar to the origin of social philosophy and empiricism of the
critical realism by Arnost Blacha, Emanuel Chalupny, Josef Karl, Karel
Galla or Anton Stefanek (Macku, 1968, p. 339–442). The main target in the
entire three countries – despite the visible differences in topics or selection
of the contents is becoming the reliable knowledge of the social reality
191
(structure), surrounding the educator before making intentional preventive,
compensative or modernizing activity (Bakosova, 1994; Jedlicka Kota,
2002; Kraus, 2001; Hroncova, Nemec, 2002; Hroncova, Emmerova, 2004;
Hudecova, Matulayova, 2001; Malach, 2007, p. s-134 143; Tokarova, 2007.,
p. 263 - 270; Ondrejkovic, 2007; Sekera, 2001, p. 5 – 6 et al).
The future of the social pedagogy demands particular risk. We don’t
deny that preparing this text is an arduous task Such vision has a serious
difficulty. We don’t have any precise scientific method, which would allow
us to make objective, but also reliable hypotheses concerning the social
development in the next 20-30 years and with this background settling the
tasks and instrumental role of this sub-discipline.
The new economic order, social, cultural and
educational - future scenarios
We would like to present some situations, which can appear and should
not, in any case, be treated as a scenario of development,– We truly trust,
that a probable and real one – made on the basis of assumed easing theories,
which determines and will create the new economic, social, cultural and
educational order. We become at this time the individual narrators of this
peculiar universal science, whose trial we are presenting to the Readers. In
presented opinion or promoted views we are trying to release you from the
influence of traditional analysis standards, used as a scientific truth regarding
the future development of social pedagogy.
The decision about future aspect of our world and its dynamics lies
definitely in the competence of central institutes and its links of economic
knowledge, as opposed to the political sense.
Regardless of the accuracy of our expectations issues will become the
object of social consensus. So pertinent question of nowadays: what will
the nearest future be? There is no clear and uniform answer. More generous
in their statements are the publicists (Ostrowski, Szostkiewicz 2001, p.
8), who on the basis of careful scientific speculations, are expanding their
journalist-essay interpretative vision of the future civilization, by using four
popularised scenarios of development elaborated by the scientists clustered
by the Millennium Project in the year 2050. It is worth approaching in
a very universal way these different and investigated reflections. The first is
connected with the cyber trophy. The world will be better and richer thanks to
the further development of technology. Two Asian countries- China and India
will rise as the new computer powers. The difference between the rich and the
poor will be greater, but thanks to the intensive development of the economy,
medicine and education will be able to record the restraining of negative
development tendencies in rather poor and slowly developing countries. The
World Trade Organization should guarantee the global, social protection.
The second scenario is much more pessimistic. It assumes that there will be
further massive increases in population in South Asia and Africa. Other facts
and consequences are a huge widening of the gap between the richest and the
poorest countries from the contemporary level 50:1 to the unprecedented 80:1.
This scenario assumes a serious increase in migration on a global scale, that
will bring about trials and tribulations. Third scenario forecasts very probable
stagnation of development in over-developed countries. The world could be
slow and, passive in the matter of global control of its own development
dynamic. The main problem, with almost no solution, will be the work places.
There will be more able bodied workers than available jobs. Around the year
2025 regional economic blocks could develop many confrontations or strikes.
Protectionism and the sharing of public funds will force politicians from the
central decision bodies, who prefer frequent actions to gain the subventions
and donations than to gain projects and programs with more optimal strategies
to further develop. Fourth – and the last scenario perceives the world in the
categories of the “huge bazaar”. These will dominate, after assuming this
vision, development of East and South-East Asia economy, these regions will
effectively and easily compete with the USA, European Union and Japan
economy. Slowly, but noticeably the differences between the rich North and
poor South will start to diminish.
Besides the progress, we see also many catastrophes and break ups
surrounding our individual human reality. Fraud, lawlessness, pragmatism
or even progress are closely connected to each other. All the ideals of
contemporary societies coming from different cultural constellations will be
mixed together.
Dissenting public opinion will manifest in increasing number of preferential
options: from extremely liberal, through economic, social socialistic phobia,
to definitely mixed appearing in many alternatives, but usually unclear
options representing rather incoherent outlooks, containing a composite of
some, often opposite ideological and economic alternatives (Miszalska, 1993,
p. 83–87). This type of political options, and even intellectual arguments will
probably increase in the future. As in this current decade of XXI century the
rows between the left and the right, only find their common dominator in the
trust of the promethean myth of human mobility and the ability to transform
contemporary post- industrial society in accordance with another social
agreement. It would be another agreement between the strong – having the
193
collaboration in power and privileges – and the weak co-participators of the
occurring radical changes. Current problem will be searching for a reliable
explanation for the necessity of moving appearing social claims with the
simultaneous burdening of responsibility of the development, organization
and wide social distribution and also the group of the “weaker”, “without
success”, who on the market of profit shares were always in the worse and
uncomfortable situation. Also this agreement could improve previous size,
often-slim usage, by the participation of many groups, of many benefits, which
has to attract the high-developed free market economy. Social agreements
are always partly stabilizing for the whole society role. It is a complex of
rights and duties between the young and the old, the rich and the poor, the
employers and employees. They have to establish moderately proper and
acceptable locales, own “situs” of an average unit within the bounds of global
democratic society. General interest in the future “post-industrial” world
seems to concentrate on the unavoidable results of the rapidly developing
biotechnology and serious and sometimes unpredictable consequences of
customizing the results of contemporary
experiments over the next generations of humanity. The results of carried
out events will deal with the constant debate over our human obligations
– witnesses and participants in the running process of experimenting and
restructuring – according to our next generations. Permanently current will
be numerous questions about the results of admissible experiments and lots
of overvalues, which will occur in the area of basic patterns of social and
political reactions in the middle of XXI century (Perri, 1990, p. 16-19). On
the background of conducted DIVAGATIONS, what is divagations? it is
hard not to mention the future of the Church, whose future should be noticed
in varied and differently formed ways, throughout the World. However, in
general cultural pluralism (occurring in Europe) labels even nowadays a kind
of relativity of “churchness”, as some (not always new) interpretations of the
sense of life undermining the obviousness of salvation, which flows from
the orders or current guidance of the Church. Appearing orientations and
standards of behaviour guides to general use are of the Christian nature or –
(as in the case of numerous Buddhism believers) non-Christian. They are – as
claims priest Janusz Marianski, marvellous sociologists– also popularised by
so-called political religion and also professionals of non-religious culture.
Such influx of alternative living orientations rather modifies our contemporary
traditional position of Church in the area of global education. Contemporary
religious pluralism favouring more man’s indifference towards faith than any
religious deepening. Unistitutionalisation of the religion should not be, in
any case, identifying with the drastic decline of religion, but with visible
changes of form, in which religion (in the individual or group procedure)
will appear (Marianski, 1999, p. 89-90). Since in the pluralistic society, under
the influence of general changes occurring in the social situations somehow
will deepen the heterogenisation of attitude to the Church education, and
in the same time the individual life orientations will be different, we can
expect the growth of the role of social science representatives (also the social
pedagogy) in the individual and group compensating (we can not define how
extensive crisis) of living with the appearing ethical, moral or philosophy of
life revolution. As we know the “myths” of modernity can lead to alienation,
psychical marginalization or just social trauma / politrauma.
The future is associated with the ability to popularise the education to all
of its participants. Information, education and knowledge are happening – in
accordance with the mass canon of transfer – Generally global goods, will
contribute to the change, and what’s more important will favour reduction
of dangerous inequalities. In the face of constantly articulating challenges,
multidimensional aims and tasks of education will still occur as a basic
change, which should certainly exploit the human desire for peace, freedom,
egalitarianism justice ideals and social prosperity (Hochleitner, 1999, p. 12–
13; Szczepańska-Woszczyna, Dacko-Pikiewicz, 2013, p. 179-184).
Undoubtedly further disturbances will appear, not only in the national, but
also in the global market. Back to the concept of classical (full employment)
it seems to be – in the face of contemporary economic forecasts – rather
impossible, deceptive and even a utopian dream. Between multiple concepts
and arising opposition a new offer should be developed, especially a radical
vision of rebuilding the work force in accordance with creating a definite
strategy of work initiation predicated for the youth. Civil work and local
employment exchanges are some of the interesting alternatives to known
traditional models of paid work. Employment biographies of many of the
social groups, especially in the high-developed countries will obviously
change. Full time jobs (because of the continually growing efficiency and
technological progress) will be replaced by part-time jobs. A hundred years
ago people spent about 35% of their life working. Today it is not even
13% and in the near future – as the contemporary economic planners claim
– paid jobs will require only 6% of the whole, some years longer human
life. To make bigger, the satisfying participation of a single human in the
favourable development of both the whole community and the local one,
it is recommended to search one’s own mother cultivated space as a basic
organizational- economical unit. So the personal household is to be not only
the place of consumption and leisure, but also – in the light of forecast – will
change into a contemporary very important place of production, doing own
195
work, providing services, giving help etc. Such a metamorphosis with the
new technologies in the situation of permanent growth of free time budgeting
using not only for the rest can conducted not known till now radical peak
of households. Learning stocks – different from the capital and work – are
unfinished, while familiar to us, the classical free market economy seems
to be slowly getting out of date as it stubbornly deals with the allocation of
limited resources. It can in the not so distant future lose its previous position
and credibility. Necessary will be in the new reality – the consultants –
partners and coordinators (social pedagogies) expected to conduct in close
cooperation with the local societies inhabitants, in order to make the diverse
range of work offers suited to the needs of different groups of citizens. We
can assume that, in the near future, in the framework of the evolution of the
active and mobile civil society will be made a new, integrating and attractive
infrastructure of work for the whole, making the freedom of choice in life
models and expressing by its share in the public life its own unique identity
with its own pluralistic and different character (Saiger, 1999, p. 44-45). The
main idea of the new future social – protecting system existing in everyday
practice will be making such form of common social protection to reduce
(eliminate) the mission activity, charity or beneficial activity to benefit the
professional and high civilized services in a pragmatic and skillful manner.
Social pedagogy as a field of knowledge useful and
used in the practice of everyday life
We are deeply convinced that the usefulness of social teachers and their
sub-discipline will arise in multi-dimensional situations (connected with the
idea of creating the universal state of good and the duty of making numerous
ventures for the benefit of order and lasting social use) and will be unique and
unchallenged. We can identify (specify) only some of the special problem lots
tasks and duties, which could be entrusted to this specialist. Included can
be: diagnosis of the needs, expectations and many hard, sensitive and also
urgent matters (appearing between the societies of marginalized people) and
making the frames of social supervision for their successful compensation;
articulating and identifying the needs, offences, faults and local community
interests, showing it to the proper branches of local, national authorities
etc. in the purpose of reaching conclusions leading to social homeostasis;
formulating various plans of development (also the alternative visions of
transformation), which by the approval of local community, or authorities
decisions will take on as the institutional assimilated innovation, universally
accepted while introducing an effective program of instituting a definite
educational function (and self–educational) among the residents of local
community (region) connected with the socialization of many charges
(clients) including active consultations, also occupational; stimulating the
development (cultural socialization) and also forming the culture adequate
for the next step of social transformation in the XXI century, among others
by stimulating participations by many teams, committees, associations or
different formal (informal) local groups, with the task character of initiative
group responsibility (co-responsibility) for the cultivation of different spheres
(mainly non–commercial) connected with the creation of prosperity of the
unit in the area of local population and more other partial offers, which we
are not mentioning because of the text and volume Constraints.
Finally, we want to mention the future role of social pedagogy as a branch
of useful knowledge, in everyday life, omitting nota bene the evidential
future professionalization of this sub-discipline within scientific researches.
However, we are not excluding but are aspiring to the opinion that looking
for the better, different forms of higher education, which will stay in the
correlation with numerous restrictions appearing on the local employment
markets, can come into fusion of some of the specializations in general
education profile in the ground of social education. Even now, we see radical
reduction on limits of the global number of vacancies ex. School educators,
psychologists or sociologists trained by the individual institutions and
available in the many spheres of social life. We experience still enlarging
disproportions between education and employment, with situations afflicting
the graduates of some social education disciplines. Moreover we are dealing
with the growing costs of academic education, so the funds of even the more
prosperous, countries of European Union are able to invest in the higher
education. In the education of social studies representatives, it will begin
to refer to the legitimacy of using the interventional – specialistic model in
the cognitive and sociotechnic practice of life, in the modified form taking
into consideration further, long lasting realities of our present. The model,
we are mentioning, was introduced by the Scandinavian humanists (in the
60’s of the previous century) and consisted of spontaneous recognition by
the sociologists (but also the representatives of other disciplines) important
social problems, group suggestions for making specific solutions and taking
part in the final determination (Kwaśniewski, 2002, p. 82). With such
collective forms of education, future researches over the changes appearing
in the institutional, economic, cultural and educational factors, could lead to
a Master of Social Science representing a defined professional specialization
(pedagogy, sociology, political science, psychology, etc.). Independent
197
from accepted future solutions, a social educator, even now has to pretend
to be a reliable, impartial arbiter of many basic matters dealing with social
sciences. The evident considerations closest to him are numerous thematic
matters realized in the education program from the field of: socialization and
education, protection or social work.
In any case by the conventionally assumed changes it won’t be able to
contest the autonomy of our sub-discipline as an intellectual cognitive subject.
The above situation of probable changes in signalised forms of education
won’t concern the making of other rich educational offers and further
pragmatic contacts and cooperation of high schools with the local authorities
and economic sector and also with other social organizations (DackoPikiewicz, 2012, p. 105-109) in the time of increased educational expansion
of many academic centres on our European continent. Peculiar character of
the traditional mission connected with service activity is presently very hard
to define. Temporary development tendencies are allowing to foresee, that the
polytechnics will try to rather intensively develop their researching service
and the pedagogical academies (higher pedagogical schools) will discover
different types of services adjusted to the expectations of social surroundings
(mainly local), consisting of creating many paid different forms of higher
education, as well as postgraduate studies.
In the case of universities the most probable will be further inside
difference on the organizational units appearing in the academic structure set
more on the realization of research functions similar to higher pedagogical
schools – on the intensification of educational aims (Wnuk – Lipiński, 1999,
p. 63, 66).
Carried out analysis unambiguously suggests that the social pedagogy
retaining its own identity will be the subject to further modifications, whose
sources should be researched in the remaining dynamic of many socio –
cultural processes amended with updated knowledge (Piekarski, 2007, p.
304).
Conclusions
What we inherited from the twentieth century is the problem of ensuring
safety and development for individuals, social groups, communities,
organizational units, states as one of the basic objectives of a democratic state
(Walancik, Chmiel, 2014, p. 5). Whatever pessimism in the end of these final
and partly polemical considerations was not proper. Advanced society of the
XXI century must deal with the whole changes and own, not completely
known impetus. Social pedagogy – as the other disciplines / sub disciplines
– standing by the next great challenges, has to resolve another important
problem, exploding as never before with the quantity of new knowledge.
Though the revolutionary changes we will still have to go back – as in our
social time – to the psychosocial scope of running constant process of social
change and progress. As in this moment surely the inevitable conflicts and
tenses, animosities influencing the condition of units and social groups
will feel known, or unknown to our generation form of social, political or
economic degradation.
In many local communities people are preventing , new standards of
behaviour or value. Preventing, compensating actions, organising adequate
relief, self-help, animation or activity allows making such ideal types for
formulating the society of tomorrow, which will be friendly to the social unit.
Development as usual will be made in the way of other experiments. Drawn
possibilities will maybe change the social awareness and knowledge even
more precisely and deeply than now, giving the future generations verified,
reliable and correct new practical solutions.
“For the teachers the 20th century is the time of very intensive work,
everyday difficulties and simultaneously the time favorable to displaying
oneself, implementation of own patents for a better life, time to undertake
actions for the sake of another person. However, it should be remembered
that this work cannot be limited only to the child or another person as an
individual but the activity has to concern family, community and in the era of
globalization environment - this most direct and distant one changes, takes
on other colors – metaphorically speaking and other overtones and responses
to cultural, religious needs, another influence – literally” (Walancik, 2013,
p.78).
Bibliography:
1. Bakošová, Z., 2004. Sociláne pedagogika. Bratislava, Pub.VK.
2. Bakošová, Z., 2007. Pedagogika społeczna w Republice Słowackiej
i Republice Czeskiej na progu nowego tysiąclecia. [in:] Red. E. Marynowicz
– Hetka, Pedagogika społeczna. Debata, tom 2,Warszawa: PWN.
3. Dacko-Pikiewcz, Z., 2012. Główne obszary rozwoju uczelni i jej
kontakty z otoczeniem społeczno-gospodarczym. [in:] Red. A. Francik,
System kształcenia w zakresie zarządzania a śląski rynek pracy,
Dąbrowa Górnicza: Wydawnictwo Wyższa Szkoła Biznesu w Dąbrowie
Górniczej
199
4. Hroncová, J., Emmerova I., 2004. Socilána pedagogika. Banská Bystrica,
UMB.
5. Hroncová J.- Nĕmec, J., 2002. et al.: Kapitoly ze sociální pedagogiky
volného času pro doplňující pedagogické studium. Brno, Paido.
6. Hudecova, A., Matulayová, T., 2001. Socilána pedagogika a sociálna
práca. Banská Bystrica, UMB.
7. Hochleitner R.D., Ścieżki nadziei i jej perspektywy. Jak będziemy żyć
jutro? ’’Deutschland’’ nr 6, 12-13.
8. Jedlička, J., Kota, J., 2002. Aktuální problémy výchovy. Analýza
a prevence socilánĕ pedagogických j y. avů. Praha: Karolinum.
9. Kraus, B., 2001. Sociláni aspekty výchov. Hradec Králové: Gaudeamus.
10. Kurczewska, J., 2004. From the Editor. „Polish Sociological Review“, nr 3.
11. Kwaśniewski, J., 2002. Socjologia stosowana, W: Encyklopedia
socjologii. Tom 4. Warszawa: Oficyna Naukowa.
12. Macku, J., 1968. Główne tendencje rozwojowe socjologii
Czechosłowackiej. ,, Studia Socjologiczne“, nr 3-4.
13. Malach, J., 2007. Teorie metodiky výchovy. Praha: wydawnictwo UJAK,
134-143.
14. Malach J., Franiok P., Zmiany w naukach o wychowaniu po 1990 roku
w Republice Czeskiej. [in:] Red. B. Kromolicka, A. Radziewicz- Winnicki,
M. Bernasiewicz- Noszczyk, Pedagogika społeczna w Polsce po 1989
roku. Katowice: Wydawnictwo SWSZ im. Gen. J. Ziętka.
15. Mariański, J., 1999. Młodzież między tradycją a ponowoczesnością.
Lublin: wydawnictwo KUL.
16. Miszalska, A., 1993. Wizje ładu społecznego w społeczeństwie
postmonocentrycznym. ’’Kultura i społeczenstwo’’ nr 3.
17. Ondrejkovič, P., 2007. O interpretacji i wyjasnianiu naukowym
w badaniach w ramach nauk społecznych, W: Red. B. Kromolnicka,
A. Radziewicz-Winnicki, M. Noszczyk- Bernasiewicz... op.cit..
18. Ostrowski, M., Szostkiewicz, A., 2001. Świat 2001. Remanent. „Polityka“
no.1(2279) z dnia 6.01.200.
19. Perii, G., 1990. Nowe umowy społeczne w nadchodzacym stuleciu.
‘’Deutschland’’ nr 6, 16-19.
20. Piekarski, J., 2007. U podstaw pedagogiki społecznej. Zagadnienia
teoretyczno- metodologiczne. Łódź: Wydawnictwo Uniwersyteu
Łódzkiego.
21. Radziewicz-Winnicki, A., 2004. Społeczeństwo w trakcie zmiany.
Gdańsk: GWP.
22. Radziewicz-Winnicki, A., 2008. Pedagogika społeczna. Warszawa,
Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne.
23. Saiger, H., 1999. Od pracy zarobkowej do społeczeństwa obywatelskiego.
”Deutschland’’ nr 6.
24. Sekera, J., 2001. Skupinový vychovatel a klima we výchovné skupine.
”Vychovátel’’ nr 6.
25. Strachanowska, J.H., 2008. The Competence for cross-cultural activities:
Different Aspects of cross-cultural education. „Scientia Poegagogica
Experimentalis“ XLV, nr 2.
26. Szczepańska-Woszczyna, K., Dacko-Pikiewicz, Z. (2013). Relationship
of education and the labour market in the age of knowledge-based
economy. [in:] Dacko-Pikiewicz Z., Szczepańska-Woszczyna K.,
Walancik M., Study about Contemporary Higher Education. Theory and
Practice, Shaker Verlag Aachen
27. Tokarová, A., 2007. Kaktualnym o tázkom teorie a praxe sociálnej prace
na Slovensku. [in:] B. Kromolicka, A. Radziewicz-Winnicki, M. NoszczykBernasiewicz... op.cit..
28. Tokarová, A., 2007. Równość płci i praca przedstawicieki zawodów
pomocowych. [in:] Red. E. Marynowicz- Hetka, Pedagogika społeczna.
Debata, tom 2. Warszawa: PWN.
29. Walancik, M., 2013. Development of pedagogues social competence the
time of social transformation [in:] Dacko-Pikiewicz Z., SzczepańskaWoszczyna K., Walancik M., Study about Contemporary Higher
Education. Theory and Practice, Shaker Verlag Aachen
30. Walancik, M., 2007. Zmiana społeczna a opinie poborowych o zasadniczej
slużbie wojskowej. Kraków: Oficyna Wydawicza ”Impuls“.
31. Walancik M., Chmiel M., 2014. Security as a goal od the state existance
– conditions and contexts based on the case od Poland, In: Walancik. M.,
Forum Scientiae Oeconomia, Vol. 2, No. 2.
32. Włodarek, J., 1992. Socjologia wychowania w Polsce. Poznań:
Wydawnictwo UAM.
33. Wnuk-Lipiński, E., 1999. Innowacyjność a konserwantyzm. Uczelnie
polskie w procesie przemian społecznych. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo ISP
PAN.
201
The “Troubled” World – in Search of Sources for Risky Behaviors and Deviations...
Ewa KAROLCZAK-WAWRZAŁA MA
The University of Silesia in Katowice (Poland)
The “Troubled” World – in Search
of Sources for Risky Behaviors
and Deviations in the Young Generation
Abstract:
For a few years the number of young Poles diagnosed with addictions
or other disorders has been constantly growing. The author diagnoses
this problem searching for its sources in new family disorders (increase
in divorces, economic migration of one of the parent, new models of
employment), risky behaviors promotion, poor quality of school prevention,
undermining of axiology models for social living by so called new
ideologies, (for example gender) and in educational neglect in families.
Key words:
family, education, social pathology, addiction, social prevention.
Instead of introduction
In the year 2013 young Poles achieved a great international success taking
the second place in the ranking of various drugs use (for population of 1517 year olds). They enhanced it with also the second place in “experiments”
with an especially dangerous drug which is ecstasy. The above thesis is
not a cynical attitude of the author towards an important problem, which is
psychoactive substance use, but an attempt at indicating that this “success”
would not be possible without active partaking of the older people – those
producing and dealing drugs, parents busy with subsequent stages of family life
204 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała
commercialization, the stewards of Polish education being lost in unrealistic
educational projects and EU political correctness and politicians giving still
more numerous examples of moral confusion and demoralization.
Harshness of this reasoning should not and cannot surprise as education and
educators are responsible for unambiguous manifesting of social and moral
reefs, as well as faults in education and upbringing, defects and imperfections
whose victims are most of all, the young people. In social work, prevention,
education, shaping health awareness and in promoting models of recreation
and sport we should look for factors protecting children and youth against
more and more numerous destructive elements. The argument undertaken by
the author is an attempt at socio-educational insight into the key hazards and
their sources.
Change as a source of constant fluency
When, several years ago, Zygmunt Bauman introduced a term fluent reality
into sociology, it was not fully realized what this notion meant for defining
specific features of modern times. Therefore we know – also taking advantage
of studies by Ritzer and Castells – that dynamics of change gains momentum
embracing all the spheres of children, young people, middle generation and
older generation functioning. It is not possible to protect ourselves against
these changes and a part of them makes us continuously verify knowledge
assets (every 10 years the supplies of knowledge on the Internet get doubled)
and skills (each new telephone and TV set model has new functions and
apps). For a part of older generation (so called the third age) some of these
changes are so difficult to capture that they result in new forms of exclusion
and distance towards accelerating reality. However, young people who
developed a new skill – multitasking- deal with these changes (especially
technological and manual) generally successfully1.Together with new skills
also new hazards appear. As American researchers noticed: “In general youth
from Japan, China, Germany and Poland preferred online communication to
face to face contacts” (Trolley, 2010, p. 12 and further). It implies diminishing
of skills in the field of interpersonal communication. Aggression often takes
the form of cyber bullying.
We already know that multitasking qualities get shaped very quickly in individuals
taking advantage of many digital technologies at the same time. Their use takes place
parallel to other important activities as learning, interpersonal contacts, nutrition, hygiene, sport or recreation.. It is assumed that multitasking may increase pupils’, students’
or employees’ potential, but under a condition that it does not constitute an overload for
central nervous system functioning of for manual abilities.
1
Table. 1. Technical devices (digital) change and digital relations in the
chosen age groups as an example of fluent reality
Age group Age group Age group
14-20 year 30-40 year 50-60 year
olds
olds
olds
How many cell phone
models have you had
during the last 5 years?
3,9
4,3
2,1
How many times during
the last 5 years have you
replaced your computer
with a new one?
2,2
2,1
0,4
How many Internet sites
do you visit a day?
11
9
23
How many text messages
do you send on average in
one day?
10
6
0,7
How many text messages
do you get on average in
one day?
12
5
0,5
How many new apps have
you installed in your phone
this year?
4
3
0,2
How many people have
you met on the net this
year?
29
14
0,3
Comments
Average result
– the group of
30-40 year olds
was composed
in 88% of people
professionally
active
27% of people
over 50 years of
age do not possess
a computer
Result rounded to
a unit
Source: author’s own materials. Survey accomplished on 14th April to
11 May on groups of inhabitants from Sosnowiec, Dąbrowa Górnicza,
Częstochowa, Radom, and districts of Grodzisk Mazowiecki, Wolborz and
Warsaw. Respondents population – 403 individuals.
Without any question, the last 20-25 years are characterized by a deep
change concerning all the spheres of human functioning which is the
result of rapid economical acceleration, socio-demographic changes and
a phenomenon which we could collusively define as moral revolution.
th
205
Picture 1. Examples of great changes in the 21st century exerting strong
influence on shaping personalities of children and youth
In economy sphere: growing rate of working women (including shift work)
economic migrations, change of working time (especially in commerce and
services); longer time of commuting to work; big cities satellites
In knowledge sphere: mass supply of lies and half-truths; possibility of verification and comparison of knowledge in the net, unlimited access to information for young recipients; development of education
In technology sphere: life in technology “vortex”; constant technology progress connected with mass technologies exchange
In moral sphere: attempts at revolutionizing customs, undermining natural
law; dictates of minorities; attempts at legal regulations of deviant behaviors
The thesis about the change may certainly be perceived as a truism
because change has always been an indispensable part of socio-economic
development – another words we constantly change together with constantly
changing world around us. But the pace of change (of all kinds – economic,
technological, social) has never been so fast and their consequences so serious.
Searching for the key transformations implying individual’s functioning but
also social environment (especially family), societies and often all the macroregion nations’ operations, from the Polish perspective we should indicate the
following ones:
• (1) widening of the democratic models of nations and societies’ operations and the range of individual freedom; (2) dissemination of new
economic models, including the relation human – labor (professional
activity of women, globalization in economy, commerce and services
development, economic anxiety, economic migrations, professional
activity of youth); (3) digitization, mass Internet and mobile telephony
access; (4) new models of schooling and education of children and
youth (we live in a country where, since 1989 the rate of university
graduates has tripled) and mass access to higher education; (5) new
culture of life based on consumerism and a shallow survival culture2;
2
We live in the world where the questions concerning material sense of life are
being multiplied whereas those about its moral dimensions are vanishing. All the mass
culture directs recipients’ attention to consumerism, not to spiritual-emotional part of the
human existence. It is not a casual trend as experiencing is always accompanied with
(6) moral revolution (in the sphere of relation to key notions as marriage, family, gender, sex); (7) increase in economic living standards
of substantial part of Polish society and growth in economic disproportions (great stratification of income leading to widening of the two
extreme groups – the rich and the poor).
The phenomena quoted do not close the list of changes and they are not
only the Polish specificity as similar processes take place in the neighboring
countries. We can also speak about hard facts which, according to the author,
are the following:
(a) In the Polish society, together with high level of education and its wide
range, with public healthcare and multi-level prevention, for almost
three decades the number of people entering personal contacts with
risk has been increasing (drug experiments, use of party drugs, abuse
of OC medicines for intoxication, alcohol drinking, risky sexual behaviors, night life, cyber-aggression);
In the year 2013 :
- 8,5 million of adult Poles smoked cigarettes regularly[social diagnosis 2013];
- 153 thousand of women are addicted to alcohol; beer consumption has been increasing for a decade; the Poles drink about 9,51 liter of spirit (calculated into pure
alcohol) [PARPA];
- we occupy 2nd place in Europe in terms of rate of teenagers smoking marijuana
(17,1%) [KBPN 2013];
- in 2013 - 73 new psychoactive substances appeared in circulation [KBPN 2013];
- in 2013 - 6079 individuals committed suicide (in 2021 – 4177 individuals) [GUS].
(b) Violence n individual and social relations accumulates. Peer aggression and aggression directed towards property have become a social
problem requiring special tools (for instance a “Blue Card”) and their
result is hazard for health (psychical, somatic). Aggression and violence have become a “standard” in politics;
(c) Increase in divorce rate and children brought up by one parent or a third
party (for example as a result of parents’ economic migration);
(d) Accelerated adolescence of children and their growing into the adult
world (it is difficult to strictly demarcate the world of youth and adults
– they eat, drink and watch almost the same as their parents).
question about the sense of life, legibility of signposts, a real dimension and aim of promoted ideas. Such a formula is not accepted by directors and creators of post-modernity
for whom the fluent reality is the only element within the frames of which they can realize their goals.
207
It is also worth emphasizing that the quoted problems can be observed
in the world where there are theoretically all the possibilities of obtaining
reliable information about the essence and consequences of both the old and
the new hazards. Robert Ptaszek while analyzing those questions writes what
follows: „The contemporary human more and more often has an impression
that despite easier access to various sources of information, in difficult life
situations he/she is at the crossroads.” (Ptaszek, 2013, s. 15). In a wider sense,
this problem was noticed many years ago by John Paul the Second who, in
one of his encyclics, stressing needs to shape young people wisely in the
process of upbringing, pointed out an essential fact: „ A human remains an
incomprehensible creature for himself, his/her life is without any sense if
a Love does not manifest itself, if he/she does not meet Love, if he does not
touch it, if he does not find a living participation in it.” (Jan Paweł II, p. 10).
Let us also stress the rapid growth of negative and positive factors “clash”,
which is graphically expressed:
Picture 2. Clash of contemporary culture and civilization
Common access to knowledge
and information
New digital and information
technologies development
Education and psychology sciences development
Information dumpster –
information mud
Cyber-addictions + information
confusion
Increase in number of people
with disorders and deviations
Remarks formulated in such a way encourage to diagnose sources of this
state, describe the phenomena and issues observed, to forecast consequences
and look for effective remedies.
Between positive changes and growing threats
In the light of numerous research, the last decades have been the time of
explicit civilization progress, marked with such facts as : Internet technologies
and digitization development, introducing new solutions in manufacturing,
trade and services, new polytechnic education quality, technology and
environment protection spread, progress in medical diagnostics and
healthcare, life prolongation, elimination of malnutrition and famine as social
problems. Still, despite those positive phenomena and trends – so to say for
“balance” – we have been witnessing a constant attack on fundamental values
which are life, health and dignity. These attacks have been of both material
character (for instance: organized crime, aggression and violence, drugs and
smart drugs, stimulants and tonics) and of moral-ideology one (for example:
extreme gender forms, euthanasia and abortion promotion, homosexuality
and new family models promotion, celebrity nihilism, demoralization in
politics, corruption).Not only the fact of these hazards existence is important,
but the way they develop and act offensively being addressed mainly to
young and middle generation, which is not accidental. Their presence in
entertainment broadcast (see the Warsaw Shore program, exhibitionistic
leisure), media message (eccentric celebrities’ behaviors, dazzling by outrage
performed by gutter press), Internet (pornography, cybersex) and in public
space (for instance “Free Cannabis” marches, homosexuals’ marches, football
hooliganism, immoral politicians’ behaviors, callousness and arrogance on
some part of authority institutions) lead to a specific saturation with this
matter and behaviors accompanying them. In educational perspective, it
seems reasonable to ask a question about the far-reaching consequences of
such a state for young generation conscience growing in a constant transfer
of eccentricities – aggression – excitement – elation, pushing subsequent
boundaries and lack of respect for an average citizen. Let us emphasize that
it carries visible changes – that, what even 20 years ago was perceived as
pathology (eg. homosexuality, marijuana smoking) gained almost normative
attitudes status. At the same time the “normality” crossbar has been raised,
conformist, socially accepted attitudes underwent a distinct reduction and
and as it seems, this trend will still prevail.
Educational remark: one of the key feature at the turn of 20th and 21st centuries is lowering the moral-ethic standards in almost all walks of social and economic life. Such
phenomena as usury, greed of financial markets, new types of slavery, workaholism
,thrash contracts, unequal access to medical services of high quality, putting oneself
above the law, nepotism, low standards of higher education, lie in politics, dishonest
enrichment, obscurantism in pop culture are the part of our life, they constitute the
basis for weakening social bonds and diminishing respect for the state as the common
welfare.
Thus, the thesis may be formulated that the above mentioned hazards
concern mostly young people because this generation is the “addressee” of
all the contemporary risks and traps, especially those connected with non-
209
normative behaviors, change in life organization3, new substances and digital
technologies.
It is not a coincidence that social change researchers indicate a twoway addiction threats development – new chemical addictions appear
and behavioral addictions increase, especially in the young generation
and in people seeking economic success. Hence, Czesław Cekiera having
researched the described questions for many years, in analyses from the
years 2000 to 2010 shows the portrait of a society in which its still growing
rate has a regular contact with psychoactive substances and risky behaviors
(Cekiera, 2011, p.14), and what will be characteristic for the coming years
is, according to the author, increase in especially risky behaviors generating
danger of serious psychic and somatic complications and coming into
the spheres of another pathologies. Another problem, an important and
developing fast one is pointed out by Jacek Kurzępa, according to whom
a part of young people experience on a daily basis an eroticized culture and
is involved in exhibitionism mechanisms. This author writes, among others,
as follows: „We could include into fundamental questions: bluntness of
boundaries and principles in which they should/can exist in social relations;
dissimilarity of interpretation and framing for the basic social reference
points including family as a relationship of a man and a woman, nation as
community and obligation, […]sexual identity […] (Kurzępa, 2013, p. 62).
Remark by Kurzępa is important because still more abundant part of the
young generation grows up in the conditions of fluid attitude to values and
treating those values as something unsteady, dependent on time and place.
It results in relative attitudes towards problems as fundamental as marriage,
family, gender.
Educational remark: in Poland the programs of integrated prevention against risky
behaviors are not introduced in primary education (primary schools, lower secondary
schools, upper secondary schools) and in teaching students. The state policy towards
addictions prevention is outdated and not adapted to contemporary challenges.
On the other hand, having analyzed works by Polish scienses Jan
Śledzianowski, Zbigniewa B. Gaś, Czesław Cekiera, Lidia Cierpiałkowska,
Maria Ryś, Zygfryd Juczyński, Teresa Sołtysiak, Ewa Wysocka, Urszula
Dudziak, Iwona Niewiadomska, Krzysztof Ostaszewski, Bronisław
3
According to the author, the key meaning have here: shortening of sleeping time
and new nutrition models (containing a lot of chemical ingredients – colorants, adjuvants, conditioners, substances prolonging shelf life; fizzy drinks, drinks containing caffeine, guarana; sugars and fats).
Urban, Janusz Morbitzer, therefore outstanding personalities in the Polish
contemporary education and psychology and while studying available
research reports we can indicate fast growing problems taking shape of
behavior disorders, addictions and risky behaviors. Let us here add that
supposing that elation itself is a natural feature in adolescence period (see:
Kendall, 2012, p. 43 and further), insomuch its contemporary character and
manifestations have reached far beyond the norms observed so far.
Graphics 3. The fastest developing pathologies, non-normative and risky
behaviors in Poland after the year 2000
Access to pornography and life eroticisation
Experimenting with drugs, OC medicines and party drugs
Homosexuality and sexual deviations
Prostitution development
E-cigarettes use
Abuse of stimulants and tonics
Early sexual initiation and sex in
minors
Fast increase in divorce rates
Gambling
Cyber-addictions – cyber-disorders
Cyber-addictions – cyber-disorders
New forms of “slave” work
Evening-night activities of teenagers
Extreme forms of visualization and
plastic surgeries
Source: author’s own elaboration.
Consequence of those phenomena is necessity for creating new prevention
programs connected with risks unknown before, for example: smart drugs
use, cybersex, cyber-violence, Internet pedophilia. As an outstanding expert
on prevention - Zbigniew B. Gaś notices – limiting and eliminating risk
factors present in direct psychological and social environment surrounding
teenagers includes many various variables (Gaś, 2011, pp. 8-9), and typology
211
of those behaviors has great dynamics4. It turns out that the most important
ones are connected with peer environment, family, school, local community
and with specific features of an individual. And what is characteristic for them
is the great dynamics of change – the peer pressure increases, the educational
role of family diminishes, in substantial part of schools the “fire” prevention
dominates5. We present this problem in a tabular approach.
Table 2. Demand (per cent approach) for prevention programs applied
to the Mazovian Center for Addictions Prevention (2006-2013) and the
Center for Social Prevention (January-May 2014)
Subject of programs
2006-2009
2010-2012
2013-2014
Drugs and party drug problems )
28%
45%
44%
Cyberspace problems
22%
32%
30%
Risky teenagers behaviors
3%
8%
8%
Aggressive behaviors of children and
youth
Specialist programs for probation
officers
Abuse of energy drinks and other
stimulants and tonics
Other trainings
11%
3%
-
9%
8%
8%
7%
3%
10%
20%
1%
-
a
a
The first demands for party drug programs were recorded in the year 2009.
Together with risk factors, there are also protective factors diagnosed.
However, as numerous research indicates, they lose their previous meaning
and power, especially those connected with youth’s social activity (for example
scouting), spirituality, educational role of family. As sports activities remain
at the same level in so called marital sports and team games, the number
of offers in new areas increase (dancing, musical forms of gymnastics), the
forms of many years which effectively influence desired moral attitudes
systematically decrease.
4
In educational practice of the Social Prevention Center we notice that educational
institutions and psychological and educational counseling institutions increase demand
for trainings from the field of drug and party drug experiments, compulsive use of digital
technologies, risky sexual behaviors in minors and “arming” parents with basic educational competences. These subjects constitute over 80% of all the applications with
dominant part of drug and party drug subjects.
5
Around 40% of the trainings realized by us is a sequence of appearance of one risk.
This phenomenon concerns not only individual schools but also activities realized at the
request of medium and big towns authorities.
Graphics 4. Clash of risk factors and protective factors
Growing risk factors:
- increase in supply of new psychoactive substances
- information overload (cyber-addictions)
- promotion of risky behaviors
- extreme behaviors of celebrities and
pop culture icons
Weakening protective factors:
- weaker parental influence
- weakening of upbringing and preventive role of school
- leave of the axiological education in
schools
- lack of necessary support from the
state for organizations educating
children
Source: author’s own elaboration.
Let us also add that these are not the only problems noticeable in social
diagnoses, scientific research and medical, legal or psychology-educational
practices, but also by teachers6, and parents:
• A school counselor [12 years of experience, junior high school]: „The
pupils are getting bolder in presenting all the proteus and eccentric attitudes and, I think, they are permitted to do so at home. Every third
girl has several earrings, piercing is popular, we also have a pupil who
underwent plastic operation of nose and ears, though nobody of us,
parents would notice such a need.”;
• A school counselor [16 years of experience, junior high school]: „During the training financed by local government of the Mazovian Province and dedicated to children education, a representative of authority
used scurrilous language. What can we require of children if we have
such education pseudo-elites.”;
• A school counselor [11 years of experience, primary school]: „None of
the three attempts at limiting bringing of cell phones to school brought
expected results. When we organized a class for parents about netiquette, only 40-50 people came […] Parents do not want to take part in
a really useful prevention.”;
The practicians’ remarks show complexity of problems existing in the
educational practice, but they also constitute the picture of internal condition
of the young generation’s part.
Analyzing especially dangerous acts we notice that the year 2013 brought
increase in attempts and successful suicidal acts of young Poles (such an
increase scale in two-years cycle has not been observed for nearly 20 years). The
phenomenon is difficult to explain unambiguously (as causes are concerned).
6
Statements from the author’s surveys from CSP, January-March 2014.
213
Even if some police statistics indicate decrease in crimes and misdemeanors
committed by minors, those statistics have been (for years) methodologically
faulty, as a result of which we deal with self-sedation of decision-makers7. If
we signal such trends, it is justified to search for answers about their causes
both in individual dimension (personality traits, and individual defects) and in
social structure. Formulating opinions and conclusions, the author is close to
Erich Fromm attitude pointing out essential role of environmental influences
(From, 2012, p. 14), which, as we can notice, in contemporary times, grow in
importance mostly thanks to dynamic development of digital media transfer
and greater “social mobility” of the young generation (this remark will be
thoroughly explained in the further part of the article). But even on the outset
it is reasonable to ask a question - whether the increase in dangerous behaviors
in young people does not have an important connection with their lessening
internal assets as a result of which they cannot compensate for deficiencies
and satisfy their needs in manner sufficient for their psychic and somatic
health.
Researchers of the issue being discussed here undertake multi-threaded
studies over etiology of behavior disorders, addictions and risky behaviors
in the young population which show that they are repercussions of numerous
socio-economical and cultural processes with the key importance of
defragmentation and weakening of family as educational institution, “shifted
time vector” as well as “new moral revolution” processes. Those processes
have been going on for several dozen years and they have been accompanied
with, among others life commercialization, extreme consumerism, digital
“culture”, economic migrations, socio-economic inequalities – 4xB process8,
as a result of globalization and “mcdonaldization”of life. Those phenomena
were “enhanced” in the years 2013-2014 with strong promotion of gender
ideology (Ryś, 2013, p. 62).
7
For years the Police have reported the data in absolute numbers, in no way relating
them to the population size. The author has repeatedly persuaded representatives of the
National Police Headquarters and the Mazovian Province Police Command to prepare
such analyses according to scientific standards – however without any result. So a result
of this, the periodical police reports have mostly been “a black and white photos” and not
the analyses of the problem with showing a real scale (for instance measured in 10.000
scale) and the problem characteristcs.
8
A model formulated for the first time in the Polish education byZbyszko Melosik
as “the poor get poorer, the rich get richer”.
Parents and children in the fluent modernity “traps”
If we have earlier noticed - people have a growing problem with needs
satisfying and consistent with norms problem solving which leads to more
compulsive behaviors due to lack of positive alternatives. The lack of
positive assets itself is not sufficient enough to undertake risks connected
with tobacco, e-cigarettes, drugs, stimulants or visualizations (intellectual
emptiness is replaced by visual casing, which has a classic example in number
of Polish celebrities’ behaviors). There are also necessary some sufficient,
systematically reproduced “codes” and social patterns for taking decisions
by the young (and not only young) about non-normative behaviors (anomic
ways of achieving success). As it turns out - nowadays they exist in excess
(Jędrzejko, 2013, pp. 143-147):
• A popular singer with a thesis: “I did not order marijuana, it was sent
to our dog – Ramona”, a Member of Parliament smoking pot during
a demonstration in front of the Parliament; a Member of Parliament
exciting TV audience with fast driving from Brussels; fourth lover
of a popular actor; TV reporter admitting marijuana smoking for five
years; attacks on the Church and mocking religiousness; obscene celebrities’ behaviors; drunk Members of Parliament in the “escort agency”. We could multiply similar examples.
Hence, let us notice that the ending of the previous and the beginning
of the 21st century brought about new “signposts” and “burdens” as a result
of which a part of the adult generation was very violently drawn into the
vortex of the racing world. The characteristic features of this process are as
follows:
• Change of working models in parents, especially a substantial increase
in rate of women working afternoons and evenings (the result of transformation into commercial-service economy) and new ideologies,
namely the phenomenon described as “a family on the crossroads”
(Ryś, 2013, pp. 62-65);
• Economic migration – inside and outside the country including the
phenomenon of long-term migration with leaving a child under the
care of one parent or other family member;
• Social functioning of a family in front of electronic media (TV trap);
• Increase of digital media importance in shaping opinions and attitudes
of young people (see: Błaszczak 2012);
• Models of macro and micro-communities concentrated on victory and
success (in the youth’s consciousness an opinion is instilled that their
satisfying functioning requires success achievement);
215
• Underestimation of moral norms and acceptation of the “lesser evil
philosophy” (a classical example are the attempts at legalizing marijuana as “an evil lesser than alcohol”);
• Stimulating and exciting in order to create “a consuming individual”
and mass consumption society (this model has even gained parliamentary legitimacy through rejection of a draft on closing big shopping
malls on Sundays);
• Emergence and development of the advertising market directed to
a young addressee which often has the character of advertising forcing
pressure with pro-sumption models.
The scale, variety and specificity of offers directed by commerce, services,
culture and entertainment is not only unbelievably vast but at the same time,
their psychological framing makes that being somewhere, seeing something,
taking part in something, having something becomes not merely an internal
need, but also the result of external pressure. Thus we can see cases (for
example in youth peer groups), when absence (somewhere), not possessing
(something) or not recognizing (somebody, something) may be a source of
exclusion, stigmatization or social ostracism, which is especially visible in
social environments characterized with financial success9:
• A woman [47 years of age, lawyer, mother of a 14 years-old girl]:
„There is no single month when my daughter does not have to have
something because her friends got it. She attends a renowned junior
high school, where the children are being “showered” by parents with
everything what is new. Most of the children do not understand how
big money it costs because they do not know what it means to earn 100
PLN. […] We have spoiled our own daughter […]”;
• A girl [17years of age, a student in secondary school LO]: „[…] I spend
about 300 PLN monthly on clothes, sometimes more, if my Grandma
gives me some money. If, at school, you do not have anything new, you
will not be cool […].Twice a month I have my nails done, almost every
Saturday, before a party I go to a make-up artist […].”;
• A couple [45 and 42 years of age, freelancers, parents of a 15 years-old
girl]: „We made a terrible mistake which takes its revenge on us. For
some years our daughter had unlimited access to a computer, which as
it turned out, she also used at night. She neglected school which ended
in her transfer to a community-owned school. The computer has captured her completely. She said that if we limited her Internet access,
she would stop going to school. We do not know what to do.”
9
Statements from author’s surveys form CSP, January 2013-April 2014.
The above quoted statements of educational diagnoses taken from
participants of the Social Prevention Center meetings, exhibit a specific
process within which a part of parents lost control over accelerated “growing
up” of their children and the parents completely surrendered to consumerism
trends and to the “racing world vortex”.
The key problems
The problem and range of this article makes covering of all the defined
risk areas where the young people engage impossible, hence it was decided
to refer to two – important and fast developing – problems: drug and alike
substances use and reaching for stimulants and tonics.
As scientists from all over the world utter loudly – the period of forming
drug habits is without any doubt adolescence. This issue has been strongly
documented (Bachman, Wadswortth, O’Malley, Johnston, Schulenberg,
2013, p. 11).
The Polish drug issue was for the first time widely defined at the beginning
of the 70-ies of the 20th century, which was connected with infiltration of drug
trends form the United States and Western Europe into Poland. In relation to
that period, we can speak about the drug model with dominant role of heroin
and Polish heroin, marijuana and inhalants (glues and solvents). During the
next 30 years, the situation was considerably changed due to, among others,
appearance of amphetamine, OC medicines and smart drugs. As far as it was
possible to take control over opioid addiction (mainly through methadone
substitution) still the Polish illicit drug market has extended (Safjański, 2013,
p. 111). Let us here quote an important remark credited to Czesław Cekiera:
„[…] Attempts at their counteracting are faint and government and NGO
activities are indolent” (Cekiera op.cit. p. 130). A new and very dynamic
phenomenon is the introduction of new substances in the market – herbal,
half-synthetic and synthetic ones, including further modifications of the
earlier known drugs and smart drugs.
As authors of reports concerning the scale and types of drug experiments
notice, the changes in this field during the last two decades are explicit and
can be a basis for a thesis about “qualitative leap”. Only in the years 19922003 the number of pupils who used drugs during last year increased from
5% to 24% - thus we speak about the situation where in the year 2003 every
fourth pupil had a personal “experience” with a drug. In the following years,
the observed dynamics variables – in 2008 it was 15%, and in 2013 – 18%
(see: PORC Report).
217
amphetamine
cocaine
hashish
LSD
Hallucinogen
mushrooms
DXM
Mephedrone
Rate
marijuana
Type
Table 3. Declared typed of drugs used in Public Opinion Research Center
report 2013, by pupils who admitted taking drugs during the last 12
months.
88%
10%
4%
3%
2%
1%
1%
1%
Source: Młodzież 2013, Public Opinion Research Center Report.
Concluding the drug issue we should assume that it will be one of the most
important challenges for prevention in this decade (and maybe longer) and it
requires:
• change in drug policy at the central and local levels, mainly through
designing perennial, interdisciplinary prevention programs directed on
limiting various types of risky behaviors in parallel;
• creating locally integrated programs by their coordination between educational institutions at the municipal-communal level and at district
level (essential is mostly coordination of preventive measures in junior
high schools and upper secondary schools);
• introduction of the drug prevention starting from the 5th or 6th grade in
primary school;
• co-existing with addiction prevention, development of school and extracurricular forms of children elicitation in their free time10;
• creating systemic solutions for developing knowledge and skills of
school counselors about drugs and party drugs and principles of proceedings.
A new phenomenon which development can be observed is use of
various types of stimulants and tonics11. The introductory diagnosis of this
phenomenon allowed to specify three groups of problems (often they coexist):
• the first: use of energy drinks (and alike substances) as a way to limit
tiredness (mostly being a result of night Internet and computer use or
as a way to gain strength before and during leisure time);
10
According to the author it is justified to provide a big budgetary support for scouting and similar social organizations and increase the sport classes in junior high schools
to 8-10 weekly.
11
Market of those substances is one of the fastest growing in Poland.
• the second: use of substances like “session” during examination time
in junior high schools and before final exams in secondary schools;
• the third: use of stimulants and tonics during intense sport practicing
and body building.
We can investigate this issue on the basis of research results. The research
was conducted in the first quarter of 2014 in four spots in the Mazovian
District, Upper Silesia, Zagłębie Dąbrowskie.
Tab. 4. Declared use of energy drinks by junior high schools pupils in
Polish town Radom, Wyszków and Mińsk Mazowiecki
Town
Radom
Belsk Duży
Wyszków
Mińsk
Mazowiecki
Declared use
Remarks
During last During last
30 days
week
27%
12%
Dominating model is use of those drinks on the
way to school, which may be associated with
a long evening and night presence in the net.
29%
18%
Even 8% of pupils declared using those
drinks every day
22%
12%
11% of respondents declared mixing energy
drinks with alcohol
24%
15%
The rate of everyday use declarations is 5%
Source : own elaboration of Business Academy Education Department and Center of Social
Prevention –February-June 2013,research group - 814.
The conducted analyses show that the main causes for increase in use
of such substances can be sought in mass advertising addressed most often
to young generation – as well on TV, in cinemas as direct advertising. We
should consider mixing energy drinks with alcohol and their use by younger
children dangerous. In the performed research we recognize growing rate of
junior high schools and secondary schools students using these substances not
incidentally but regularly what provokes a question about the possibility of
addiction mechanisms existence, which is particularly probable because most
of energy drinks contain big amounts of caffeine. The European and American
sources state similar phenomena all over the world raising the same questions
indifferently on the country (see: Malinauskas, Aeby, Overton, Carpenter,
Barber-Heidal, 2007). Here, other important questions arise, prompting to
include these issues into school prevention programs:
• what will be the influence of high doses of niacines, vitamins of B
group, riboflavin, taurine, guarana use on young peoples’ health?
• Whether the use of “energizers” at such a young age will not constitute
a harmful burden for circulatory system?
219
Common availability of stimulating substances together with their mass
promotion and also their impact on children and youth’s comfort increase their
popularity. In the own research, the users’ declarations presenting subjective
experiences following use were conspicuous (we present four, characteristic
ones below)12):
• A girl [junior high school pupil, 16 years of age]: „Without a “Tiger”
nothing enters my mind, I am sleepy, I have to drink a can before
school. I drink the second around noon and one more in the evening
[…].”;
• A boy [sport school pupil, 15 years of age]: „I drink before each training and before a competition I also add a guarana drink. Everybody in
our class do so. Sometimes the coach brings us cans.”;
• A boy [secondary school student, 19 years of age]: „At night I play
games, if I stopped, I would drop off, every day I play till 2 or 3 o’clock,
then I use a liter of “Black”. […] everything is detrimental, but I do not
drink vodka.”.
As it results from our research – use and abuse 13 of such type substances is
frequently connected with other compulsive behaviors, especially with those
linked with extreme sports, marital pseudo-arts, weekend leisure activities
(discos, parties) and with night life in front of multimedia.
Attempt at recapitulation
A contemporary human lives under increasingly stronger pressure of
“to be and to have” which is caused by a great information opening and
access to new areas, thanks to among others, the iconic invention which is
the Internet. New technologies onrush with their almost unlimited offer led
to “a day contraction”, a pressure of time as a result of which we are not
able to get to know the available sources and spaces. Natural – especially at
the young age – desire to know leads to falling by the young into dangerous
traps connected with lack of time and will to be active for longer than natural
organism abilities allow. Additionally the contemporary young recipient
is a victim of massive “information attack” encouraging to be “here and
everywhere, now and always”. If we look at the title “troubled world” from
such a perspective, it becomes a sphere of growing, multidimensional risk
12
Statements from author’s surveys, Center for Social Prevention, November
2013-March 2014.
13
It is estimated that drinks of this type should not be drunk by minors at all. The key
issue is use of multiply exceeded daily doses of individual substances
in the form of new chemical addictions, cyber-disorders and addictions to
new technologies (Pisarska, 2013, p. 111), enhancing the organism beyond
borders of its biological stability, strong sexual stimulation of teenagers
(simply exciting them with sexual sphere) (see: von Gersdorff, 2008, pp.
15-19), experimenting with “new potions” and entering into realms hard for
rational grasp by a teenager (for instance Internet pornography, cybersex).
In the “troubled world” the temptation to get adult fast increases, without an
afterthought about consequences of making choices and undertaking actions.
The result of such a state is undertaking such activities by a substantial part
of young generation, which were reserved so far for the adults, being not only
experiments, but a part of youth life.
Hence, we may assume that contemporary education faces the old and the
new challenges. The power of the latter is incomparably greater what generates
not only new research fields but also challenges for prevention (Dziewiecki,
2009, p. 141). All of them come down to legitimacy and maybe even necessity
of constant answering the question: how, in the racing world, should a young
man behave towards Fromm’s question “to be or to have”. This outstanding
humanist writing about modi of existence (modus of having and modus of
being) draws attention to a dangerous feature of contemporary times in which
consumption became a basic and in wealthy societies directly a key form
of possessing (Fromm, 2012a, p. 46). Meanwhile, the contemporary world
makes consuming everything, being everywhere, experiencing everything
impossible and education should encourage people to make wise choices
including rejecting many offers of the “troubled world”.
Bibliography:
1. Andrzejewska A., Dziecko w świecie rzeczywistym i wirtualnym, [in:]
Patologie w cyberprzestrzeni, (ed.) S. Bębas, J. Pils, J. Bednarek, Publishing House of WSH, Radom 2012.
2. Bachman J.G., Wadsworth K.N., O’Malley P.M., Johnston L.D., and
Schulenberg J.E., Smoking, Drinking, and Drug Use in Young Adulthood: The Impacts of New Freedoms and New Responsibilities, Psychology Press, 2013.
3. Błaszczak I., Negatywny wpływ mediów na rozwój inteligencji emocjonalnej dzieci i młodzieży, [in:] Patologie w cyberprzestrzeni, ed. S.
Bębas, J. Pils, J. Bednarek, Publishing House of WSH, Radom 2012.
4. Cekiera Cz., W obronie życia i zdrowia, Publishing house of Niepaństwowaj Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna in Białystok, Białystok 2011.
221
5. Dziewiecki M., Nowoczesna profilaktyka uzależnień, Publishin House
Jedność, Kielce 2009.
6. Fromm E., Zdrowe społeczeństwo, Publishing House vis-a-vis, Kracow
2012.
7. Fromm E., Mieć czy być?, Publishing House Rebis, Poznań 2012a.
8. Gaś Z., Profesjonalna profilaktyka w szkole: szanse i zagrożenia, [in:]
Profesjonalna profilaktyka w szkole. Nowe wyzwania, ed. Z.B. Gaś, Innovatio Press, Lublin 2011.
9. Gersdorff M., Rewolucja seksualna zagraża dzieciom, Stowarzyszenie
Kultury chrześcijańskiej im. Piotra Skargi, Cracow 2008.
10. Jędrzejko M., Młodzież poszukująca na rozdrożach zmieniającego się
świata – spojrzenie socjopedagogiczne, [in:] Człowiek na rozdrożu.
Zrozumieć, aby pomóc, ed. Z.B. Gaś, Publishing House Innovatio Press,
Lublin 2013.
11. Jędrzejko M., Człowiek i multimedia – poszukiwanie granic w nieuchronności, [in:] Edukacja wobec wyzwań społeczeństwa informacyjnego, (ed.) D. Morańska, M. Jędrzejko, Publishing House of Business
Academy, Dąbrowa Górnicza 2012a.
12. Kendall P.C., Zaburzenia okresu dzieciństwa i adolescencji, Gdańskie
Psychology Publishing House, Sopot 2012.
13. Kurzępa J., Młodzież w obliczu wielkiej zmiany, [in:] Pedagogika społeczna wobec procesów żywiołowych i zachowań ryzykownych, Publishing House Akapit, Toruń 2013,.
14. Malinauskas B.M., Aeby V.G., Overton R.F., Carpenter-Aeby T., and
Barber-Heidal K., A Survey of Energy Drink Consumption Patterns
among College Students, Nutrition Journal 6 (1)/ 2007.
15. Młodzież 2013 – Report of Public Opinion Research Center, Warsaw
2014.
16. Narkomania – spojrzenie wielowymiarowe, Jędrzejko M. (scientific edition.), Publishing House ASPRA-JR, Warsaw 2009.
17. Pisarska B., Uzależnienie młodych ludzi od multimediów – skala problemu a profilaktyka społeczna, [in:] Profilaktyka w przestrzeni publicznej,
ed. I. Bieńskowska, I. Fajfer-Kruczek, M. Kitlińska-Król, I. Olszówka,
Publishing House Scriptum, Cracow 2013.
18. Ptaszek R.T., Jak filozofia może pomóc współczesnemu człowiekowi, [in]:
Człowiek na rozdrożu, ed. Z.B. Gaś, Publishing House Inovatio Press,
Lublin 2013.
19. Ryś M., Rodzina na rozdrożu, [in:] Z.B. Gaś, Człowiek na rozdrożu.
Zrozumieć, aby pomóc, Publishing House Inovattio Press, Lublin 2013.
20. Safjański T., Podaż narkotyków – uwarunkowania, tendencje i kierunki
zagrożeń, w: Człowiek wobec uzależnień, (ed.) M. Jędrzejko, M. Netczuk
-Gwoździewicz, Publishing House ASPRA-JR, Warszawa 2013.
21. Trolley B.C., Cyber Kids, Cyber Bullying, Cyber Balance, Corwin Press
2010.
22. Wojcieszek K., Profilaktyka używania substancji psychoaktywnych – wybrane problemy, [in:] Narkomania – spojrzenie wielowymiarowe, Publishing House ASPRA-JR, Warszawa 2009.
223
Aggresion and Violence at School – Global or Local Issue?
Aggression and Violence at School
– Global or Local Issue?
Abstract:
Escalation of aggression and violence at school more and more often
intensifies researcher’s interest, who investigate these issues and look for
determinants which release aggressive and violent behaviours in children
and youth. Exemplifications, illustrations and explications, as well as
results of conducted research let show multiplicity and multitude of
classifications, categorizations and typizations of aggression and violence
what enables showing scale and rank of this issue. The literature and
social observations show that all countries in the world contend with
problem of aggression and violence at schools. The final part of the paper
contains conclusions and implications for educational practice which
are indispensable in designing, improving and also creating innovative
preventive programmes.
Keywords:
aggression, violence, prevention, school.
Introduction
As a result of the fact that the world is globalizing permanently, more
and more often we have to deal with signs of aggression and violence,
which nearly every day ”barge” into schools. Numerous authors suggest that
aggression and violence are a constitutive problem faced by contemporary
schools. Some of them state that school is “infected” by violence – such
view is particularly expressed in reference to junior high schools: “the
psyche of youth attending these schools is not shaped yet, their behaviour
226 Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba
is ruled by instinct and emotions – they examine the borders and make
experiments”(Przybysz-Zaremba, 2011, p. 186).
The school in its principles should be a place, which is safe and where
educational and care processes are carried out. However, it is becoming
a place of fear, threats, aggression and violence, which when face digitization
and computerization take new, innovative forms. Aggression and violence
used to take physical form most frequently – it was characterized by attack
directed to another person (e.g. blow, beating, jostling, kick, jerking etc.)
– so it was visible to naked eye and verbal one, characterized by harmful
verbal utterances like: badmouthing, gossiping, complaining, informing etc.
(see: Ostrowska, 2007). The literature points also on sings of aggression
of symbolic character – aggression manifested is on objects, which for
aggressor constitute unit, whom they wants to hurt (Adamczewska, 2006,
p. 21). Nowadays we deal with variety of different forms of aggressive and
violent behaviours of children and youth, which very often are revealed
in eclectic way. Authors, who provoke deliberations, reflections and
explorations on aggression and violence classify, categorize and typize them.
Infiltration of literature, as well as constatations and explorations let expose
displayed aggression and violence by means of technological novelties.
Jacek Pyżalski (2013, 2009a, 2009 and subsequent) in his works points at
electronic aggression and violence, which belong to group dominating among
behaviours of children and youth. (R)evolution among new communication
technologies has led to situation in which cyberbullying and cyberstalking
have become key problems faced by contemporary schools, which requires
change and/or reconstruction of the former prevention programmes, which
have been carried out by schools.
The aim of the Author’s deliberations and reflections is to make the Reader
familiar with the problem of aggression and violence faced by contemporary
school. Making the review of selected exemplifications and explorations
carried out by authors both in Poland, as abroad, the Author wants to show
and at the same time make educationalists, psychologists, parents, as well
as Directors, who manage institutions which carry out educational and care
process realize what the scale and the range of the problem is, which because
of the constant and dynamic process of globalization of life – becomes
indiscernible.
Aggression and violence – school’s strategic
problem. Exemplifications and explorations.
Literature often undertakes issues of aggression and violence. Multiplicity
and diversity of conducted explorations concerning these issues could mean
that these problems have been already investigated sufficiently. However,
it turns out that the reality is different. Evaluation of everyday life caused
by social and economic transformation involves newer and newer forms of
aggressive and violent behaviours.
Numerous research indicate that there are acts of aggression and violence
all the time and they do not always occur on the student – student plane, but
also in relations between student – teacher and teacher – student. A. GizaPoleszczuk, A. Komendant-Brodowska and A. Baczko-Dombi (2011, pp.
68-69) point at different forms of aggressive behaviours of students towards
teacher, which are not only expressed in ignoring teacher’s verbal orders,
provoking outbursts of anger, persecuting, or terrorizing, but more and more
often take physical form e.g. pushing, or tripping them up. Such kinds of
behaviours constitute determinants of releasing aggressive behaviours
by teachers. Research conducted as part of the ”School without violence”
programme, demonstrate improper teachers’ behaviours towards students,
which are mainly characterized by public humiliation, using offensive words,
terrorizing, throwing students out of the classroom, and even “blowing”,
“nudging” and “jostling” (Giza-Poleszczuk A., Komendant-Brodowska A.,
Baczko-Dombi A., 2011, p. 68-69). Nearly 75% of primary school students
experience aggression, or violence at school, are perpetrators, victims, or
observers (Przybysz-Zaremba 2013, pp. 275-285). Józef Górniewicz (1999,
p. 5-15) points out that this is a problem, which concerns nearly every student
at school. According to this author almost all students of high schools have
experienced aggression, or violence at least once at school, or on its area.
The report1 of research conducted under supervision of Krystyna Ostrowska
(2007) in 1997-2003-2007 shows that problem of aggression and violence at
1
2567 students took part in the research in 1997. 1611 students from 144 schools
placed in following voivodeships took part in the research in 2003: Lower Silesian
(dolnośląskie) - 11 schools; Kuyavian-Pomeranian (kujawsko-pomorskie) – 9 schools;
Lublin (lubelskie) – 14 schools; Lubusz (lubuskie) – 6 schools; Łódź (łódzkie) – 9
schools; Lesser Poland (małopolskie) – 9 schools; Masovian (mazowieckie) – 19
schools; Opole (opolskie) – 4 schools; Subcarpathian (podkarpackie) – 9 schools; Podlachian (podlaskie) – 5 schools; Pomeranian (pomorskie) – 6 schools; Silesian (śląskie)
– 9 schools; Świętokrzyskie – 4 schools; Warmian-Masurian (warmińsko-mazurskie)
– 10 schools; Greater Poland (wielkopolskie) – 15 schools; West Pomeranian (zachodniopomorskie) – 5 schools. 2141 students including 652 students attending to junior high
schools i.e. 30% of respondents, took part in the research in 2007.
227
school occurs at all stages of education. Aggression and violence has been
taking different forms over the years (Figure 1).
Picture 1. Kinds of aggressive behaviours performed by the students
attending
to the
atte
te
tending
te
the junior
junio
or high schools.
Source: own work out, on the basis of data from the research on aggressive behaviours of students in Poland in 1997, 2003, 2007 (Ostrowska 2007, p. 59).
Other countries also face the problem of escalation of aggression and
violence at schools. International research Heath Behaviour in School-aged
Children (HBSC) conducted among students from 29 countries shows that
percentage of tormented students at school fluctuated from 69% in Lithuania
to 16% in Sweden and amounted to 39% on average (HBSC 2000). The report
Violence and aggression at schools – ways of counteracting worked out for
the Ministry of National Education indicates also expansion of aggression
and violence at schools at shows that such countries, as: Austria, Finland,
France, Greece, or Spain contend with this problem. Aggression and violence
at school is noticed both among girls and boys. Laurence D. Owens (1997)
points out that there is crucial differences in destructive behaviours between
these groups, as the taken form shows – girls more often take the indirect
forms, whereas boys undertake physical violence. According to Charlesa
E. Bascha (2011, p. 619-625) the problem occurs twice as often at schools
located in cities, or outskirts. More often acts of aggression, or violence occur
among African youth (about 45%) and Latino youth (41%), than students
of the white race (about 32%). In South Africa problem of school violence
becomes crucial matter and requires immediate intervention and practical
prevention. Johan Prinsloo and Jan Neser (2007, p. 320-330) pointed that
substantial number of students from these schools are victims of aggression,
or violence once a week, and sometimes even every day.
Intensification of the problem makes researchers undertake explorations
concerning conditions of students’ pathogenic behaviours. P. S Leff, T. E.
Waasdorp and N. R. Crick (2010, pp. 508-535) prove that engagement
in aggression and violence is result of problems bound with adjustment
to conditions, situation, or place. Apart from destructive behaviours of
students, internalization of problems (e.g. depression) can also occur, what in
consequence can lead to skipping school. Motives which underlie improper
behaviours have most frequently egocentric nature and are connected
with lack of understanding and respect towards physical and psychosocial
integrity of victims and their property (Prinsloo & Neser, 2007, p. 320-330).
Internalization and expression of aggressive behaviours is connected with
aggression and violence and also other photogenic phenomena occurring in
a family. One of the main factors, which underlies signs of aggression and
violence is problem of alcohol abuse. According to the Institute of Mental
Health - about 70% of families in which problem of alcohol abuse occurs
experiences acts of aggression and violence performed by the drinking person
(PARPA, 2010, p. 8). Data worked on the basis of the Blue Card procedure
show that in 2012 general number of victims of domestic violence reached
the level of 77 thousand and more than 50 thousand of victims were women
and 19 thousand under aged. More than 30 thousand of perpetrators were
under influence of alcohol (Main Police Station). Aggression and violence
performed by parents, grandparents, siblings, or other family members
towards children cause fear, pain and also teach the same behaviours, which
are become visible at the time of shaping personality. Mikołaj Winiarski
(2000) points at number of adverse (from the point of child’s development
view) influences of family in which there is problem of alcohol abuse and
signs of aggressive – violent behaviours. These are: inhibition and disorder
of psychosomatic development of children and social orphanage. Mental
disorders of these children are expressed mainly in extreme emotions – once
they are angry, once very unhappy and such feelings accompany them during
whole childhood to maturity. These children cannot function in relations
with social environment. They are susceptible to destructive influences of
their peers, they experience alcohol, nicotine, or drug initiation very early.
Pathological family environment of a child shapes in it behaviour disorders,
destructive attitudes and social actions, in consequence leading to social
maladjustment and in extreme situations to social aberration (see: Korneshov,
229
2010, pp. 58-70; Rehm, Room, Brink, Jacobi, 2005, pp. 377-388; Kawula,
2012, pp. 130-131; Radziewicz-Winnicki, 2004).
Nowadays, the most crucial determinant releasing, and at the same
time shaping improper behaviours of students are media especially
the Internet, which when is used in improper way seem to be the most
dangerous one. Aggression and violence preformed in the cyberspace by
means of communication technologies which are offered by the Internet
acquires newer and newer character year by years and takes newer and
more”innovative” forms constructed as a result of constantly globalizing
world (Przybysz-Zaremba, 2014). Aggression expressed by means of
the new technologies: the Internet, or mobile phone is a dangerous form,
as it is difficult to diagnose the aggressor. Research conducted as part of
the Ybarry project on the group of 476 victims of electronic aggression
show that persecuted persons at school often are victims of cyberbullying
(Pyżalski, 2009, p. 12-15).
There are numerous sources of aggressive behaviours of children and
youth and they constitute series of factors stuck in main life environments
i.e. family, school, peer group and local environment. Nowadays, the new
educational environment of a child, which shapes its personality, way
of thinking and acting is “cyberspace” as virtual society giving access to
everyone at any time. It is space which was not possible to be experienced
earlier. It is egalitarian, without limits and borders enabling to communicate,
providing entertainment and “ocean” of information (Walancik &Sarzała,
2012; Taper & Śmiałowski, 2013, pp. 151-158).
Conclusions
The review of presented illustration, exemplifications and explorations
presenting only part of the problem of aggression and violence with which
most schools all over the world have to contend, shows that this problem
becomes much more serious year by year and takes newer forms. Holistic
prevention – intervention actions in this direction, which are of dynamic
character and take into consideration conditions, individual situations and
possible consequences are of key importance. These factors should become
basis of forming, or improvement of prevention programmes which are
carried out by schools.
Holistic prevention actions (including intervention ones) should take into
consideration all environments of child’s life among which family, school and
local environment are the most important ones. Each of these environments
should be included in multidimensional and at the same time long lasting
intervention-prevention actions.
A crucial issue in holistic prevention actions is proper cooperation of the
above mentioned environments. School, as professional institution responsible
for not only carrying out educational and care process of a child, but foremost
for its safety at school and on its area has competences and predispositions as
instruments, which are indispensable in forming and carrying out prevention
of destructive behaviours of students. According to the provisions it is their
task to carry out prevention and intervention actions, which are to minimize
problem of aggression and violence at school.
Unfortunately, the responsibility for ”inept” carrying out prevention is
only born by schools. The Supreme Audit Office’s report (2013) shows that
school is not able to deal with victimization and destructive behaviours of
students. Lack of broadening, complementing and improvement of knowledge
of teachers, educationalists and psychologists employed at schools is result
of week prevention actions. The Supreme Audit Office (2013, p. 10) showed
that in about 30% of controlled schools headmasters did not provide teachers
with participation in any trainings, workshops or scientific seminars.
Taking into consideration escalation of the problem of aggression and
violence at school and especially in the social environment one should
investigate prevention actions, which are carried out on many areas – their
evaluation will provide researchers with data as basis for creation of new,
innovative programmes for prevention of addictions an behaviour disorders.
It is necessary to work out so called ”new generation” programmes, which will
take into consideration changing world in which a child more and more often
is susceptible to disintegrative influences. “New generation” programmes
should be multidimensional, long – lasting, integrated and foremost
“flexible” i.e. adjusted to individual situations and child’s behaviours (Ozkol,
Zucker, Spinazzola, 2011, p. 733-748, Jędrzejko 2013, p. 61 and subsequent).
Necessity of doing verifications and evaluations of their effectiveness is of
fundamental meaning and constitutes basis for introduction of changes and
improvements.
Bibliography:
1. Adamczewska B., Geneza agresji, Edukacja i Dialog 174/2006.
2. Basch, Charles E., Aggression and Violence and the Achievement Gap
among Urban Minority Youth, Journal of School Health vol. 81/2011
no. 10.
231
3. Górniewicz, J., Przemoc w szkole, Wychowanie na co dzień 3/1999.
4. HBSC, Młodzież o szkole. Zdrowie młodzieży szkolnej w Polsce. Warszawa 2000.
5. Hurrelmann K., Rixius N., Schirp H. i in., Gewald in der Schule, Weinheim, Beltz 1996.
6. Jędrzejko M., Pigmalion i Aureola, Studio Poligraficzne Edytorka, Warszawa 2013.
7. Kawula S., Pedagogika społeczna. Dzisiaj i jutro, Wydawnictwo AKAPIT, Toruń 2012.
8. Komenda Główna Policji, Statystyka; http://www.statystyka.policja.pl/
portal/st/944/50863/Przemoc_w_rodzinie.html [dostęp. 30.03.2013].
9. Konińska E., Mądrze i skutecznie. Zasady konstruowania programu profilaktyki. Wydawnictwo Rubikon, Kraków 2002.
10. Korneshov A., Assessment of the Demographic Results of the Prevalence of
Self-Destructive Forms of Behavior, Sociological Research 49/2010, no. 4.
11. NIK, Profilaktyka narkomanii w szkołach, Warszawa 2013.
12. Ostrowska K., Zachowania agresywne uczniów. Rozmiary, nasilenie
i rodzaje zachowań agresywnych w szkole w latach 1997, 2003, 2007.
Raport z badań, Warszawa 2007.
13. Owens L. D., Aggression in Schools: Gender and Developmental Differences, [online], http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/
ERICServlet?accno=ED404592, dostęp: 14 luty 2014.
14. Ozkol H., Zucker M., Spinazzola J., Pathways to Aggression in Urban
Elementary School Youth, Journal of Community Psychology 39/2011,
no. 6.
15. Państwowa Agencja Rozwiązywania Problemów Alkoholowych, Narodowy Program Profilaktyki i Rozwiązywania Problemów Alkoholowych
na lata 2006 – 2010, Warszawa 2010.
16. Pyżalski J., Bullying (mobbing) jako specyficzny typ agresji rówieśniczej,
Poradnik Pedagoga Szkolnego: gimnazjum i szkoła ponadgimnazjalna,
2009a.
17. Pyżalski J., Agresja elektroniczna dzieci i młodzieży – różne wymiary
zjawiska, Dziecko Krzywdzone. Teoria, badania, praktyka 1(26)/2009.
18. Prinsloo J., Neser J., School violence and peer group victimisation in
public schools in Tshwane-South., Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe, vol.
47/ 2007, no. 3.
19. Przybysz-Zaremba M., Agresja i przemoc w szkole - profilaktyka. Analiza
problemu z perspektywy współpracy szkoły ze środowiskiem społecznym,
[in:] L. Hurło (red.), Płaszczyzny współpracy szkoły ze środowiskiem
lokalnym, Wydawnictwo MAGNUS, Łódź 2011.
20. Przybysz-Zaremba M., Das Problem der Aggression und Gewalt in polnischen Gymnasien - Vorbeugendes Verfahren. [in:] Gesundheitsförderung im Setting Schule, M. Marchwacka (Ed.), Wydawnictwo “Springer”, Wiesbaden 2013.
21. Przybysz-Zaremba M., Wokół „wirtualnej” agresji i przemocy w szkole
– kilka uwag praktycznych, Dąbrowa Górnicza 2014 – tekst przedłożono
do druku.
22. Radziewicz-Winnicki, A., Społeczeństwo w trakcie zmiany, Gdańsk,
2004.
23. Rehm J., Room R., Brink Van den W., Jacobi F., Alcohol use disorders in
EU countries and Norway: an overview of the epidemiology, European
Neuropsychopharmacology, 2005, no. 15.
24. Walancik M., Sarzała D. (red.), Człowiek z wielkiej sieci, Oficyna Wydawnicza ASPRA-JR, Warszawa – Dąbrowa Górnicza 2012.
25. Wojtasik Ł., Przemoc rówieśnicza z użyciem mediów elektronicznych –
wprowadzenie do problematyki, Dziecko Krzywdzone. Teoria, badania,
praktyka 1(26)/ 2009.
26. Taper, A. E., Śmiałowski T., Złapani w sieci? Charakterystyka dorosłych
użytkowników Internetu z uwzględnieniem zachowań ryzykownych, [in:]
Człowiek wobec uzależnień. Alkohol. Narkotyki. Dopalacze, Oficyna
Wydawnicza ASPRA-JR, Warszawa – Dąbrowa Górnicza, 2013.
27. Shimizu A., Recent Developments Domestic Violence in the Digital Age:
Towards the Creation of a Comprehensive Cyberstalking Statute, Berkeley Journal of Gender, Law & Justice 28/2013.
233
Aggression as Exemplification of Behavioural Disorder in Children and Youth
Anna PRUSIK Dr.
University of Computer Sciences and Economics in Olsztyn (Poland)
Aggression as Exemplification
of Behavioural Disorder in Children
and Youth
Abstract:
Behavioural disorders hinder functioning of child in basic educational
environments concerning different requirements resulting from necessity
of adoption to social roles. Aggressive behaviour is an example of
behavioural disorder, which constitutes deviation from behaviour that is
expected and is in accordance with generally accepted norms of social
behaviour, and which violates order. Escalation of aggression, multitude
of its forms arouse interest of researches, who are looking for answers for
questions concerning genesis and conditions which are favourable for its
expansion in social relations, as well as possibilities of its prevention.
Keywords:
behavioural disorders, social maladjustment, aggression.
Introductions to issues concerning
behavioural disorders
The notion of “disorder” is used by educationalists most frequently in the
context of analysis of problems, which children and youth cause at schools
and other educational institutions (Urban, 2000, p. 16). An attempt to explain
notion of “behavioural disorder” is not an easy task, because of different
ways of its interpretation. Depending on adopted scientific perspective and
theoretical assumptions there are few ways of understanding and defining
this notion. Tendency for using following notions interchangeably namely:
236 Anna Prusik
“behavioural disorders”, “emotional disorders”, “social maladjustment”
can be observed in scientific works of educationalists, psychiatrists and
psychologists (Urban, 2007, p. 141).
Henryk Cudak (2008, p. 135) underlines that apart from notion of
”behavioural disorders” in the literature concerning these issues, other notion
which describes improper, different from the generally accepted norms, relation
of a child with social and family environment i.e. “social maladjustment”
can be found. The notion of “social maladjustment” refers to further stages
of developmental disorders, or emotional disorders (Urban, 2000, p. 18). In
order to identify emotional disorders and behavioural disorders with social
maladjustment and popular notion of ”antisocial behaviour” inclines also
attitude of Polish psychiatrists who concentrate mainly on active, external
form of emotional disorders which objectify in destruction of social norms
and interpersonal relations (Urban, 2007, p. 142).
Interdisciplinary character of issues concerning behavioural disorders
were described by H. Sulestrowska (1989, p.118), who defines ”behavioural
disorder” as any kind of children’s and youth’s behaviours which constitute
deviation from expected, corresponding to adopted norms of social behaviour,
violating social order behaviours, whether they already cause conflict, or not.
In such understanding disorder comes down to problems included in the
notion of “social maladjustment”.
Behavioural disorder is when behaviour is characterized by permanence
or lengthy duration with possibility of different degree of improvement.
H. Sulestrowska (1989, p. 118) refers to two kinds of notion of disorder
namely:
• For description of different kinds of behaviours directed against moral
and legal rules. These are such behaviours which in socioeducational
literature are treated as signs of social maladjustment (skipping
school, escapes) and antisocial actions (thefts, aggression).
• For determination of disordered personality. In this view “behavioural
disorder” is synonymous notion with “improper personality”, “personality disorders”.
The issues concerning behavioural disorders have been also worked out
by the American Psychiatric Association – Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). According to DSM-IV notion of behavioural
disorder means repeating and long-lasting pattern of behaviour in which basic
principles, social norms and rules are broken (quotation of: Cudak, 2008,
p. 134). Researches underline that such understanding of this notion contains
following categories:
• aggressive behaviours;
• non-aggressive behaviours (destruction of other people’s possessions
with intention of doing serious harm);
• deception and theft;
• breaking rules, social rules and orders, running away from home, skipping school, (quotation of: Cudak, 2008, p. 135).
Bronisław Urban (2000, p. 17) underlines that disorder in behaviour
hinders functioning of a child in different spheres of requirements resulting
from necessity of adopting to various social rules and taking position towards
oneself, siblings, colleagues, parents, teachers. On earlier developmental
stages this is child’s and its closest environment individual problem, whereas
when it grows up it becomes social problem gradually.
This paper concentrates on category of aggressive behaviours which
constitute exemplification of disorders in children and youth. Because of the
requirements concerning volume of the paper the author has just indicated
selected forms of aggression, which require separate, deep analyses.
Closer description of the definition
of the notion of “aggression”1
The notion of “aggression” is used in many different meanings. According
to psychological and educational encyclopaedias the notion “aggression”
means deliberate action, which aims at doing harm, damage, and pain to
somebody, or something. Such action has usually violent and open character.
There are numerous definitions of aggression in literature (Reykowski, 2002,
p. 276; Frączek, 1996, p. 37).
Janusz Reykowski (2002, p. 276) defines it in following way: aggression
is behaviour (action) which aims at doing damage – physical or mental – or
destruction of some items – physical or social ones. A. Frączek (1996, p.
37) assumed that aggression and interpersonal violence can be treated, as
actions undertaken deliberately by people which constitute threat, or cause
damage in physical, mental, or social welfare of these people i.e. causing
pain, destruction, leading to loss of appreciated values.
Phenomenon of aggression and violence is in fact treated as self-obvious,
normal part of life (Fatyga, 2002, p. 239). Available statistics show unbelievable
dynamics of aggressive behaviours, what causes justified concerns resulting
from the size of the phenomenon of aggression in the social debate, in everyday
life nearly in all educational environments: in family, school, peer group,
“Violence”, which is derivative of aggression, is used as synonym of the notion
“aggression” both in literature and informal language.
1
237
238 Anna Prusik
institutions (Prusik, 2013, s 219). The age of young aggressor falls down
systematically, as well as the age of their victims. What worries are not only
the waves of aggression and violence in different form, but also brutalization
of such kinds of behaviours and emotional coldness of offenders who are
becoming younger (Pufal-Struzik, 2007 p. 7). Maria Jarymowicz (2002, p.
173) adds that aggressive behaviours are copied, regulated by factors which
are different from anger.
Selected kinds of aggressive behaviours as category
of behavioural disorders
Aggression may have different forms, and one can distinguish a lot of kinds
of aggression. Tadeusz Pilch (1995, p. 422) underlines that in educational
praxis aggression and violence are permanent elements of reality with which
an educationalist deals.
Authors of reports (Giza-Poleszczuk, 2011; Surzykiewicz, 2000,
Ostrowska, 2007; Fatyga, 2002) showing phenomenon of aggression at
school – peer aggression point at increase of the aggressive behaviours among
pupils and brutalization of verbal and mental aggression. Phenomenon of
aggression and violence among children and youth is illustrated in the latest
research by Anna Giza-Poleszczuk and group (2011), in which N=3169
pupils took part. More than half of an investigated pupils of the 4th grade
(62%) regards aggressive behaviours and violence as serious problem at their
schools, whereas only 13% of 3rd grade high school pupils share this opinion.
Considerable majority (88%) of the Poles thinks that aggressive behaviours
constitute serious social problem. Surzykiewicz’s research (2000) shows that
pupils are victims of verbal aggression – they are foremost offended (50%)
and badmouthed (49%). As aggression and physical violence are concerned,
they are jostled by another pupil (53%), pulled by ears by a teacher (11%),
beaten by another person without any reason (16%). The results of presented
researches prove that mental aggression towards pupils occurs more often
in such forms, as: forcing to do something (23%), threatening by a teacher
(20%), throwing out from the classroom by a teacher (26%). Moreover 15%
of respondents were victims of vandalistic behaviours such as destroying,
or taking their possessions. Research conducted by K. Ostrowska (2007)
also show that aggression at school is noticed in such forms as: cheating
teachers, making it impossible to conduct a lesson, offending, insulting other
pupils, jostling others on purpose, getting drunk, spreading lies about others,
fights. The number of pupils who admitted to respective forms of aggressive
behaviours fell down in 2007 in reference to 2003, as well as to 1997, but
the fall of the number of victims was not observed. The number of victims
of verbal aggression and threat of using gun increased. Irena Pufal-Struzik
(2007, p. 30) points also attention to aggression as parent’s educational
failure and result of mistakes made during bringing up. In turn Edmund
Wnuk – Lipiński (2002, p. 251) draws attention to relation of aggression
with politics and aggression notices that making public becomes a factor of
creating patterns for some part of society.
It must also be mentioned that massive sport events are very often excuse
for aggressive, brutal, loutish behaviours of young people. In such cases we
deal with stadium aggression (Sochacka, 2010).
Particular attention should be paid to certain form of aggression – namely
electronic aggression/cyber-aggression, which is relatively new and requires
terminological organization (Pyżalski, 2011, p. 23). Currently nobody doubts
that electronic media constitute unrepeatable chance for development of
human and humanity, however on the other hand they bring along threats for
spheres of social life and development of individual’s personality becoming
at the same time tool used for doing harm to others.
Internet is more and more popular among children and youth and more
and more often concerns for harassment of Internet users by means of net
are expressed. Not many researches concerning this phenomenon have been
published yet. Research published in 2006 revealed that 29 % of young
Internet users had been at least once victim of peer aggression on Internet.
In turn the research conducted in 2007 on Internet users between 13 and
17 years old, showed that 43% had been victims of cyber-aggression in the
previous year (Pyżalski, 2009, p.24). Jacek Pyżalski (2009, p. 58) points at
urgent need of organizing definition issues connected with electronic/ cyberaggression. Therefore he suggests that aggression which is indirectly directed
towards the victim should be called Internet harassment, for peer electronic
aggression carried out by children and youth from the same social group,
whereas in case of repeated, deliberate action, when the offenders are in
majority the author proposes the notion of cyberbullying.
It is important to notice that notion of electronic aggression refers to
substantial number of different cases and situations. Particular types of
aggression differ not only with signs, mechanism of their origin, but also
consequences for persons, who are indirectly engaged in the process of this
aggression, as well as whole society. Jacek Pyżalski (2011, p.42) presents
different kinds of electronic aggression with regard to type of a victim and
these are: (1) electronic aggression towards aggrieved – a victim is a person
who is ”weaker” than perpetrator; (2) electronic aggression towards celebrities
239
240 Anna Prusik
– aggression towards well-known people, who are present in media; (3)
electronic prejudice aggression – victims are not respective individuals, but
whole groups e.g. of particular nationality; (4) electronic aggression towards
strangers (accidental) – a victim is an unknown person, who is chosen at
random while surfing the Internet; (5) cyberbullying – a victim is a young
person who belongs to a group (class, discussion forum) and the perpetrator
belongs to the same group as well. About this issue in Polish schools often
write M. Jędrzejko and D. Morańska (see: Jędrzejko, Morańska, 2013)
Already quotedJ. Pyżalski (2011, p. 76) research prove that peer
aggression (including cyberbullying) is only one of kinds of aggression in
which young people are engaged. Among investigated middle school students
(N=719) 15 % engaged in aggression towards strangers, 14,5% engaged
in prejudice aggression; aggression towards aggrieved was performed by
7 % of respondents, aggression towards celebrities was performed by 6%
of investigated pupils. Every twentieth respondent that they has performed
electronic aggression towards teachers.
The literature concerning these issues presents the view that experiencing
different forms of aggressive behaviours disturbs personality development
and has negative effect on functioning of an individual in different spheres
of life. It is commonly known that experiencing of aggressive behaviours has
similar consequences whether it is traditional or electronic/cyber aggression.
Jacek Pyżalski (2011, p. 29) refers to results of research which prove that
victims of peer aggression have worse results at school because of problems
with concentration of attention during lessons and frequent skipping school,
weaker relationships with peers. At emotional level the victims of aggression
feel humiliated, unhappy, lost, and lonely. Victimization can lead to such
problems as depression, fear, and low self-assessment, negative perceiving
of oneself, feeling lonely. In extreme situations chronic experiencing of
aggression can have tragic effects such as homicide, or suicide.
Conclusions
Aggression constitutes serious social problem which requires detailed
theoretical analyses, as well as practical, preventive actions aiming at its
elimination, or limitation. Nothing can justify passivity within the scope of
counteracting aggressive behaviours (Prusik, 2013, p. 230). However, B.
Fatyga (2002, p. 222) underlines that spreading wave of aggression does
not find adequate reflection in social actions, in intensification of work of
institutions which are responsible for sense of security and bringing up and
care of children and youth. It is crucial to educate, introduce preventive
programmes in schools within the scope of augmenting problem of aggressive
behaviours among children and youth.
Preventive programmes referring to phenomenon of aggression and
violence can be created, but without making real contact with young people,
without personal engagement of educationalists, parents, tutors, teachers in
providing help these programmes will be useless. It is crucial to develop in
children and youth, as well as adults’ social skills and competences e.g. dealing
with stress, solving problems, and it is important to promote appropriate
patterns of cooperation. Aggression Replacement Training, which one of
components training developing pro-social behaviours, can set as an example
of such actions.
It is necessary to broaden offer of extracurricular classes and other
institutions. It is advisable to take into consideration interpersonal trainings
while creating curriculum for the universities which prepare students for the
teacher’s profession, as they teach communication and behaviours which
suppress aggression. It is also crucial to support parents, tutors in work on
aggression on the way of e.g. organization of trainings, courses, workshops
which focus on these issues. Numerous bodies should be engaged in the fight
against aggression – starting from family, educational institutions, pupils
themselves, local society. The role of a family is underestimated within
this scope. It should be underlined that lack of support in family, failure to
provide by it basic needs of safety, love, respect can lead to situations in
which aggressive behaviours will be form of “protection” against dangerous
world (Prusik, 2013, p. 228).
Everything should be done in order to mobilize society and bring up young
generation without aggression. The authors of World Report on Violence
and Health (WHO, 2002) underline that aggressive behaviours are present in
nearly every sphere of life and are quite difficult problem of the contemporary
world to solve, but human’s determination and creativity can counteract it.
Among recommended solution in the WHO report it is crucial to take into
consideration following ones (quotation of: Prusik, 2013, 229):
a. it is necessary to strengthen cooperation of institutions and facilities
which task is to exchange information concerning counteracting
aggression and violence, so that actions undertaken by e.g. the Police,
Municipal Social Welfare Centre, Commune Social Welfare Centre,
District Family Support Centre, Courts, Schools were integrated
and aimed at better support of aggression victims and at their better
protection. It is also crucial to integrate actions aiming at counteracting
aggression and violence with state’s social and educational policy;
241
242 Anna Prusik
b. it is necessary to promote preventive actions which example can be
i.a. workshops School for Parents and Tutors within the frames of
the Family Support Programmes which are carried out at schools and
psychological and pedagogical centres successfully;
c. it is crucial to observe international law, agreements and mechanisms
which defend human rights, which typical example is Council of Europe
Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and
domestic violence. It is incomprehensible why it has not been ratified
yet;
d. it is important to set priorities and support researches on causes,
consequences, prevention and cost of phenomenon of aggression in
society.
Bibliography:
1. Diagnoza szkolna, Raport roczny programu społecznego „Szkoła bez
przemocy”, http:// www.szkolabezprzemocy.pl.
2. Fatyga B, Agresja, przemoc i indywidualizm ego-sekurialny, w: Ł. Jurasz
-Dudzik (red.) Człowiek i agresja. Głosy o nienawiści i przemocy. Ujęcie interdyscyplinarne, Wydawnictwo Sic!, Warszawa 2002.
3. Frączek A., Agresja i przemoc wśród dzieci i młodzieży jako zjawisko
społeczne, [in:] A. Frączek, I. Pufal-Struzik (ed.) Agresja wśród dzieci
i młodzieży. Perspektywa psychoedukacyjna, Wydawnictwo Pedagogiczne ZNP, Kielce 1996.
4. Giza-Poleszczuk A., Komendant-Brodowska A., Boczko-Dombi A.,
Przemoc w szkole. Raport z badań, Zespół badawczy Instytutu Socjologii UW, http://www.szkolabezprzemocy.pl/pliki/318-sbp2011-raportglowny-calosc.pdf [20.05.2014].
5. Jarymowicz M., Poszukiwanie źródeł ludzkiej agresywności w wiedzy
o ludzkich emocjach, [in:] Ł. Jurasz-Dudzik (ed.) Człowiek i agresja.
Głosy o nienawiści i przemocy. Ujęcie interdyscyplinarne, Wydawnictwo Sic!, Warszawa, 2002.
6. Jędrzejko M., Morańska D., Cyfrowi tubylcy, Oficyna Wydawnicza
ASPRA-JR, Warszawa 2013.
7. Ostrowska K., Raport Agresja i przemoc w szkole. Badania porównawcze 1997-2003-2007, Warszawa 2007, http://www.ore.edu.pl/.
8. Pilch T. (1995), Agresja i nietolerancja jako mechanizmu zagrożenia
ładu społecznego, [in:] T. Pilch, I. Lepalczyk, Pedagogika społeczna.
Człowiek w zmieniającym się świecie, Wydawnictwo „Żak”, Warszawa
1995.
9. Prusik A., Agresja jako zjawisko społeczne, [in:] T.Pilch, T.Sosnowski
(red.), Zagrożenia człowieka i idei sprawiedliwości społecznej, Wydawnictwo Akademickie „Żak“, Warszawa 2013.
10. Pufal-Struzik, I., Agresja jako błąd wychowawczy rodziców i jako skutek
błędów w wychowaniu, [in:] I. Pufal-Struzik, (ed.), Agresja dzieci i młodzieży. Uwarunkowania indywidualne, rodzinne i szkolne, Wydawnictwo Pedagogiczne ZNP, Kielce 2007.
11. Pyżalski J., Agresja elektroniczna wśród dzieci i młodzieży, Gdańskie
Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Sopot 2011.
12. Pyżalski J., Agresja elektroniczna dzieci i młodzieży – różne wymiary
zjawiska, [in:] Cyberprzemoc, Dziecko krzywdzone nr 1 (26), 2009.
13. Reykowski J. (2002), O czterech poziomach regulacji zachowań agresywnych u człowieka, [in:] Ł. Jurasz-Dudzik (ed.) Człowiek i agresja.
Głosy o nienawiści i przemocy. Ujęcie interdyscyplinarne, Wydawnictwo Sic!, Warszawa 2002.
14. Sochacka J.), Chuligaństwo stadionowe jako samodzielne zjawisko społeczne i przedmiot regulacji prawnych. Zarys problematyki, Archiwum
Kryminologii TOM XXXII/2010, PAN, Instytut Nauk Prawnych, http://
www.inp.pan.pl/wydaw/AK32%20Sochacka.pdf,[ 20.05.2014].
15. Sulestrowska H., Zaburzenia zachowania i nieprawidłowy rozwój osobowości u dzieci i młodzieży, [in:] A. Popielarska (ed.), Psychiatria wieku rozwojowego, PZWL, Warszawa 1989.
16. Surzykiewicz J., Agresja i przemoc w szkole. Uwarunkowania socjoekologiczne, Centrum Metodyczne Pomocy Psychologiczno-Pedagogicznej,
Warszawa 2000.
17. World Report on Violence and Health, WHO, 2002, http://www.who.int/
violence_in-jury_prevention /world_report.
18. Wnuk – Lipiński E., Agresja w polityce, [in:] Ł. Jurasz-Dudzik (ed.)
Człowiek i agresja. Głosy o nienawiści i przemocy. Ujęcie interdyscyplinarne, Wydawnictwo Sic!, Warszawa 2002.
243
Social Pedagogical Aid to Children Who Avoid School: The Attitude of Class Tutors
Violeta JEGELEVIČIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr
Asta RAILIENĖ Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Social Pedagogical Aid to Children
who Avoid School: the Attitude
of Class Tutors
Abstract:
School non-attendance is a complex and multi-dimensional problem, and
the settlement of the problem should also be executed in an integrated
and systematic way. Through the analysis of a quantitative survey results
the article discloses the reasons for school non-attendance, the providers
of social pedagogical aid to children who avoid school and possible
aid forms; as well as the opportunities for the improvement of socialpedagogical aid to children who avoid school.
Key words:
school non-attendance, children who avoid school, class tutor, socialpedagogical aid.
Introduction
The researchers (Civinskas and others, 2006) define a child avoiding
school as a child who avoids school without good reason. School nonattendance is an urgent issue requiring a well-coordinated and effective
cooperation/communication of specialists of educational, social, legal and
other institutions. In academic year 2011-2012, the number of children
between the age of 7 and 16 who didn’t attend school amounted to 13 462
(The Analysis of Educational Problem, 2013). This shows that school is not
246 Violeta Jegelevičienė, Asta Railiene
able to realise one of the main goals of the National Education Strategy for
2013-2022 “to ensure adequate access to education and equal opportunities
for all children”.
School non-attendance could also be perceived as a phenomenon
determined by multiple causal networks depending on the emotional and
behavioural problems (Civinskas and others, 2006; Lehmann, 2009).
According to the Lithuanian research analysis (Civinskas and others,
2006; Successful Learning: Dropping-Out from the Education System,
2010), children avoid school because they lack motivation to learn; due to
an inadequate organisation of the teaching process and, consequently, the
unwillingness to learn; children’s psychological characteristics; and due to
inadequate children’s social-economic and family conditions.
Pursuant to relevant educational documentation (On the Approval of the
Information System and Data Security Provisions for Children Who Don’t
Attend School, 2010; the State Education Strategy for 2013-2022 (2013);
The Law Amending the Law on Education, 2011; The Description of the
Procedure for Provision of Social Pedagogical Aid, 2011), social-pedagogical
aid is the most effective preventive and intervention measure in educational
institutions dealing with children who avoid school. Only joint efforts of
various specialists can ensure effective organisation and provision of socialpedagogical aid, coordination of work of individual specialists, effective
assessment/identification of needs for social pedagogical aid, and development
of inter-institutional and inter-agency cooperation in considering social
and pedagogical problems of school children (Merfeldaitė, 2007). Social
pedagogues, class tutors and teachers are referred to as main providers of
social-pedagogical aid. A class tutor is a teacher who is committed to educate
class community. A class tutor’s activities include the following functions:
child supervision, education and counselling (Bitinas, 2004; Jovaiša, 2004).
Thus, a class tutor plays a significant role in identifying and managing school
non-attendance issues, since he/she is a person who knows the children best
of all and is able to adequately evaluate the aid provided by pedagogues and
other specialists.
The Child Welfare Committees have been established in order to reduce
the number of children avoiding school. One of the key functions of these
committees is to analyse the causes of children’s reluctance to attend
school, the fears related to school; the causes of underachievement; and to
take appropriate actions so as to facilitate children’s return to school and
ensure a successful learning process (Description of the Procedure of the
Establishment of a School Child Welfare Committee and Organisation of its
Work, 2011). The National Education and Information System NEMIS directed
toward children who avoid school has been developed and implemented in
2011. The system collects information on causes of school non-attendance
and reluctance to learn, and on the children avoiding school (On the Approval
of the Information System and Data Security Provisions for Children Who
Avoid School, 2010). Establishment and implementation of the above system,
as well as effective work of the school Child Welfare Committees create the
necessary preconditions ensuring effective social pedagogical aid to children
who avoid school.
The problems related to school non-attendance and social-pedagogical
aid have been extensively analysed in the recent works of Lithuanian
researchers. The causes of school non-attendance have been analysed by P.
Dereškevičius, V. Rimkevičius, V. Targamadzė (2000); M. Barkauskaitė,
R. Vasiliauskas, M. Gaigalienė, V. Indrašienė, R. Prakapas, D. Survutaitė,
V. Rimkevičienė and A. Guoba (2003). The role of a social pedagogue in
the context of school non-attendance has been investigated by L. Rupšienė
(2000) and S. Navasaitienė (2002). Effectiveness and efficiency of socialpedagogical aid, as well as activity of a social-pedagogical team have been
analysed by O. Merfeldaitė (2007a, 2007b, 2009). V. Indrašienė and V. Suboč
(2008a, 2008b, 2009) analysed provision of social-pedagogical aid to children
facing learning problems or underachieving children, and parental approach
toward organisation of social-pedagogical aid in schools. L. Rupšienė (2004)
analysed individual work of a social pedagogue with children avoiding
school; R. Civinskas R., V. Levickaitė and I. Tamutienė (2006) investigated
institutional support to children who don’t attend school.
The object of the research: class tutors’ attitude toward social-pedagogical
aid to children who avoid school.
The aim of the research: to analyse peculiarities of social-pedagogical aid
to children who avoid school.
The objectives of the research
• To analyse causes of school avoidance.
• To identify providers of social-pedagogical aid to children avoiding
school, and specify the forms of aid.
The research methods: analysis of the scientific literature and
a questionnaire survey. The survey was based on the methodological
provisions which have been specified in the scientific works (Dereškevičius
and others, 2000; Rupšienė, 2004; Civinskas and others, 2006; Bagdonas
and others, 2010). The research was based on the main principles of survey
ethics: ensuring the anonymity of the respondents, presented the aim of the
research (in general terms) and how the results of the survey will be used.
247
Analysis of the results of the research on a class
tutors’ attitude toward social-pedagogical aid to
children avoiding school
A quantitative research was carried out. The main tool of the research
was a questionnaire survey for class tutors. The questionnaire survey was
prepared in order to provide very precise indicators of an object under
analysis covered by the questionnaire. This is necessary in pursuance of valid
verification conclusions, thus, the elements of multi-dimensional statistics
should be applied to the data analysis. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used
to provide an overall reliability coefficient for a set of variables. Cronbach’s
alpha coefficient of the questionnaire statements varied from 0.64 to 0.70.
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the questionnaire statements about the causes
of school avoidance was 0.68.
The data of the survey was processed with the SPSS 18 (Statistical
Package for Social Sciences) software. Multi-dimensional statistics was
applied in analysing the statistical significance parameters. In order to specify
statistically significant differences it is anticipated to analyse the data with
the significance level p<0.05.
The sample questionnaire (n=124) included class tutors working in the
randomly selected four secondary schools in Vilnius city and four schools in
Vilnius district. The respondents were mainly the pedagogues with more than
10 years pedagogical work experience. Thus, it could be stated that respondents
of the survey were highly experienced and competent pedagogues.
One of the main tasks of the survey was to identify the causes of school
avoidance (Picture 1). According to class tutors the majority of children (70%)
avoid school due to insufficient learning motivation. Nearly half of class
tutors (42%) highlighted that conflicts with teachers have direct influence
on school non-attendance. 35% of class tutors indicated that children don’t
know how to study/learn. It should be noted that 32% of respondents noted
huge workload of children. Such breakdown of the data supposes that the
inability to pursue learning process could be treated as child’s inability to
manage school workloads independently. On the other hand, this is a clear
message from teachers that children need the assistance of specialists in
realising learning programmes. One third (27%) of respondents highlighted
that children skip lessons and avoid school because they are afraid of the
knowledge testing. It could be assumed that such children’s behaviour is
determined by the fear of negative evaluation/marks.
Picture1. Causes of school non-attendance (class tutors’ attitude in
percent)
According to more than half of respondents, about 58% of children skip
from 1 to 5 lessons without good reason; according to 32% of class tutors,
children skip from 5 to 10 lessons without good reason. Such a breakdown
of data demonstrates that the phenomenon of school non-attendance is quite
frequent and can reach a critical level if appropriate preventive measures are
not taken.
The breakdown of the results demonstrates that children who skipped from
1 to 5 lessons per week without a reason most often (42%) do this because
they are afraid of testing and (35%), are not prepared for lessons or haven’t
done homework (χ2 =11.24, p<0.05). Whereas the children who skipped from
5 to 10 lessons per week without good reason usually had weak learning
motivation (54%) and were not able to learn (41%) (χ2 =32.84, p<0.05).
Respondents have unilaterally acknowledged that only they and social
pedagogues are responsible for the organisation of aid to children who avoid
school (Fig. 2). It should be noted that class tutors have reasonably evaluated
the contribution of each specialist to the organisation of aid to school children.
Of course, school heads’ commitments and operational fields sometimes
249
prevent them from active involvement in tackling school non-attendance
problems.
Picture 2. Providers of social-pedagogical aid (class tutors’ attitude in
percent)
It was revealed that the majority of respondents (48%) identified the
following main problem-solving measures: individual social pedagogue’s
conversation with the child and communication with the class tutor (49%),
and the activity of the Child Welfare Commission (46%). 22% of respondents
indicated the following social-pedagogical activity measures: checking the
presence of the child and involvement of a subject teacher in the problem
settlement process (concerning additional learning aid). The breakdown of
the results presupposes that one of the most effective solutions is a systematic
approach toward the problem providing for a comprehensive evaluation of
social factors determining problems, situations and assumptions.
It turned out that most often (52%) social pedagogues organise individual
conversations with children skipping from 1 to 5 lessons per week without
good reason (χ2 =16.43, p<0.05); whereas when children skipping from 5 to
10 lessons per week without good reason, usually social pedagogues (45%)
communicate with class tutors and with the Child Welfare Committee (38
percent) (χ2 =20.48, p<0.05).
According to the respondents, the main trends in providing socialpedagogical aid to children who avoid school should be development of
children’s social skills (47%) and improvement of the effectiveness of the
Child Welfare Committee (Fig. 3). The respondents have also highlighted the
importance of individual work with the children who avoid school (49%).
39% of class tutors indicated the necessity to increase effectiveness of the
work with parents.
Picture 3. Possibilities of the improvement of social-pedagogical aid to
children who avoid school (class tutors’ attitude in percent)
Such a breakdown of the results suggests that (according to class tutors)
individual work with children is the most effective measure in tackling school
non-attendance problems.
Conclusions
(1) According to the survey, children avoid school because of poor motivation, conflicts with teachers and reluctance to learn.
(2) The analysis of the survey data demonstrated that social pedagogues and
class tutors are the main providers of social-pedagogical aid to children
who avoid school. The most frequently applied means of social-pedagogical aid are individual work of a social pedagogue with the child and cooperation with the class tutor; the main trends for the improvement of
social-pedagogical aid to children avoiding school are enhancement of the
development of children’s social skills and improvement of the effectiveness of the Child Welfare Committee.
251
Bibliography:
1. Bagdonas A., Jankauskienė I., Paskaitų nelankymas: problemos raiška ir
sprendimo galimybės. Šiuolaikinio specialisto kompetencijos: teorijos ir
praktikos dermė, 1/ 2010.
2. Bitinas B., Hodegetika. Auklėjimo teorija ir technologija, Kronta, Vilnius
2000.
3. Civinskas R., Levickaitė V., Tamutienė I., Vengiančių lankyti mokyklą
vaikų problemos ir poreikiai, Garnelis, Vilnius 2006.
4. Dėl nesimokančių vaikų ir mokyklos nelankančių mokinių informacinės
sistemos nuostatų ir duomenų saugos nuostatų patvirtinimo 2010 m.
balandžio 13 d. Nr. V-515, Vilnius. Prieiga per Internetą <http://www3.
lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc_l?p_id=370281 > [Žiūrėta 201404-01]
5. Dereškevičius P., Rimkevičienė V., Targamadzė V., Mokyklos nelankymo
priežastys Žuvėdros leidykla, Vilnius 2000.
6. Indrašienė, V. Suboč, V., Tėvų požiūris į socialinės pedagoginės pagalbos
mokykloje organizavimą. Socialinis ugdymas, 5 (16), VPU leidykla,
Vilnius 2008.
7. Indrašienė, V., Barkauskaitė, M., Vasiliauskas, R., Gaigalienė,
M., Prakapas, R., Survutaitė, D., Rimkevičienė, V, Guoba, A., Nesėkmingo
mokymosi mastai ir priežastys, ŠMM Švietimo būklės tyrimai 2003
8. Indrašienė, V., Suboč, V. (2008). Sociopedagoginės pagalbos vaikams,
patyrusiems mokymosi nesėkmes, prielaidos. Pedagogika, 89, VPU
leidykla, Vilnius 2008.
9. Indrašienė, V., Suboč, V., Socialinė pedagoginė pagalba nesėkmingai
besimokantiems moksleiviams. Socialinis ugdymas, 8 (19), VPU leidykla,
Vilnius 2009.
10. Jovaiša L., Hodegetika, Kronta,Vilnius 2004.
11. Lehmann I. (2009), Motyvacija: kaip tėvai galėtų padėti savo vaikams,
Gimtasis žodis, Vilnius 2009.
12. Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo įstatymo pakeitimo įstatymas,Valstybės
žinios, 2011-04-13, Nr. 38-1804.
13. Merfeldaitė, O., Socialinės pedagoginės pagalbos efektyvumas
mokykloje: klasės auklėtojų požiūris, Socialinis ugdymas, 3 (14), VPU
leidykla, Vilnius 2007.
14. Merfeldaitė, O., Socialinių pedagoginių problemų bendrojo lavinimo
mokykloje analizė: mokinių ir klasių auklėtojų požiūris. Pedagogika, 88,
VPU leidykla, Vilnius 2007.
15. Merfeldaitė, O., Tėvų ir mokyklos bendradarbiavimo stiprinimas
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
sprendžiant vaikų socializacijos problemas. Socialinis ugdymas, 8(19),
VPU leidykla, Vilnius 2009.
Mokyklos Vaiko gerovės komisijos sudarymo ir jos darbo organizavimo
tvarkos aprašas, Valstybės žinios, 2011-04-13, Nr. 45-2121.
Mokymosi sėkmingumas: iškritimas iš švietimo sistemos. Prieiga per
Internetą <http://www.smm.lt/svietimo_bukle/docs/apzvalgos/sv01_60.
pdf> [Online 2014-04-01].
Navasaitienė S., Mokyklos nelankymo Lietuvoje socialinė determinacija:
daktaro disertacijos santrauka: socialiniai mokslai, sociologija,
Technologija, Kaunas 2002.
Rupšienė, L., Nenoras mokytis – socialinis pedagoginis reiškinys.
Klaipėdos universitetas, Klaipėda 2000.
Rupšienė L. (2004), Individualus socialinių pedagogų darbas su
vengiančiais lankyti mokyklą mokiniais. Pedagogika 70, VPU leidykla,
Vilnius 2004.
Socialinės pedagoginės pagalbos teikimo tvarkos aprašas, Valstybės žinios, 2011-08-04, Nr. 99-4675.
Švietimo problemos analizė. ŠMM, 2013 spalis Nr. 8 (24).
Valstybinė švietimo 2013–2022 metų strategija, Valstybės žinios, 201312-30, Nr. 140-7095.
253
The Independent Living Skills Development of Children in Care Facilities
Vida GUDŽINSKIENĖ Prof. Dr.
Rimvydas AUGUTAVIČIUS, M.Ed.
Živilė BARKAUSKAITĖ LUKŠIENĖ, M.Ed.
The Independent Living Skills Development
of Children in Care Facilities
Abstract:
The importanceand significance of the self-sufficiency skills of the
inhabitants of the care homes is disclosed in this article. The social
workers’rolein the field of development ofchildren’s independent living
skills is also discussed. The analysis of the social worker’sattitudetowards
the development of the independent livingskills and the evaluation of these
skills for their future life is been also disclosed.
Keywords:
development of the independent living skills; social skills; care homes for
children residents, children in care, care homes for children.
Introduction
Relevance of the study. The childhood socialization would take place when
the child is adapting social experience, which is gained when interacting
with the social environment. A child growing within a family would adapt
the experience of his/her family. A child who is in residential care home
would simulate his or her experience on the basis of example of the social
workers, who would form the basis for the dependent of independent living
skills while educating the children. Therefore, one-off the most important
256 Vida Gudžinskienė, Rimvydas Augutavičius, Živilė Barkauskaitė Lukšienė
tasks in the child socialization process – the development of the socialand
independent living skills (Juodaityte, 2002; Ambrase, 2012) discusses
the importance of the successful fulfillment of the socialization process as
this factor determines the realization of the personal talents and successful
adaptation of the personality in the society.
The children leave the residential care homes when reaching the legal
age. However, Leliugiene and Djacenko, (2010) note that “the beginning of
independent living of the children leaving the residential homes is complicated
for a variety of social, educational and psychological factors that adversely
affect a young person’s social adaptation”. According to the results of the
Raudeliunaite, Paigozina’s (2009) research, too little attention is been paid
to the development of the social skills. According to the Liaudaitis (2011)
the children of the care homes are been rarely able to overcome the personal
difficulties as they do not feel the competent members of the society. Young
people who are leaving care facilities lack the appropriate education and this
is the reason for the difficulties integrating into the labor market.
It is obviously important that the social workers working in the residential
care homes for children would:
• Developa child’sself-control, emotions, feelings;
• To develop child’ssense of responsibility;
• To promote positive relationships between the child and the social network representatives;
• To develop positive child’s individuality and sense of self-understanding;
• To provide the knowledge in the field of various real life matters: family planning, sexual and parental (maternity) skills guidance;
• To develop children’s independence, personally and society wise acceptable behavior skills. Social care standards (2007) paragraph 8.4describe that “the daily activities and household services for the person
are organized and provided in the way to sustain, encourage and motivate the person to be as much self-sufficient as possible – cook the food,
managing living roomand others. Person is guaranteed the support in
the household, self-expression fields and is equipped with a means to
enable them to develop and maintain the skills of the person’s healthy
living skills.
Žalimienė (2007) also describes more objectives in the field of social skills
and independent living development that have to be implemented in child
care institutions. These are – encouraging the motivation of the children to
manage various daily living, household situations, fostering artistic development, personal hygiene skills and the security of the personal budgets.
The above and similar challenges comprehensively contribute to the
child’s integration into society. If the residential care home staff properly
carries out such tasks they would enable children’s positive socialization,
which is usually compounded by the greater social vulnerability of those getting into the care facility. What are the independent living skills developed
by social worker working in child care facility depends not only on existing programs, but also on the personal social worker’s approach towards the
social skills related to the preparation of the young people for independent
living. Therefore, an empirical study was directed on to revealing the social
workers’ attitudes towards the importance of independent living skills for the
successful future life of the care homes residents.
The purpose of the article is to disclose the phenomenon of the independent living and self sustainability skills development in child care facilities.
The objectives:
(1) To describe / define the role of the social workers employed by the
child care facilities in the field of the children’s independent living
skills development;
(2) Uncover social workers’ attitudes towards the development of the independent living skills of the child care facilities’ residents.
The roles of children care home social workers in
the field of independent living skills development
The support provided by the staff in social and independent living skills
development to the children in care is really important and significant.
Therefore, in order to ensure adequate staff perception the legal basis has been
prepared (The order of the Minister of the Social Security and Labour, 2007.
February 20 “The social care standards”(Official Gazette, 2007, no. 24-931).
The analysis of this paper highlights the significant role of the competent
social workers participating and ensuring the strengthening of the principles
mentioned in the document.
One of the principles reflecting the norms for the development of the
independent living skills and social integration of the children in care - the
development of the social and independent living skills should be implemented
at as early age as possible, enabling them to manage the everyday life,
encouraging social interaction with society, family, and fostering selfexpression skills.
The principle of participation and cooperation defines that “all the social
care organization and delivery issues should be addressed in the presence and
257
cooperation of the customer”, which is based on the belief that the child’s
participation in decision-making process promotes and reinforces autonomy
and responsibility for the decisions taken.
The principle of choice and social care expediency expresses the priority
of personal interests and legitimate expectations when providing the social
services for the person. Although this principle does not fully recognizes
the unconditional primacy of personal opinion, but the independence is
encouraged by the fact that the person’s views should be taken into account
in line with combining it with other people’s choices and the individual’s
own legitimate interests. In this case, the social worker’s role in ensuring the
child’s autonomy is characterized by the fact that the professional should
as much as possible assess the child’s interest in coincidence with his
own opinion, wishes, desires, as well as the characteristics of surrounding
environment.
Thus, the social worker’s role in developing children’s in care independent
living and social skills consist of multiple roles – the promotion of social
relations and self-expression skills, securing privacy, security and children
rights, the proposal and usage of positive parenting methods, encouraging
the child to express his opinion and participate, protecting the child from the
abuse, stereotypes and discrimination. Therefore it is important to mention
that social worker roles can change in line with the exchange of public
behavior, beliefs, and - depending on each child’s individuality as well.
One of the main tasks of the child care home staff and the surrounding
environment is to prepare the child in care for the independent living
(Lipinska, 2010). Young adults leaving the care facilities often lack basic
self-sufficiency skills. The study carried out by Ruskuviene, Arnold (2008),
which surveyed Lithuanian and German care home children, emphasized that
cooking and shopping skills are also very important. More than a half of
both Lithuanian and German children stated that they are able to buy food
and clothes as well as prepare their own food. Leliugiene (2003) more than
a decade ago recommended to avoid excessive care and advised to include
the children in care in buying and cooking food, the implementation in daily
routine tasks. However Liaudaitis (2011) argues that children living in care
homes still are provided with food, clean clothes. This, of course reveals that
the principle of the necessity of development of independent living skills
often is not placed into practice.
Social workers and other staff should be able to help the child to plan and
allocate their budgets as well as encourage using them rationally and fairly.
It is also important to introduce young people with the potential to earn the
money during the vacation time and motivating to do so. “The Social care
standards” (2007) guarantee the each child in care, depending on his or her
age and maturity, independence, is provided with the pocket money.
Samosonok (2013) identifies the everyday life skills as the challenges of
life, stating that they need to be addressed firmly and at the same time to look
for the right decisions for the life situations as well as to use them in order
to build personal well-being. Gudzinskienė (2010) thinks that life skills are
personal abilities to meet the needs of everyday life, to learn how to adapt and
cope in society managing the problems. Goncerovaite and Gumuliauskiene
(2011) note the importance to promote self realization through domestic work
and leisure forms.
However Pabedinskiene, Cerniauskas (2007) argue that children are not
able to set the priorities for the allocation of the available finances. Liaudaitis
(2011) study has revealed that social workers of child care homes emphasized
that the young people in care are facing problems due to inadequate financial
capacities.
Jurevicienė, Kaffemaniene (2009) claim that social skills are acquired
through the learning process – observing and practicing according to other
people example in accordance with the feedback received. Samasonok
(2013) notes that the children in care are not provided the opportunities to
act independently and to solve real life problems. The programs developed
by social workers limit the ability of the children to gain experience from
natural life.
The methodology of the study and data analysis
The survey sample.The target population of the survey is formed from
social workers working in municipal, state and non-governmental child care
homes operating in Lithuania. Respondents were randomly selected using
the method, which, according to Kardelis (2007), allows selecting the respondents, which are easy to find. In order to collect representative data, the
respondents were selected applying the following selection criteria: The respondent has to have a university degree in social work; must be working as
the social worker directly with children; should have at least 2 years of social
work with children in care experience.
The characteristics of the research.The strategy that was applied in the
research - a survey, based on which the data was collected using the statistical calculations and inference. The following actions were conducted during
the survey and data analysis: based on Social Security and Labour (2013)
Lithuania orphanage list 55 municipal child care homes had been selected as
259
well as 12 municipal child care groups, 7 state child care homes, 20 nongovernmental organizations’ care facilities and 4 social care homes for children
with disabilities. The e-mails were sent to all the selected care homes. A total
of 258 child care social workers were involved into the survey.
Research tool – the questionnaire specially designed in order to find out
the social workers’ attitudes towards the importance of independent living
skills to the children in care.
Research ethics. All respondents participating in the survey were
introduced to the study and data collection purposes. It was explained that the
questionnaire is anonymous, all the data is kept confidential and used only
for scientific purposes in the questionnaire form. All respondents answered
questions voluntarily.
Data analysis methods. In order to perform collected data analysis the
mathematical analysis was used. Statistical processing of the survey data
has been performed suing the SPSS software package (called - Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences) - one of the most common statistical data
processing software packages (Pukenas, 2009).
Demographic characteristics of the respondents. The majority of the
social workers who responded to the questionnaire were female (91 per cent)
and only 9 per cent of the respondents were men.
Distribution of respondents by education revealed that the majority
of respondents (85%) had university or non university higher social work
education, and 15% of respondents reported currently pursuing a social work
education at university or college.
It should be noted that most social workers had sufficient professional
experience working with children in care. Less than 5 years work experience
had about half (46%) of the social workers of care homes for children. 41 per
cent of the specialists had spent 6-15 years working with children. The rest of
the respondents had over 16 years work experience.
Survey data analysis. In order to find out what independent living
skills, according to the social workers’ opinion are the most important for
the youngsters leaving the care facility and starting the independent life,
the respondents were asked to assess the perceived importance of skills in
(Picture 1).
As it has been already mentioned, cooking and housekeeping skills are
the most important in everyday human activities. According to orphans and
children without parental care independent living skills program (2007),
young people should be able to prepare at least a simple dish; independently
shopping and buying the necessary food and household wares; washing own
clothes; storage the food products properly; keeping living environment clean.
Picture 1. The attitude of the social workers towards the importance of
independent living skills for the independence of children in care
The study revealed (Pic. 1) that most of the social workers (91%) working in
care facilities, believed that it is important for the children to gain cooking
and housekeeping skills. Therefore, it is appropriate to involve children in
a variety of domestic and household tasks, shopping, and support them in
cooking activities.
Orphans and children whose parents had been limited or banned from
parental rights and/ or care should, according to The Independent living skills
program (2007 ) be able to pay the bills for their services; spend money wisely;
thoughtfully plan their income and expenses. Therefore, daily activities are no
less important as financial management skills. The study revealed (Pic. 1) that
the majority (95%) of Social workers working in care facilities believe that it
is very important for the children to be able to manage finances properly and
effectively. It is necessary for the same reason to give some pocket money or
to create conditions to make petty cash for the children and to teach properly
handling money, planning spending and savings.
87% of the respondents believe that the ability to search for job and career
planning is a very important group of independence skills (Pic. 1). The
subjective understanding of the importance of employability skills and career
planning can be justified theoretically. According to Petroliunaite (2009) the
successful employment, career advancement and participation in the labor
market is preconditioned by a number of skills and personal characteristics:
motivation, interests, values, self -awareness, self-confidence and few others.
It is necessary to note that the children growing in child care home would
261
statistically have lower motivation for learning, lower self-esteem as well
as fewer expectations and interests. This means that they may have more
difficulties entering the labor market. The social worker addressing the
impact of these factors should work individually with a child encouraging
him or her to identify the professional goals, capabilities which have to be
doneworking in partnership with youth career planning centers, labor market
training services and other entities that may participate in the development of
a young person’s career process. Accordingly, the preparation for vocational
activities of children should be a long-term and continuous process.
Samasonok and others (2008), Jaseviciene (2011) argue that the children in
care are often are using inefficient, destructive, reckless solutions in problem
solving. Problem-solving skills were mentioned as important according to
more than two-thirds (87%) of respondents (Pic. 1). In order to develop
children’s problem-solving skills effectively, social worker, according to
Johnson (2003), should be able to determine when and how to teach the
client to solve problems; it is equally important to include the client in to
theproblem solving process. In this way, according to Johnson (2003), the
client is enabled to solve the everyday problems independently as he or she
already has got positive experience from the practice field.
Goal reaching skills is a group of skills that help the child to function
successfully in the community (Lipinska, 2010). Compared with other skills
(cooking, household management, financial, educational), slightly fewer
respondents (Pic. 1) identified goal reaching skills as highly important for
young people becoming independent (80%). It should be noted that slightly
more than one tenth of the social workers working in child care homes believe
that goal reaching skills are only partly important and less than one tenth of
the respondents thought that these skills are not important at all. Indeed, the
important question should be raised - why the respondents believed that the
goal reaching skills a less important than cooking, education and other skills.
It is surely obvious that the basis for gaining all the other skills is motivation,
planning and in general proposing the certain goals in everyday situations.
We could assume that the interviewed social workers who identified the
goal reaching skills as not important (85%) or somewhat important (12%)
underestimate the importance of these skills towards child’s development
and building own independence.
The values are one of the most important factors determining the choices
taken in any person’s life. Braslauskiene (2000) claims that one of the biggest
problems existing in care facilities for children is deficient child value system
and basis formation. According to the scientist the care home staff performing
the functions of care would excessive care for the children physical wellbeing
fear for the lack of physical ways of meeting the needs. Therefore, it is
important to support the children to understand the importance of values
as much as to give them food or clothing;social workers should explain to
children how the values are formed; help them to understand the hierarchy
of values and the relationship between values and behavior (Orphans and
children without parental care independent living skills training program,
2007). About two - thirds (69%) of social workers participating in this study,
argued that the formation of values are very importantto child’s (Pic. 1). Thus,
the respondents’ opinion on the value skills formation can partially confirm
Braslauskiene’s (2000) arguments. She thought that care home staff do not
fully realize that children moral values, choices taken and their positive
formation is more important than the exaggerated care.
Conclusions
(1) The role of social worker in the field of developing the independent living skills of children in care consist of multiple roles: coordinator who
is managing the processes of socialization; educator who would focus
mainly on the education of independent living and social skills; service
and support provider; mentor – the role of social worker as a mentor
would be perceived through the direct participation in the young person’s life and offering him support required at the time; carer role in
developing moral values;
(2) The analysis of the social workers’ attitudes towards the independent
living skills importance revealed that the respondents prefer to attribute
the greatest importance to the ability cooking and doing routine household tasks, planning and managing the finances; a bit less important
but still critical skills, according to the respondents, are the formation
of moralvalues and goal reaching skills. Based on these perceptions
we can conclude that the social workers working in care facilitieslack
the awareness of theimportance of the values system andgoal reaching
skills in the process of the young person gaining independent living
skills and abilities before leaving the care and starting the own life
beyond the care facility.
263
Bibliography:
1. Ambrasė, N.. Pedagogo veiklos tobulinimas: vaikų globos namų
auklėtinių rengimas šeimai. Kaunas: Technologija 2012.
2. Braslauskienė, R.,. Bešeimių vaikų ugdymo ypatumai globos institucijose (socialinis ir psichopedagoginis aspektas). Daktaro disertacijos santrauka. Klaipėda: Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla 2000.
3. Gančerovaitė, K., Gumuliauskienė, A., Globos institucijų jaunesniųjų
paauglių socialinių įgūdžių raiškos ypatumai. http://vddb.library.lt/fedora/get/LT-eLABa-0001:J.04~2011~ISSN_1648-8776.N_2_31.PG_3141/DS.002.0.01.ARTIC
4. Gudžinskienė, V., Socialinių darbuotojų, dirbančių vaikų globos namuose,
bendrųjų gebėjimų įsivertinimas. Socialinis ugdymas, 13 (24), 5-12.
5. Jasevičienė, Z. (2011). Globos namuose gyvenančių paauglių patiriamų
problem sąsajos su ateities perspektyvomis. http://vddb.laba.lt/fedora/get/LT-eLABa-0001:E.02~2011~D_20110804_090028-88996/
DS.005.0.01.ETD
6. Johnson, L. C., Socialinio darbo teorija ir praktika. Vilnius: VU
Specialiosios psichologijos laboratorija, 2003.
7. Juodaitytė, A., Socializacija ir ugdymas vaikystėje. Vilnius, Petro ofsetas
2002.
8. Jurevičienė, M., Kaffemanienė, I., Vidutinio sutrikusio intelekto vaikų
socialinių įgūdžių struktūra ir raiškos ypatumai. Socialiniai mokslai, 1
(22) 2009.
9. Kardelis, K., Mokslinių tyrimų metodologija ir metodai: vadovėlis.
Šiauliai: Lucilijus 2007.
10. Leliūgienė, I., Socialinė pedagogika. Kaunas: Technologija 2003.
11. Leliūgienė, I., Djačenko, V., Socializacijos centro edukacinė sistema
– ugdytinių tolimesnį formalųjį mokymąsi lemiantis kompleksinis
veiksnys. Socialinis ugdymas, 13 (24) 2010..
12. Liaudaitis, A. (2011). Globos namų auklėtinių sėkmingos socialinės
adaptacijos
prielaidos.http://vddb.library.lt/fedora/get/LT-eLABa0001:E.02~2011~D_20110620_095915-06663/DS.005.0.01.ETD
13. Lipinska, J.,. Vaikų globos namų galimybės formuoti globotiniams
socialinius įgūdžius, būtinus jaunimo savarankiškam gyvenimui.
h t t p : / / v d d b . l i b r a r y. l t / f e d o r a / g e t / LT- e L A B a - 0 0 0 1 : E . 0 2
~2010~D_20100707_143726-13291/DS.005.0.01.ETD, 2010
14. Našlaičių ir tėvų globos netekusių vaikų savarankiško gyvenimo įgūdžių
ugdymo programos įgyvendinimo rekomendacijos. Vilnius, Socialinės
apsaugos ir darbo ministerija, 2007.
15. Pabedinskienė, R., Černiauskas, R.,. Kelias link savarankiško gyvenimo.
Vilnius: VPU leidykla, 2007.
16. Petroliūnaitė, D., Vaikų, užaugusių šeimoje ir vaikų globo snamuose, įsidarbinimo ir karjeros lyginamoji analizė. http://vddb.laba.lt/
fedora/get/LT-eLABa-0001:E.02~2010~D_20100222_091509-04648/
DS.005.0.01.ETD, 2009.
17. Raudeliūnaitė, R., Paigozina, R., (2009). Vaikų, gyvenančių globos namuose, socialinių įgūdžių raiškos ypatumai. Socialini sdarbas, 8 (1),
138–145.
18. Ruškuvienė, I., Arnold, E.,. Žmogiškasis kapitalas: Lietuvos ir Vokietijos vaikų socialinės globos namų globotinių požiūris į savarankiškumą.
Ekonomika ir vadyba: aktualijos ir perspektyvos, 4 (13) 2008.
19. Samašonok, K., Globos namuose gyvenančių vaikų ir paauglių
savarankiško gyvenimo įgūdžių ugdymas: pasiekimai, sunkumai, sprendimai. Pedagogika, 110/2013.
20. Samašonok, K., Žukauskienė, R., Gudonis, V., Paauglių, gyvenančių
globos institucijose ir pilnose šeimose, kognityvinių strategijų ir elgesio
bei emocinių problem ypatumai. Socialinis darbas, 5 (2)/2008.
21. Socialinės apsaugos ir darbo ministro 2007 m. vasario 20 d. įsakymas
„Dėl socialinės globos normų aprašo“ (Žin., 2007, Nr.24-931).
22. Žalimienė, L., Vaikų socialinės globos kokybė ir jos vertinimas. Vilnius:
Socialinės apsaugos ir darbo ministerija, 2007.
265
Family in Human Sickness and in Health
Wojciech PIESTRZYŃSKI Dr.
University of Social Studies and Economics in Gdansk (Poland)
Abstract:
Year 2014 is another year devoted to the family. At this time, it is difficult
not to write at least one article on this subject. The previous family oriented
year was announced in 1994. Thus, it can be noted that the family said
goodbye to one generation and at the same time welcomed the next one.
The parents have become grandparents, and their children play parenting
roles. Is that all that has changed in the structure and functioning of the
family?
Keywords:
family, health, sickness, liability.
Modern family
Nowadays it is more and more difficult to find a family of three generations.
It is true that grandmothers and sometimes grandfathers act as nannies for
their grandchildren. It is difficult, however, to link such a state of affairs
to a family where all three generations function in parallel. These nannies
are just closer to their families purely because of economic reasons. When
their grandchildren take over educational institutions, they are being put on
a side track and pushed away from the rest of the family. Every day, the
intergenerational ties weaken. A man, even living in a family, does not fully
identify himself with it. It also happens that the family is created and then
connected only by a common address, nothing more. Obviously, this forms
a very critical picture of the modern family. At the opposite end there are
families, where daily and potent emotional ties can be seen. In these families
all members feel mutually responsible.
268 Wojciech Piestrzyński
In fact, whether the family functions properly or not depends on many
factors, both psychological and social. It cannot be denied, that the founders
of newly formed family, the spouses, bring in their skills, competencies, but
also their vices, and unpleasant experience. They create a new world which
cannot and must not be stripped from the past, especially the good kind.
Blocking contacts with the family of one spouse or discarding of interaction
with families from both sides seems to be a big mistake. Building a new
cultural institution - a family, cannot be based on “resetting” other emotional
relationships, even with one’s father, mother, siblings or more distant relative.
Of course, it happens that these ties become a hindrance to building new
emotional relationships with a wife, or a husband. No one who professes love
to another individual can simultaneously require this person to renounce
other bonds created for many years. Bearing in mind the principle that for
the new family a marriage becomes the foundation, it is also responsible for
good communication within the family, as well as with families of spouses
and other social groups (see: Braun-Gałkowska, 2003, p. 11 and others).
The modern family has only few children. It ceased to be productive
household. Its control function has become minimized. Some families also
released themselves from the function of responsibility for the formation
of values. The family has become more anonymous and at the same time
more versatile due to being the subject of pop culture influences. Everyday
life in a seemingly democratic world is becoming a great challenge for the
household. In such a world, it is not difficult for various crises to occur,
both the material and the spiritual, because everything is becoming blurred,
nothing is bright and clear anymore. In the case of poverty, it is problematic
to identify those who should support the family, and it, internally torn, cannot
fight for its own rights (lt. Cudak 1999, p. 11 and others).
In the household of twenty-first century, young and seeking people
emerge. On the one hand, they have a great knowledge and ability to move
in cyberspace; on the other hand, they massively migrate from rural to urban
areas, from their homeland to other countries; moreover, they live in the
sense of economic, political and moral instability (Jędrzejko, 2013, p. 13
and others). The family has grown into the consumer society - the product of
various diseases of civilization which also affect very young people (Sarzała
2009b, pp. 146-149). These are alcoholism, drug, nicotine and shopping
addiction (Kozak 2007, p. 76 and others; Walancik, Sarzała 2011; PrzybyszZaremba 2011, pp. 97-107).
Family’s selected tasks directed to its members
The tasks in favor of men, that families face, include among others, the
preventive measures which guard family members against demoralization,
pathology, poverty and social orphanhood, which consequently lead to
interpersonal violence, social injustice or coarsening (see: Kawula 2004, 177
and others; Sarzała 2011b, pp. 277- 290).
The family cannot forget about shaping of values of its members. It is
enclosed in the nurturing process which has two faces - a deliberate and
conscious and at the same time spontaneous and natural. The family moves
toward mutual enrichment of its members. The intergenerational transmission
of values in the vertical aspect: parents – children is imperative, because it
serves as a social inheritance. One cannot forget, however, that the inheritance
may be taken as either positive or negative quality (Cudak 2002, 159).
Grandparents also bring in values. They tend to have more patience and time
for the youngest members of the family than busy parents. It is thanks to them
that very often the younger generation can have their emotional needs met,
feel important and needed. On the one hand, older people are characterized by
lower performance, but on the other hand, they are more accurate in what they
do and are able to accomplish their goals. In this way, they contribute to the
development of qualities such as patience, responsibility, fairness, reliability
and diligence in their grandchildren (see: Kukłowicz 2002,168 and others).
Another key issue is to protect the health of all family members, especially
children and the elderly. It depends on the material status of the family and
awareness of health needs (Matyjas 2002, 175). Children from poor families
are often modestly dressed, neglected educationally, neglected when it comes
to health, they stay in toxic environments (Waloszek, 2002, 215).
In order to fulfill these tasks, the family should become an optimal
model of itself, which should be based on: disposition of material goods
that can contribute to meeting elementary and developmental needs,
children’s perception of parents as authorities, mutual respect, recognition
and acceptance, parents care about education of children, taking care of
health, physical fitness, mental and physical hygiene of family members
(Tchorzewski 2003, 26).
Family’s attitude toward sickness of its member
It is said that health is the most important thing in life. However, the sole
understanding of health issues causes many problems. It seems obvious to
divide the physical and mental health. The lack of health in the first area
269
is quite easy to grasp and find a recipe for restoring it. On the other hand,
everything which in the broad sense affects the human psyche is easy neither
to define nor to grant effective help or relief. Because of it, it seems that many
people are not properly understood and supported by their families.
Diseases affect both young and the elderly. There is really no rule of
morbidity. The fact remains, that the risk of certain changes in human organism
increases with age. Nonetheless, it is a statistical approach. It happens that
some families must deal with incurable diseases from birth of their members.
On the other hand, one can see a trend of so-called social acceptance for the
functioning of the diseased elderly without any external interactions in order
to halt the aging process.
In every household attitudes toward the disease take various characteristics.
No two families approach the problem of a disease in the same way. However,
one may be tempted to express the idea that it is easier to help those who suffer
from well diagnosed, readable in their symptoms diseases, where behavior of
the sick person is predictable. The family members surround the small children
with greater patience, whereas, they often lack understanding toward adults and
the elderly. When an individual runs out of fine fettle in either mental, physical
or social dimension, the state of discomfort automatically moves to the whole
family which is institution full of mutual experiences not only the positive, but
also the negative (see: Świętochowski 2003, p. 208 and others).
The biggest challenge for the family is taking care of its oldest members.
These are the people who most often have contracted chronic diseases.
Because of the age and state of health they often find themselves in conflict
with others taking care of them. At their base there is not an unwillingness
toward young people, but the inner conflict due to the reluctance to come to
terms with their current state of health or loss of control over the perception of
the surrounding world due to pathological changes occurring in the organism.
It can also be the result of not comprehending the dynamic changes taking
place in the societies and individual families. Nevertheless, the reasons for
this state appear to be of secondary importance. The most significant seems
to be a need for acceptance and support people in their suffering, so that
they do not have to depart from this world with the sense of loneliness or
even abandonment. Such a mental state contributes to the acceleration of
geriatric changes, which lead to more distorted relationships with others and
in consequence to total dehumanization of two entities of communication. It
is not surprising that in old age, both nursing and care activities are performed
unidirectionally from a child or a grandchild to a parent or grandparents.
In other areas of being, values like mutual enrichment, strengthening and
showing love can and should be sought (Woźniak 2004, pp. 210 -211).
At the opposite side, there appears the family support to people with all
kinds of addictions and being in conflict with the law (the notorious violations
of legal order can also be specified as a disease that primarily affects a soul of
human, who via his action denies the existence of axiological governance).
As Jędrzejko noted (Jędrzejko, Jabłoński 2011), drugs and other intoxicants
take away one’s freedom. They close one’s choice options between good and
evil. Man’s addiction of something or someone often leads to uncontrolled
behavior.
According Sarzała (2009a, 137), “we can talk about addiction only when
the use of a particular medium begins to interfere with normal functioning,
in the performance of work, interpersonal relations, when it is a sort of
a substitute for real life, and when it also causes certain mental and physical
consequences. The mechanism of this type of addiction works the same as
with other addictions, which boils down to a narrow field of human activity
reaching up to its limit only to perform the duties associated with the addiction
itself.” As one can see, the addiction can also occur when a person loses
control over the use of the media.
The family is responsible for a disease for which the young generation
collapses, which is called pathology. Sarzała (see: 2011a, pp. 286 - 287),
on the basis of his own research noticed that young perpetrators of crimes
have grown up in families with problems such as alcoholism, a father with
criminal record, unemployment, low parents’ educational level, problems of
nurture, lack of emotional bonds within the family, parental aggression and
formal disintegration of the family.
Sikorska (2012, 331) rightly notes that an important part of healing a man
with a propensity for criminal offenses is the bond with his family, ability to
count on them and awareness of possibility to go back home after serving
a sentence, as the family members wait for the “prodigal daughter” or
“prodigal son”.
Conclusions
(1) In a modern family, three generations are less likely to interact
(2) Today, families are becoming social institutions of few children and
are striving to achieve individual success
(3) The family faces many tasks, including taking care of the health and
development of its members
(4) More often, family members succumb to chronic diseases which
theoretically are not assigned to a specific age
271
(5) It’s easier to grant help to a man when his disease is clear, definite
and has legible signs and symptoms
(6) Very often the family cannot cope with taking care of the elderly
(7) Family’s attitudes toward mental illnesses of its members often assume the character of anxiety or rejection
(8) We tend to forget that in the state of addiction a person loses his
freedom
(9) The basis of antisocial behavior is sick soul - the rejection in the axiological dimension of life and pathological family environment
(10) Life in the family should be based on mutual support and responsibility
(11) Man himself is a value, regardless of social status and health
(12) Rejecting the poor and the sick leads to the dehumanization of societies
(13) More attention should be paid to the perception of the disease, not
only in the physical, but also in the mental, spiritual and social dimension
(14) Old age is a particular period of life, which requires both acceptance
and support in the transition to another (permanent) reality.
Bibliography:
1. Braun – Gałkowska M. Psychoprofilaktyka życia rodzinnego, [in:] Janicka I., Rostowska T., Psychologia w służbie rodziny, Pub. University of
Lodz Press, Łódź 2003
2. Cudak, H.,, Wpływ rodziny na kształtowanie system wartości, [in:] Cudak
H. (ed.) Rocznik Pedagogiki Rodziny, Vol. V, Piotrkow Trybunalski.
3. Cudak H., Znaczenie rodziny w rozwoju i wychowaniu małego dziecka,
Polskie Towarzystwo Higieny Psychicznej, Warsaw 1999.
4. Jędrzejko, M., Młodzież w zaburzonym świecie, Warsaw – Dabrowa Gornicza 2013.
5. Jędrzejko M., Jabłoński P.,, Narkotyki i paranarkotyki, perspektywa polska, Pub. ASPRA-JR Press, Warsaw 2011.
6. Kawula S., Człowiek w relacjach socjopedagogicznych, Pub.Akapit
Press, Toruń 2004.
7. Kozak, Patologie wśród dzieci i młodzieży, Pub. Difin Press, Warszawa
2007.
8. Kukłowicz T., Wartości wnoszone przez dziadków w życie rodzinne
i społeczeństwo, [in:] Cudak H. (ed.) Rocznik Pedagogiki Rodziny, Vol.
V, Piotrków Trybunalski 2009.
9. Matyjas, B., Bezrobocie rodziców a sytuacja domowa i szkolna dzieci,
[in:] Cudak H. (ed.) Rocznik Pedagogiki Rodziny, Vol. V, Piotrkow Trybunalski 2009.
10. Przybysz-Zaremba M., Adult Children of Alcoholics in contemporary
world – narrative construction of biography, ACTA Facultatis
Paedagogicae Universitatis Tyrnaviensis, Acta Fac. Paed. Univ.
Tyrnaviensis, Ser. D, 15/2011.
11. Sarzała D.(2011a), Komunikacja w cyberprzestrzeni a bezpieczeństwo
człowieka, (in:) E. Jarmoch, A.W. Świderski, I.A. Trzpil (ed.),
Bezpieczeństwo człowieka a komunikacja społeczna, Pub. Siedlce
University of Natural Sciences and Humanities Press 2011.
12. Sarzała D. (2011b), Rola rodziny w zapobieganiu przestępczości i agresji wśród młodzieży. [in:] A. Rejzner (ed.): Bezpieczeństwo człowieka
a komunikacja społeczna. Warsaw 2011.
13. Sarzała D., Jędrzejko M. Przestępczość, (in:) Kosyrz Z. (ed.), Człowiek
w sieci zniewolonych dróg, Pub. Pedagogium Press, Wyższa Szkoła
Pedagogiki Resocjalizacyjnej, Warszawa 2009.
14. Sarzała D., Konsumpcjonizm. [in:] Kosyrz Z. (ed.): Człowiek w sieci
zniewolonych dróg. Warsaw 2009.
15. Świętochowski J., Psychologiczny kontekst procesu “chorowania” w rodzinie, [in:] Janicka I., Rostowska T., Psychologia w służbie rodziny,
University of Lodz, Łódź 2003.
16. Tchórzewski A., Pomocniczość i solidaryzm jako zasady przeciwdziałania traumie cywilizacjii nierówności w rodzinie XXI wieku, [in:] Cudak
H. (ed.) Rocznik Pedagogiki Rodziny, Vol. VI, Piotrkow Trybunalski
2009.
17. Walancik M., Sarzała D. (ed.), Człowiek z wielkiej Sieci. Zjawisko-zagrożenia-profilaktyka, Pub. Aspra JR Press, Warsaw 2012.
18. Waloszek D., Warunki rozwoju dzieci na wsi. Studium kilku rodzin popegeerowskiej (na podstawie badań diagnostycznych), [in:] Cudak H. (ed.)
Rocznik Pedagogiki Rodziny, Vol. V, Piotrkow Trybunalski 2009.
19. Woźniak M., (2004), Miejsce człowieka starego w rodzinie, [in:] Cudak
H. (ed.) Rocznik Pedagogiki Rodziny, Vol. VII, Piotrkow Trybunalski
2009.
273
Legal and Political Determinants of Drug Crime in Poland at the Beginning of the 21st Century
Tomasz SAFJAŃSKI Dr.
Legal and Political Determinants
of Drug Crime in Poland at the Beginning
of the 21st Century
Abstract:
The article discusses the size, phenomenology and determinants of drug
crime in Poland in the years 2001-2012. The subject of the research are,
in particular, legal factors (changes in drug legislation, the evolution of
police powers relating to combating drug-related crime) and political
factors (the accession of Poland to the European Union and the integration
of Poland to the Schengen Area). Temporary range of analysis (20012012) is contractual in nature. Analysis of drug-related crime through
the prism of police statistics leads to the conclusion that the political and
legal conditions existing in Poland at the beginning of the XXI century
contributed to the development of this threat.
Key words:
drug-related crime, drug laws, the EU, the Schengen.
Legal and political factors affect both the development and the fight against
drug-related crime. The representatives of the criminal world deciding to
engage in the production, smuggling or drug trafficking are asking a lot of
questions related to legal and political aspects. What is the punishment for
committing drug offenses? Have the law enforcement agencies got special
powers to detect and prosecute drug offenses? What are the possibilities of
crossing the state border? It’s just a few examples of questions. However,
answering these questions confirmed the importance of the legal and political
circumstances of drug-related crime.
276 Tomasz Safjański
Scale of drug crime in Poland
In the years 2001-2012 in Poland more than 700 000 drug offenses were
detected, and more than 280 000 suspects were determined. During this
period, only the Police secured more than 3858 kg of amphetamine, 6662 kg
of marijuana, 642 kg of hashish, 695 kg of heroin and 2677 kg of cocaine.
Detailed data on the number of drug offenses detected in the years 2001-2012
are shown in Chart 1. The number of persons suspected of drug offences in
the years 2001-2012 (including minors) are presented in Table 1. The main
types of drugs secured by the Police in the years 2001-2012 are shown in
Table 2.
Picture 1. The number of drug offenses detected in the years 2001-2012
in Poland
Source: Own calculations based on data from the National Police
Headquarters.
Analysis of statistical data on drug-related crime indicates a significant
increase - between 2001 and 2012 – alike the number of offenses detected,
the number of suspects and the number of secured drugs.
Analyzing these data, keep in mind that this is not a complete picture of
drug crime threat. There is a high “dark figure” of crime, because all parties
involved in illegal drug practices are interested in hiding their activities.
Tabel 1. The number of persons suspected of drug offences in the years
2001-2012 in Poland (including minors)
Year
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
Number of suspects
29340
29146
26865
26204
25971
27936
28634
28170
22969
16914
13461
9952
Minors
4595
4440
4119
3598
2923
2945
3768
3629
3105
2357
2041
1804
Source: National Police Headquarters
Tabel 2. The main types of drugs secured by the Police in the years 20012012 in Poland
Type of drugs
Year
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Total
Amphetamine
(kg)
Marijuana
(kg)
Hashish
(kg)
Heroin
(kg)
Cocaine
(kg)
195
118,1
193
236,3
308,6
171,2
390,5
355,6
384,6
518,1
393,9
593,8
3858,7
74,3
439,6
198,2
205,7
201,4
91
320,6
459,8
860,2
1324,2
1211,1
1276,2
6662,3
9,4
114,7
33,6
41
72,5
9,8
28,4
114,2
16,8
85,4
78,2
38,5
642,5
208,1
6,5
6,9
65,5
41,13
76,3
123,6
78,6
23
24,6
6,4
35,1
695,73
45,2
397,9
401,2
21,7
12,8
1104
154,2
27,6
116,2
110,9
75,5
210,1
2677,3
Source: Own calculations based on data from the National Police Headquarters
277
Phenomenology of drug crime
The drug crime is linked to the activities of organized criminal groups
and international criminal networks, corruption of representatives of
border protection services, customs, police and the legalization of income
from criminal activity. The basic characteristics of drug organized crime
include: professionalism and continuous improvement of methods of crime,
the development of criminal cooperation, internationalization of criminal
activities, expanding the range on several types of drugs, gangs desire to own
their own production lines of drugs and the search for new markets.
In addition to organized drug crime, there is functioning drug crime based
on individuals or small criminal groups.
The analytical studies of the Central Bureau of Investigation of National
Police Headquarters (on CBS KGP)1 shows that the production, smuggling
and drug trafficking constitiuted in the period the main source of profit for
organized crime in Poland (CBS KGP Report 2005, p. 1).
Due to the huge profits the drug activity were taken by almost every
criminal group. These groups then were seeking to create their own sources
of drug supply e.g. the channel of trafficking or place of production (CBS
KGP Report, 2002, p. 7). According to the Internal Security Agency2 greatest
interest among polish criminal groups enjoyed the production, smuggling
and trading of amphetamine smuggling of heroin and smuggling of cocaine
(http://www.abw.gov.pl/portal/pl/34/44/Produkcja_przemyt_i_handel_
narkotykami.html access on 01.07.2013).
Among the criminal groups specializing in drug crime dominated a small
groups (2 to 10 members) and medium (10 to 30 members), but there were
also groups of about 100 members. It should also be indicated that existenced
large groups (over 30 members), which had a hierarchical structure consisting
of leaders, members and management. Regarding the types of criminal
connections within the group, occurred mainly economic ties. The leaders of
criminal groups, if did not stay in Poland, mostly as a country of residence
chosen the Netherlands and Ukraine. In addition they operated in the
following countries: United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Sweden, Turkey,
1
Elite department of National Police Headquarters dedicated to combating, among
others, organized drug crime and cross-border drug crime. It was established in 2000
with the transformation of the Office for Combating Organized Crime and the Office for
Combating Drugs Crime.
2
Special service that works to protect the constitutional order of the Republic of Poland. The range of tasks, Internal Security Agency has focused on protecting the internal
security of the state and citizens, including among others, include combating threats of
terrorism and combating organized crime.
Ireland, Spain, Lebanon, the U.S. and France (CBS KGP Report 2002, p. 6).
Organized drug activity, in terms of geographical coverage, was conducted
primarily in large urban areas (e.g. Warsaw, Gdańsk, Szczecin, Katowice,
Wroclaw, Lodz).
Drug-related crime often were accompanied by money laundering linked
to the deployment of criminal assets abroad e.g. the Netherlands, Ukraine,
United Kingdom, Germany, Luxembourg, Austria, Spain and Turkey.
In the case of drug-related crime often were observed criminal cooperation,
which can be defined as a criminal partnership. Drug crime groups used the
services of criminal groups specialized for handling external frontiers of all
kinds of smuggling and corruption of border officials. The functioning of
groups of dealers contributed to further camouflage of the actual principals
and hindered the Police to reach leaders of drug organized groups.
In situation of inability or lack of interest the conclusion of the criminal
alliance, drug organized groups sought to displace or eliminate competing
groups. Sometimes there were advanced brutalization of criminal activities,
including events related to the use of firearms and explosives.
Activities of organized drug groups became far-reaching professionalized
consisting of the use of counter-investigations means in order to disguise
criminal operations. In practice the means may be classified according to
several criteria. From the law enforcement point of view the most important
division is made on the basis of the towards of the use of counter-investigations
means (offensive, defensive and universal). Offensive means are usually the
most complex criminal enterprises. In this framework stands out among
others: direct infiltration, indirect infiltration, intelligence activities or
disintegrating actions. Defensive means are activities whose mission is to
strengthen its own group. These include among others: counterintelligence
operations, disinformation operations, disciplinary measures against members
and associates, the traditional tactical methods (e.g. self-control), masking
operations or changes in the internal organization of criminal groups.
Universal means include: the use of expert knowledge, the use of corruption
or the use of information technology to commit crimes. People involved in
organized drug-related crime have significant financial resources, which are
used to provide legal protection (e.g. paying lawyers) and spread of impact
through the corrupting of the judiciary and law enforcement agencies (e.g.
for the favorable consideration of the matter or relevant information).
There are known examples of obtaining to the criminal cooperation
of public and trustworthy persons. For example, drug dealers in one case
conducted by CBS in 2002 (Olsztyn) were members of the Polish Skating
Team (CBS KGP Report, 2002, p. 8). The use of counter-investigation
279
means provided a hermeticity to criminal groups. In such cases, the conduct
of police operations were very difficult, because you could not get to the
principals.
In 2005, CBS KGP observed a tendency that the organised groups of
criminal profile began to transform its operations in multicriminal activities,
but in most cases the main activities were related to drug trafficking (CBS
KGP Report 2005, p. 1).
During this period, drugs in Poland were produced both from natural
ingredients and synthetic. In Poland the cultivation of cannabis has been
developed, both from imported cuttings and from seeds purchased through
online orders. Domestic production of marijuana has been typically
characterized by high potency. The samples collected from the liquidated
by the Police in Poland illegal plantations of marijuana have much more
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) than marijuana smuggled from Western
Europe.
Poland became a manufacturer of high-quality meta-amphetamines and
amphetamine. Illegal laboratories in general, operated periodically, and their
production was dependent on foreign or domestic customers. Location of
laboratories were often changed in order to avoid detection by the Police.
Amphetamine was produced in Poland mainly by Leucarta Method. In 2005,
in Poland for the first time were discovered laboratory producing MDMA
and GHB manufacturing laboratory. In 2007 and 2009, also the production of
methamphetamine was disclosed.
In practice, we observed drug smuggling on Polish territory from abroad,
smuggling drugs from abroad and Polish transit smuggling drugs.
Drugs were trafficked across land, sea and air roads. The overland route
was used mainly for heroin, cannabis and synthetic drugs smuggling. Cocaine
was often smuggled using sea and air routes. Poland as a country lying on
the transit route of heroin has become a „warehouse” country, where the
smuggled drug was refastened and prepared for further transport. Significant
quantities of heroin appeared in regions where reside immigrants of Muslim
origin, dealing resulting in Poland commercial activity.
In reconnoitring of CBS KGP and Border Guard drugs (mainly
amphetamines) were smuggled from Poland along the following routes:
• Poland - Germany - Scandinavia (Sweden, Norway),
• Poland - Scandinavia (mostly transfer by sea through the ports of
Gdansk and Szczecin - Swinoujscie)
• Poland - Ukraine,
• Poland - USA (by air),
• Poland - Germany - Netherlands - UK.
The main routes of smuggling drugs into Poland were:
• Netherlands - Germany - Poland (smuggling marijuana, hashish, ecstasy and cocaine),
• South America (mainly Colombia, Peru and Bolivia) - Netherlands/
Spain / UK - Poland (cocaine smuggling by sea in containers or by air
via courier),
• South America (mainly Colombia, Peru and Bolivia) - West Africa
(Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Gambia, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo,
Ivory Coast, Island Green Cape) - Poland (cocaine),
• South America - USA - Poland (cocaine by air),
• Unknown country of origin - Turkey - Bulgaria - Czech Republic - Poland (heroin),
• Morocco - Poland (hashish),
• Eastern Europe (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus) - Poland (smuggling of precursors for the manufacture of amphetamine, mostly BMK).
The identified transit routes of smuggling drugs through Poland were:
• Heroin: Afghanistan - Turkmenistan - Azerbaijan - Russia - Belarus - Ukraine - Poland - countries of Western Europe (so-called Silk
Route),
• Heroin: Afghanistan - Turkey - Bulgaria - Romania - Ukraine - Poland
- countries of Western Europe (so-called Balkan Route),
• Cocaine: South America - Poland - United Kingdom, Ireland,
• Hashish: Pakistan - Poland - countries of Western Europe (CBS KGP
Annual Reports for 2002-2010, Report on the state of security in Poland in 2011, p. 143).
Legal and political aspects
Among legal factors determining the fight against drugs in Poland one
should indicate the criminal policy primarily understood as a penalization of
drug-related offenses and the powers of the Police and other statutory services
in relation to the detection and prosecution of drug offenses.
The first comprehensive law on drugs and drug addiction in Poland,
including criminal liability for acts related to illegal drug trafficking was the
Act of 31 January 1985 on the prevention of drug addiction (Journal of Laws
of 1985 No. 4 item 15). Provisions of the Act of 31 January 1985 focused
on the criminalization of illegal drug supply. While the law did not penalize
such acts as the purchase of drugs and their possession. Another drug law
281
was the Act of 24 April 1997 on counteracting drug addiction (Journal of
Laws of 1997 No. 75, item. 468), which introduced the art. 48 to criminalize
possession of narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances. At the same art. 48
paragraph 4 provided immunity to offender possessing physicians or small
amounts of narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances for personal use (socalled decriminalization of small possession).
Currently in Poland the basic act in the field of drug law is the Act of 29
July 2005 on counteracting drug addiction (Journal of Laws of 2005 No.
179, item. 1485), which penalizes the number of drug actions. Article 62
paragraph 3 of the Act provided, in the case of minor that the offender to be
subjected to a fine, the penalty of restriction of liberty or imprisonment for
up to a year. In practice Police is obliged to initiate and conduct of criminal
procedure against the offense of possession of small amounts of drugs. This
caused that nearly 50% of all crimes recorded were related to drug possession.
It often happened that people who only experimented unnecessarily fell into
conflict with the law. The amendment of the Act of 2011 in the art. 62a gave
the opportunity to remit the proceedings before the initiation if the judgment
against the perpetrator would be pointless because of the circumstances of
the offense and the low degree of social harm (Rapacki 2013, p. 32).
Although liberal drug policy concepts assume the trend to reduce the
penalties for possession of drugs, stating that the imprisonment of persons
with small amount of drugs does not solve any problem, it is reasonable to
conclude that any decriminalization of drug possession or liberalization policy
of punishment involving usage penalties within the lowest possible threat
of punishment is an important stimulus for the development of drug-related
crime. This is not about increasing criminalization, but building a model in
which there is a close relationship in the area of prevention, education and
rigorous fight against crime (Jędrzejko, Netczuk-Gwożdzikiewicz 2013, p.
111).
It should be noted also the relationship between the effectiveness of the
fight against drug offenses and the statutory powers of the Police and other
services in relation to the detection and prosecution of drug offenses and the
number of police officers carrying out counter-drugs tasks.
In the early nineties of the twenty century, one of the obstacle to the
effective fight against organized drug crime was the lack of a legal basis for
exerciseing effective policing both at operational reconnaissance and penal
proces level. However, at the beginning of the twenty-first century Polish
system for combating drug-related crime have got adequate legal means.
First of all, the scope and applicability of the Police undercover operations
were expanded. The way of managing operational control was decentralized
so that politicians were pushed away from making individual decisions in this
area, and supervision over the exercise of these means have been performed by
the courts. In 1995 were introduced so-called controlled purchase, controlled
delivery and sting operstions. The controll drug purchase involves the police
posing as customer to purchase drugs. The controlled drug delivery involves
secret monitoring of their movement, storage or handling them in order to
reveal all the people involved in smuggling (organizers, couriers, middlemen).
Sting operations means the ability for placing police officers “under the
covers” into the criminal organized groups. In the same year the institution of
in-cognito witness was introduced to Polish penal procedure.The principle in
the art. 184 of the Code of Criminal Procedure allows to unpublish personal
data of the person offering testimony, which is designed to prevent a possible
witness intimidation. Simultaneously materials obtained through operational
activities began to be used more effective in a criminal trial. Currently, the
majority of controlled deliveries is used successfully in the penal process.
After converting to process material are excellent evidence.
In 1997, the Act on Crown Witness entered into force. Often drugs
crimes can only be proven by the testimony of those who are implicated in
the same crime or in some other criminal activity, and who seek immunity
from prosecution in exchange for their testimony and/or their cooperation
with the police. The use of the institutions of crown witness allowed to break
dozens of drug organized groups (Rapacki 2005, s. 15).
Also legal solutions adopted in neighboring countries effect on drug-related
crime in Poland. In this context the Czech model is particularly interesting,
where according to the amendment of the Czech Criminal Code in 2010
the practice of law “limit impunity” for specific drugs were introduced. As
a consequence of this solution drugs available in the Czech Republic have
already appeared in Poland, mainly in the southern provinces - are imported
mainly by individual users (Jędrzejko 2011, p. 140).
New political circumstances for drug crime in Poland at the beginning of
the twenty-first century have occured after Poland accession to the European
Union and the Schengen Agreement. As a consequence, there has been a shift
of the frontiers of these areas to the eastern Polish border, which has become
at this direction at the same time the longest external land border of the EU
and Schengen.
Polish integration into the European Union and the Schengen Area led to
the abolition of restrictions on the movement of goods and people across the
borders with other EU member states. Threats of smuggling drugs both from
Poland to EU member states and to Poland from other EU member states
naturally have been increased.
283
Of great importance is also the location of Poland at crossings of smuggling
routes running on main geographical directions (east-west and north-south)
and the fact that Polish territory is one of the easternmost areas of the EU. As
always, the factors facilitating human and economic contacts also generate
risks associated with potentially greater opportunities of drugs smuggling.
An example (for south-north, west -east) are regular ferry services between
ports situated in the member states of the EU/Schengen and the possibility of
free navigation on the Baltic Sea by local recreational sailing or fishing. In
light of the known studies for the development of the drug problem prepared
by Europol and CBS KGP, the geographical location of Poland predisposes
the state to be used as a transit area for international drug smuggling.
It should be noted that the tightening of controls at the external borders
of the EU resulted in an increased demand for organized criminal groups,
because only such actions could ensure the effectiveness of drug trafficking
by the external border of the EU.
Other important political factor for the fight against drug crime in Poland
at the beginning of the twenty-first century were the weakness of law
enforcement bodies of Ukraine and Belarus.
An important role in the fight against drug crime in this period played
a cooperation with law enforcement at such platforms as Europol, Interpol
and Baltcom.
Conclusions
Analyzing drug-related crime through the prism of police statistics it
can be concluded that political and legal factors existing in Poland at the
beginning of the twenty-first century encouraged the rapid development of
this threat. Poland has become an important transit country for the trafficking
of synthetic drugs from the west to the east and the north and for the trafficking
of opiates from the east and the south to the west and the north and also
obtained a position as one of the leaders in the production of synthetic drugs
(mainly amphetamines). Also external organised crime groups started to
operate in Poland.
However, putting such a hypothesis should be borne in mind that in addition
to political and legal conditions a large impact on drug-related crime have
also social, cultural and technological determinants. Moreover, the number
of crimes recorded, the number of suspects, and the amount of seized drugs
are both picture of drug-related crime, as well as the scale of the activity of
the institutions responsible for combating the threats. In the case of enhanced
efforts of law enforcement agencies, increasing both the number of reported
crimes, the number of suspects and the amount of seized drugs, which is not
always the growth in drug-related crime.
Bibliography:
1. Centralne Biuro Śledcze - raport statystyczny 2005 ( CBS KGP Report
2005), 1 July 2013: http://cbs.policja.pl/portal/cbs/380/9890/Raporty_z_
dzialalnosci.html).
2. Jedrzejko M., Netczuk-Gwoździkiewicz M., Człowiek wobec uzależnień.
Alkohol – narkotyki – dopalacze, Warszawa-Zielona Góra 2013.
3. Jędrzejko M., Marihuana. Fakty. Marihuana. Mity, Wrocław 2011.
4. Rapacki A., Przestępczość zorganizowana w Polsce – subiektywne spojrzenie policjanta, Policja nr 1/2005, s. 15.
5. Rapacki A., Zwalczanie przestępczości narkotykowej w Polsce z perspektywy ostatnich 20 lat, Serwis Informacyjny Narkomania nr 4 (64)/2013.
6. Raport o stanie bezpieczeństwa w Polsce w 2011 roku, Ministerstwo
Spraw Wewnętrznych 2012 ( Report on the state of security in Poland in
2011).
7. Zwalczanie przestępczości zorganizowanej i narkotykowej przez CBŚ
KGP w 2002 r., Komenda Główna Policji (CBS KGP Report 2002), 1
July 2013: http://cbs.policja.pl/portal/cbs/380/9890/Raporty_z_dzialalnosci.html ).
285
Drugs and Drug Addiction as a Threat to Social Safety and Health – the Chosen Contexts
Mariusz JĘDRZEJKO Prof Dr.
Centre of Social Prevention, University of Social Sciences (Poland)
Ewa KAROLCZAK-WAWRZAŁA MA
Silesian University (Poland)
Tomasz SAFJAŃSKI Dr.
Drugs and Drug Addiction as a Threat
to Social Safety and Health
– the Chosen Contexts
Abstract:
For many years the problem of drug use in Poland has been increasing
– as far as use of marijuana and hashish are concerned, the Polish youth
ranks the second in Europe. It is the result of drugs promotion, increase
in criminal organizations number and weak prevention. The authors
describe – from the European and Polish perspectives – the key issues for
drug problem development, its tendencies and possible hazards for social
and somatic health. Special emphasis is put on drug addiction.
Key words:
drugs, drugs addiction, marijuana, health
Introduction to the problem
We still do not know all the answers concerning the scale and essence of
the drug problem in Poland, although every year The National Bureau for
Drug Prevention (NBDP) publishes an objective report and many voivodships
encourage objective studies of the problem. The essential reason is lack of
analytical frames embracing drug addiction and drug crime phenomena in
a holistic manner, that is taking into account social, economic, moral, legal
288 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Ewa Karolczak-Wawrzała, Tomasz Safjański
and health aspects. The article presented is an attempt at showing this complex
phenomenon – as far as the framing allows – in those precise perspectives,
with particular emphasis on social threats.
As the published data show, the number of offences resulting from Misuse
of Drugs Act1 increased in years 2001-2011 from less than 30 thousand to
over 74 thousand.2 Instantaneous decrease of such type crimes in 2008 did
not change visible trend of increasing drug crime. The year 2012 brought
subsequent increase in offences from Misuse of Drugs Act and data of the
year 2013 show that 40% of Polish youth, upper secondary school students
have had, during the last 12 months, an offer to consume some drugs. In the
same year, NBDP studies indicate 18% population of Polish upper secondary
youth who used drugs (COPR 2014, p. 167). The analysis of this problem
shows certain characteristic and stable trends which constitute a proof for
specific model of drug problem in our country:
- the number of young people committing so called drug offences increases; (MIA 2011, p. 145);
- the prevailing drug in Poland is still marijuana;
- together with increase in drug offences, promotion of some drugs and
supply of smart drugs also increases;
- the key “recipients” of drugs and smarts are people between 15-25
years of age;
- the number of drug experiments in the group of young people between
15-20 years of age has drastically increased reaching from 15 to 23%
depending on the region.
Research conducted in the areas of potentially high risk (e g. Center for
Public Opinion Research (CPOR) 2008 – table below) indicate high availability
of drug substances which can be one of the causes for drug problem increase.
1
2
Act of 29th July 2005 about Drug Misuse (consolidated text Journal of Laws of 2012,
entry 124)
In the year 2011 out of over 74.5 thousand drug offences confirmed by the police, 44.6% of
all the cases concerned Art 62 sec 1 and 3 of the Misuse of Drug Act (possession), 24,7%
– Art. 59 (trade), and 17,8% – Art. 58 (provision). The quoted data indicate inconsiderate
proportion of serious crimes (production, smuggling and trafficking significant amounts
of drugs). According to Report on Poland’s safety of 2011 (pp.143), in Poland prevail
misdemeanors from Art 62 of the Misuse of Drugs Act involving possession of drugs
(offences committed by psychoactive and psychotropic substances consumers).This may
testify lack of operational potential to fight such threats by national law enforcement.
Moreover, as K. Krajewski notices K. Krajewski (see. Sens i bezsens prohibicji. Prawo
karne wobec narkotyków i narkomanii, Zakamycze Print, Zakamycze 2011), the small
proportion of serious drug crimes confirmed by the police, besides indicating executive
deficit, also questions possibility of creating through prohibition policy and criminal law
any real economic barrier for aiming at activities of such kind.
Table 1. Availability of chosen drugs according to young people
Type of drug
Sedatives and hypnotics
Marijuana, hashish
Amphetamine
Anabolic steroids
Ecstasy
Cocaine
Crack
Heroin
Polish heroin
Party drugs
(Salvia divinorum)
Dextromethorphan(DXM)
Impossible
Difficult
Easy
15
16
21
25
26
26
28
28
28
28
29
30
22
27
34
30
33
36
36
36
35
31
33
34
46
45
24
22
20
14
11
13
12
16
11
8
I do not
know
16
13
20
23
22
24
25
24
26
26
27
27
Source: Malczewski, A. (2010) Nielegalny rynek oraz redukcja podaży na narkotyki, pp. 16
The respondents’ knowledge about drug types and highest availability of
cannabinoids should be considered essential indications.
At the beginning of the presented analysis, it is justified to raise a thesis
about exceptional weakness of the Polish state at coping with drug problem. For
instance during particularly active marijuana campaigns organized by Ruch
Palikota (Palikot Movement and „Wolne Konopie”(Free Cannabis), Polish
decision-makers did not undertake necessary, preventive and informative
activities in the scale in which the situation required (and still requires). The
characteristic feature of authorities’ behavior towards the problem is inertia.
Drugs as a phenomenon and social problem
Numerous studies (Cz. Cekiera, J. Śledzianowski, I. Niewiadomska. A.
Malczewski, P. Jabłoński, M. Jędrzejko3) point at stabilization of the so called
hard drugs problem (opioids) and distinct increase in marijuana use. Clinical
data suggest also come back of party drugs which, after abolition of party
drugs shops are still available on the Internet (main sources for party drugs
3
These problems have been widely discussed, together with P. Jabłoński in the paper
„Narkotyki i paranarkotyki”, Oficyna Wydawnicza ASPRA JR, Warsaw 2012. The
most recent report concerning drug use has been prepared by Center for Public Opinion Research and published in March 2014. It states, among others that 26% of upper
secondary school students know several individuals using drugs or other psychoactive
substances and subsequent 28% 1-2 such individuals.
289
delivery are situated in China, Great Britain and Holland).
According to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction
report (see: EMCDDA 2011)4 (2011) at least 78 million Europeans, at least
once used Cannabis Indica derivatives. 22.5 million of them did that during
last year and 12 million during last month. Marijuana constitutes 50% of all
psychoactive substances use on our continent. It should be noted here, that
European state policies differ in this field – Dutch authorities have changed
the previous policy of free marijuana trade (ban on joints sale for foreigners),
the Czechs, after legalizing small amounts of drugs allow individual cannabis
cropping, whereas in Poland we have observed elicitation of movements
advocating legalization of this drug. The new, European trend is increase of
drug sale on the Internet and constant, year after year introduction of multiple
new psychoactive substances on the market (during last 3 years there were
over 120 new ones).
Table 2. The newest tendencies and drug problems in Europe5
Positive
tendencies
Problem
Decelerating
of increase in
Cannabis Indica
Drug supply derivatives use
Reduction in
smuggling heroin
from Afghanistan
HIV
-
Deaths after
taking drugs
4
5
Negative tendencies
Fast development and strengthening of
international drug crime.
Increase in supply of new synthetic drugs. Increase
in supply of strong marijuana variants (hydroponic,
modified) containing even over 20% THC.
Return of party drugs problem – development of
Internet trade in these substances.
Very big differences in the scale of drug problem
among individual EU countries
Increase in cocaine supply – cocaine has become
the most popular stimulant in Europe.
Increase in ecstasy supply.
Possible increase in local HIV epidemics among
people using drugs intravenously
Lack of progress in limiting deaths after
overdosing
Compare: Report on the State of the Drugs Problem in Europe, European Monitoring
Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), Lisbon 2011
According to the most recent report about the state of drug problem in Europe, the
number of people using drugs decreased by almost 2% (from 9 to 7% in the age population of 15-64). That optimistic trend is nevertheless disturbed by the information that
in 2010 nearly 9 million Europeans used marijuana. Great majority in this group is
constituted by young individuals.
Fast increase in new, not so far controlled
substances supply.
Increase in number of multi-component
New
substances.
phenomena
Increase in synthetic cannabinoids supply.
Increase in non-medical consumption of drugs
containing codeine and pseudoephedrine.
In 2010 the record number - 41, and in 2011 as much as 47 new substances were
reported to European system of early warning.
Source: authors’ paper
While analyzing drug problem it is justified to write it in wider “set” of
contemporary problems threatening safety of citizens.
Such a thesis is supported by the following arguments:
• drug supply constitutes one of essential sources for international and
national crime6 and drugs are strongly connected with other forms of
pathology (prostitution, organized crime, smuggling and human trafficking, production of porn films);
• drugs are a source of serious problems in individual and social dimension;
• drug addiction disorganizes human life for many years and, more often
than not, its consequences are experienced by the victim till the end of
his/her life;
• mechanism of addiction is a danger for its victim as much as for the
third parties;
• state (citizens) bears still growing costs of both fight with drug crime
and treatment of the addicted.
Researching the drug problem in the aspect of safety threat shows its
complexity and one of the specific areas, a significantly destructive one,
6
Main roads of smuggling drugs to Poland : 1) Holland – Germany – Poland (marijuana, hashish, ecstasy and cocaine smuggling); 2) South America (mainly Colombia,
Peru i Bolivia) – Holland/Spain/Great Britain – Poland (cocaine smuggling by sea
in containers or by air by couriers); 3) South America (mainly Colombia, Peru i Bolivia) – West Africa (Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Benin, Burkina-Faso, Ghana, Gambia,
Liberia, Mali, Mauretania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo, Cote d’Ivoire,
Capo Verde) – Poland (cocaine); 4) South America – USA – Poland (cocaine by air);
5) unknown country of origin – Turkey – Bulgaria – Czech – Poland so called Silk
and Balkan Roads offshoots (heroin); 6) Morocco – Poland (hashish); 7) Eastern Europe (Russia, Ukraine, Belorussia) – Poland (smuggling precursors for amphetamine
production, mainly phenylacetone) – source Central Bureau of Investigation Police
Headquarters 2013
291
according to the author is marijuana addiction (see: Jędrzejko, 2011). Here,
new phenomena trends and activities are being observed. Among them the
following deserve attention:
• elicitation of movements advocating full legalization of marijuana
(they obtained strong representation in the Polish Parliament and they
continually raise this problem in socio-political discourse;
• this drug has become more and more daringly promoted by some celebrities and representatives of new artistic bohemians which results
in many young people’s drug behaviors (this is an essential part of the
post-modernist mode of social life and socio-political discourse promoted in our country bringing out a principle to liberalize everything
possible);
• school prevention which does not keep up with real hazards (according
to the author education department does not have any concept to cope
with the problem of teenagers’ risky behaviors).
Let us also turn our attention to new information strategy mode used by
groups promoting drugs (especially marijuana) evoking numerous discussions
and debates in which representatives of Health Ministry or institutions
fighting with drug crime are absent. The preconceived problems are mostly
discussed: THC (marijuana active ingredient) medicinal use, penalization
of young people for possession of small amounts of drugs; potential state
profit in case of drugs legalization (taxes);the alleged weakening of crime
world in case of marijuana legalization. This method defined by the author as
“falsification of knowledge” wreaks havoc in awareness of significant part of
youth, as a result they accept half-truths about drugs as scientific knowledge
(ignorance), the effect of which is increase in risky behaviors connected with
use of such kind of substances.
Marijuana7 – an element of social destruction
In studies examining consequences of drug problem development it has
been indicated for many years that the most dangerous drug is heroin (and
other Papaver somniferum derivatives). It has been justified by destructive
course of addiction illness, social and somatic consequences and also by
7
The active agent of Cannabis Indica is tetrahydrocannabinol THC. This is what is responsible for psychoactive reactions experienced by people reaching for marijuana and
hashish. In scientific type of cannabis, over 420 substances belonging to 18 different
chemical groups of substances have been identified. The strongest modification of the
plant is the above mentioned sinsemilla (from Spanish “without seed”, feminine, not
producing seed specimens of the plant).
fatal examples resulting from sustained abuse of this drug. Long-term drug
prevention introduced into social circulation a strong belief about extreme
harmfulness of this drug model and security services operations significantly
reduced heroin and opium supply as well as illicit circulation of morphine.
However, the parallel process (essentially strengthened at the beginning of the
previous decade) is supply increase of another drug – marijuana which had an
effect on significant growth in those substances experiments among teenagers
and youth. Marijuana has become a key drug on the Polish market and its use
has already been declared by 28% of upper secondary school students living
in towns over 500 thousand inhabitants (see: CPOR Reports, p. 161-167).
Marijuana is also the most often promoted and de-stigmatized drug, which
has already had the character of an unequivocally planned campaign aiming
at Cannabis Indica derivatives legalization8. In 2013 - 40% of surveyed by
CPOR admitted having used this drug at least once (CPOR, p. 169).
Picture 1. Key elements of pro-marijuana campaigns in Poland
Development of central and local structures promoting
marihuana legalization
De-stigmatizing marijuana by celebrities and part of politicians
(models „I also smoked”)
Argument of „lesser evil” – alcohol kills more often and
alcoholism costs are bigger
Popularizing arguments about medical marihuana use in other
countries (marijuana is a medicine)
Promotion of foreign models – Czech, Holland, Portugal
„Innocent young people are sent to prisons for 1 gram of
marijuana” – „humanitarian” argument for changing law
8
There have been heated scientific debates for some years concerning addictive properties of marijuana. According to most recent tests supervised by the American National
Institute on Drug Abuse – NIDA, evidence for psychological addiction existence is
convincing but it does not apply to all the users population because some of them are
able to discontinue use without long term negative side effects (it is estimated that taking advantage of therapeutic support withdrawing from addiction is possible even after
over a dozen weeks of abstinence).Nevertheless, according to most recent research
by Charles R. Schuster, regular marijuana use causes addiction – both physical and
psychological (see; Ch. Schuster, Addiction 99/2004, pp. 667-677; also: O. Sauer, S.
Weilemann, Drogen: Eigenschaften – Wirkungen – Intoxikationen, Schultersche, Hannover 2000).
293
Let us here indicate that any analysis of human safety problem (both
individual and collective) in the drug aspect calls for accepting an unequivocal
criterion: any attempt at drug legalization will weaken this safety. However, it
should be emphasized that many national drug policies based on determined,
often strict activities towards dealers and drug users did not bring expected
results. It is often the case that drug crimes in the form of possessing small
amounts of drugs lead to giving sentences and penalization of thousands of
young people for having a proverbial one gram of weed. Such a situation,
especially in relation to this drug is a source of accusing the authorities of
excessive restrictiveness and “destroying young peoples’ lives”. I raise this
aspect because it contains two separate but related issues:
• there are consequently introduced opinions into social circulation that
“a small amount of drug is not yet a crime”, which would be equivalent to such theses as: “a small lie is not yet a lie”, “a small theft is not
yet an offence:. Such a criterion is nothing else as values relativization, which is a feature of post-modern models of social functioning;
• Polish state lost initiative in attributing contents and direction to
social discussion about drug problem, having passed it either to promarijuana organizations or to advocates of definite softening of antidrug policy (let us notice, that this policy has been supported by two
ex-presidents, former Minister of Health and many celebrities).
The marijuana debate seems to be nothing but an attempt to undertake a big
moral and axiological revolution in social approach towards the drug, which
can in the future, open the path for other illicit substances permissive use.
According to the author, the attempt to introduce marijuana to legal circulation
has also been a planned operation by group of its users who gained a wide
access to Polish politics, and at the same time to big media coverage. Their
“information” success ( the result of which is, among others increase in drugs
experiments in young people, thousands of participants in marijuana marches
and increasing supply of this drug) is the evidence of a faint effectiveness of the
previous prevention and information campaigns connected with harmfulness
of drug taking.9 The essential causes for this situation may be sought in:
9
Most recent biology literature provides important information about strength of each
part of Cannabis Indica plant and the specificity of this drug effect: the greatest concentration of THC is found in inflorescence, then in leaves and substantially less in
stalks, the least in roots, Cannabis are very vulnerable to modifications which resulted
in meaningful increase of THC in the plant, from 1-2% on average in the 80s of 20th
century to 2-10% in the present decade, very individual effect of THC causes that not
everyone reaching for marijuana gets addicted straight away(the proportion of first
dose addictions does not exceed 10% in Poland); THC does not cause physical dependence, whereas it causes psychological dependence. Occurrence of tolerance shows big
• lack of a synchronized state policy and basing this policy on incomplete methodological foundations (key planning, treatment, therapy
and education institutions co-operate only in a formal manner);
• lack of fast reaction to new threats – as it was observed in case of party
drugs;
• separation of addiction counteracting policy into lots of institutions
(Main Sanitary Inspectorate, The National Bureau for Drug Prevention, National Agency for Solving Alcohol Problems);
• “convulsive keeping posts” in key institutions for drug addiction and
alcoholism fighting;
• submitting to drug legalization trends in other countries;
• low sense of responsibility on the side of some local authorities which
have not elaborated long-term prevention strategies focusing on casual
activities only (studies conducted result in conclusion about lack of
long-term consequences of noticeable drug problem development, including those connected with safety);
• phenomenon of drug use which is strongly burdened with social stigma, it is still being hidden which impedes the problem diagnosis on
preliminary use stage;
• Poland’s location on a great international drug route which stimulates
drug crime increase and growth in substances supply;10
• low analytical competences of some services engaged in a foreground
drug problem recognition (police, community guards, commissions for
alcohol problems solving, addiction plenipotentiaries);
• formalism of prevention at the level of significant number of schools,
especially upper-secondary ;
• low methodology qualifications and essential knowledge of significant
educationists and school psychologists in the field of chemical addictions.
individual differences; the active substance affects numerous brain systems and can be
detected both in blood and urine. THC may remain in organism up till even 30 days
after the last use.
10
Factors substantially influencing drug supply are widely perceived social-culture-economic conditions of our country functioning. One should point here at integration of
Poland within the European Union and functioning in the Schengen area. It is not without
importance that our national border in some sections abuts with Russian Federation, Belorussia and Ukraine and it also constitutes the EU border. On the strength of EU treaties
Poland is responsible for outer EU border protection, wherein national borders with the
above mentioned countries are the longest section of the EU outer border on the East (at
the same time it is one of the longest national sections of the EU overland border). Poland
situation at the crossroads of communication and contraband routes running in main geographical directions (west-east and north-south) is of big importance and the fact that our
territory constitutes one of the most extended areas of the EU towards the East.
295
If the theses formulated by the most important Polish drug addiction
researchers (Polish scienses - Zygfryd Juczyński, Józef Kocur, Czesław Cekiera,
Zbigniew Gaś, Janusz Sierosławski, Jan Śledzianowski, Marek Dziewiecki,
Iwona Niewiadomska, Piotr Jabłoński) are true, annually about half a million
Poles reach for drugs experimentally and the number of individuals abusing
them in a way definitely harmful for their health amounts to around 150
thousand, of whom some thousand are treated full-time and another several
thousand are under constant psychological or medical care.11 The vast majority
of them are individuals abusing Cannabis Indica, particularly in the form of
marijuana. In the group of 500 and maybe even 600 thousand “experimenters”
there are people who stop merely at the first try, those for whom marijuana is
a week-end recreational drug, a substance which allows to relieve occupational
stresses, an element of subculture functioning or one of many systematically
used drugs (this group is estimated at 50-60 thousand people). What should
cause social anxiety is a great number of people who want to try “this one
time”. Attention should also be drawn to evident links of drugs with organized
crime (as the main source of income and as a substance used by criminals).
Picture 2. Specific features of marijuana problem in Poland
- over 70% of the first drug experiments involve marijuana;
- prevailing group of this drug users constitute people in the age group of 16-30 ;
- the number of marijuana experiments among upper secondary school students
increases;
- around 12-15% of the Polish marijuana market is determined by strong variants of
sinsemilla type coming from chemically strengthened cultivations;
- demand for marijuana among young customers increases;
- amount of small cultivations (for the owner’s use) and industrial ones grows fast.
„Absolving” marijuana12 and medical facts
In chemical sense the psychoactive factor contained in marijuana (THC)
is a mixture of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. THC enters the organism
The reader will find a full review of drug problem state in Poland in scientific descriptions by National Bureau for Drug Prevention, Warsaw 2010-2013.
12
The problem analysis allows to provide a thesis that during the last years the share of
Cannabis cultivation in the structure of drugs supply has significantly increased. On
the Polish Cannabis market marijuana prevails, especially stronger variants, so called
skunk – enriched in THC. Hashish is far less available and comes almost exclusively
from imports. According to the Police estimations, around 30% of the consumed Cannabis is cultivated in Poland.
11
most often as a result of smoking marijuana weed (pulmonary tract and the
circulatory system are the first to be exposed to its effects), as a result of
which the active ingredient is transported into the central nervous system
(the process of THC activation in the brain begins several minutes after the
first inhalation and persists for about 40-50 minutes). During smoking, part
of THC decomposes, which gives effects in the form of absorbing into the
lungs (depending on the smoking technique) from 20 to 70% of THC active
substance. THC penetrates quickly from blood to adipose tissue, hence its
concentration there is thousand times greater than in blood. Research on
THC activity showed that it penetrates blood-brain barrier very fast, hence
its concentration in CNS is 3-6 times bigger than in the circulatory system
(Szukalski, 2005, p. 101)13 Biological half-life period of THC equals to about
20 hours (op.cit. p. 95). Although the strongest effect subsides after 40-50
minutes, in many cases “the altered states of consciousness” may last even to
4 hours while smoking and after adding to food, even to 12 hours (Jędrzejko,
ed., 2008, p. 35). Period of THC (marijuana and hashish) presence in urine
when used seldom is from 2 to 7 days, when used frequently, even up to 30
days.
The key to understanding marijuana harmfulness and accepting that this
substance should not be legally perceived unlike other drugs (even assuming
that its effects are weaker comparing to e g cocaine or amphetamine and that
it does not cause fatal incidents), is understanding its destructive influence
on the central nervous system functioning.14 Let us also add that THC
penetration from circulatory system into the brain causes increase of reactions
in CNS, of which some are short-lived, others however, do not subside for
a longer period of time. In turn, THC transmission into the hippocampus
leads to partial impairment of memory function, especially the short-term
memory. One of the key research areas for marijuana impact on health and
behavior of human beings are analyses of relation THC-psychoses. The first
reports on that subject appeared as far back as 19th century and were based
Though there have been no full scientific evidence for effects of Cannabis products
on circulatory system yet, we know from cardiology examinations that the active substance worsens health in patients suffering from coronary artery disease by strongly
increasing possibility of myocardial infarction and sudden death.
14
In the contemporary medical literature, the psychotic influence of marijuana is recognized in three groups: acute symptoms where the patients experience strong fears,
suspiciousness, anxiety, violent behaviors and perception distortions; the second group
displays idiosyncratic reactions in the course similar to acute psychotic reactions; the
third group (other mental disorders) reveals mania and schizophrenia (schizophrenia as
a result of marijuana abuse was diagnosed in population from 5% (American Natives)
to 58% (Swedish research).
13
297
on observations of hallucinations which were experienced by people under
the influence of marijuana. In the contemporary literature, many American,
British and Australian researchers indicate visible relations between marijuana
use and psychoses and hallucinations occurrence, even in the period when
this substance is not used. First analyses of this problem appeared in the 30s
and 40s of the 20th century (see: Allentuk, Bowman, 1942).
Research conclusions concerning THC-psychoses relation can be found
in the complex work about marijuana „A cannabis reader: global issues and
local experiences” (see: ECMDDA, 2008), where there is evidence presented
among others for:
• existence of significant relation between taking big THC doses and
occurrence of acute psychoses resulting in symptoms of disorientation,
amnesia, delusions, hallucinations, anxiety, stimulations, hypomania.
Those symptoms refer to big doses and subside after discontinuation of
abuse Cannabis derivatives (see: Hall, Degenhardt, 2000; Joy, Watson,
Benson, 2000);
• Definitely negative impact of marijuana on clinical course in
schizophrenia, which is potentiated in this drug users (see: Tien,
Anthony, 1990)15;
• relation between marijuana use and psychotic recurrences.
Contemporary research on marijuana impact on human health indicate also
reproductive system disorders: sperm decline in men, ovulation disorders in
women declaring regular smoking, menstrual cycle disorders, THC transfer
to fetus. There is definite evidence indicating that pregnant women smoking
marijuana are subject to miscarriages; infants born by marijuana addicts
are smaller, have low birth weight, are at high risk of Cerebral Palsy and
congenital disorders in CNS; marijuana addicts’ children have lower (even
by ten points) IQ and high susceptibility to schizophrenia. These questions
have been also analyzed by the quoted B. Szukalski (2005, pp. 101-102) who
states that as a result of Δ9-THC influence, reproductive system development
slows down and regular marijuana smoking by women may lead to periods
of infertility. Those questions should also be discussed in terms of safety if
they are holistically perceived.
15
Epidemiological studies US National Epidemiological Catchment Area (1991) show
that in 50% of people treated for schizophrenia, disorders diagnosed were the effect of
psychoactive substances use (abuse or dependence). Individuals using Cannabis every
day display 2.5 times greater tendency to inform physicians about psychotic experiences than individuals not using, after taking into account various factors, such as
misleading socio-demographic factors, social roles and mental disorders.
Multidimensional hazards
In very interesting studies of the drug problem by Jan Śledzianowski (2004,
p. 15) there is implicitly stated that the drug problem should be investigated in
numerous dimensions and one of the key plane are health losses. The author,
quoting great many research, emphasizes the essential motivation factor for
the addicted person actions – gaining next drug doses indifferently of price
and manner, which generates his/her destructive behaviors. Śledzianowski’s
remark reveals the most harmful side of addiction – inability to control
oneself. Other Polish researchers Czesław Cekiera (see: Cekiera 2005), Iwona
Niewiadomska and Marek Dziewiecki are of the similar opinion, stressing
social losses (family breakdown, inability to perform most of social roles,
loss of occupational opportunities, lower ambitions and educational gains).
In the above mentioned works as well as in works by other authors (see:
Ruden, Byalick, 2003) the common denominator is the thesis about absolute
harmfulness being a result of any drug use.
Polish research on drug hazards reveal features of particular threats, which
can be synthetically expressed in the following way:
• social hazards: family functions disorders, aggression, divorce, destructive influence on children (sibling), lower social opportunities,
social exclusion, codependency, organized crime;
• health hazards: somatic and mental diseases;
• economic hazards: shadow economy, high treatment costs, low occupational opportunities of the addicted;
• moral: values decline as a life foundation, destructiveness in individual
and social dimensions.
Close studies of the problem reveal also significant transformations on the
Polish drug market, which becomes a part of international criminal links – we
are a manufacturing country (amphetamine, marijuana), transit area (almost
all the drug groups) and a destination (marijuana, hashish, ecstasy, cocaine,
party drugs).
As it seems, the above mentioned problems are of great educational
significance, especially as regards to educational practices in schools and
parents’ educative goals. It is at the same time justified to state that the drug
problem will be increasing because:
• there is strong pressure of groups promoting postmodernist models of
life on so called “soft drugs” legalization, what was enhanced by a fraction of politicians (mainly among the left wing) and artistic bohemians;
• potentially high profits will generate criminal groups development
engaging in drugs manufacturing and distribution;
299
• debates around this drug, together with lack of unambiguous stance
(medical, not political) are a contribution to increase in drug interest
among the youth and constitute a “driving power” for its promotion.
Let us here present illustrious example of drug prevention demand,
concerning two large Polish regions: Mazovian and Łódź voivodships. So, as
in the period of March – November 2011, schools from these regions booked
in the Mazovian Center for Social Prevention 120 specialist trainings from
the field of drug prevention for students, parents and teachers, for over 12 000
trainees, as in the first half-year of 2013 the number of such trainings rose to
140 for over 14 000 trainees.
Conclusions
While drugs are harmful substances in many dimensions, the most often
recognized are their health and social consequences. There is no evidence
that their use enhances physical or intellectual efficiency or facilitates social
functioning – same as they do not eliminate any educational or occupational
problems. Although drugs do not constitute the most pressing health hazard –
far more damage is caused by alcohol abuse and tobacco smoking – the balance
of drug supply and demand is distinctly destructive. Because illicit substances
presence is accompanied with existence and development of organized crime,
they pose hazard to social and economic safety. This argument is valid, all the
more that lots of transit routes for drugs lead via Poland16 In a wider plane,
the drugs are a part of destructive frontline degrading Latin civilization social
model. This argument is justified by, among others, strict relation between
heroin and marijuana manufacturing in Afghanistan ( the key opium supplier)
with Muslim terrorism.
Effects of democratic systems confrontation with drugs and their aftermath
is difficult to evaluate unambiguously. On one hand, we have already been
able to help the addicted and the fact of drug dependency has ceased to be
a heavy stigma, on the other however, it is very difficult for us to deal with
lack of understanding from a part of democratic societies citizens that freedom
16
Drugs smugglers’ transit routes via Poland: 1) Afghanistan – Turkmenistan – Azerbaijan – Russia – Belorussia – Ukraine – Poland – Western European countries, so called
Silk Road (heroin); 2) Afghanistan – Turkey – Bulgaria – Romania – Ukraine – Poland
– Western European countries, so called Balkan Road ( heroin); 3) South America. –
Poland – Great Britain, Ireland (cocaine); 4) Czech – Poland – Germany (smuggling
so called Czech PIKO, that is a psychoactive substance manufactured on the basis
of pharmaceuticals containing ephedrine or pseudoephedrine which contains methamphetamine); 5) Pakistan – Poland – Western European countries (hashish).
cannot be equal to legalization of destructive substances. In this sphere,
failures are still very severe. The change may follow after an open, contentrelated debate about drugs and drug policy – however, such an initiative does
not emerge from the authorities and the advocates of legalizing part of drugs
attribute it a falsely scientific tune. Those questions will be, at the same time
an increasing educational, psychological and medical challenge and the area
for interesting research.
Bibliography:
1. Allentuk S., Bowman K., The psychiatric aspects of marijuana
intoxication, American Journal of Psychiatry 99/21/1942.
2. Bromberg W., Marihuana. A psychiatric study, Journal of the American
Medical Association, 113/1934.
3. Cekiera Cz., Toksykomania, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 1985.
4. Cierpiałkowska L. (ed.), Oblicza współczesnych uzależnień, Wydawnictwo
Naukowe UAM, Poznań 2007.
5. Connors G. J., Galizio M., Maisto S., Narkotyki: zażywanie i nadużywanie,
Fundacja Karan, Warsaw 2000.
6. Hall, L. Degenhardt, Cannabis use and psychosis, Australian and New
Zeland Journal of Psychiatry, 34/2000.
7. Jabłoński P., Jędrzejko M., Narkotyki i paranarkotyki, Oficyna
Wydawnicza ASPRA JR, Warszawa 2012.
8. Jędrzejko M., Marihuana – fakty. Marihuana – mity, Wydawnictwo Atla
2, Wrocław 2011.
9. Joy J., Watson J., Benson J. A., Marijuana and Medicine, Assessing the
Science Base, 2000.
10. Krajewski K., Sens i bezsens prohibicji. Prawo karne wobec narkotyków
i narkomanii, Wydawnictwo Zakamycze, Zakamycze 2011.
11. Młodzież 2013, CPOR, Warsaw 2014.
12. Narkomania – zjawisko, zagrożenia, (ed.) M. Jędrzejko, Pułtusk Academy
of Humanities, Warszawa-Pułtusk 2008
13. Niermann I., Sack A., Breites Wissen: Die seltsame Welt der Drogen
und ihrer Nutzer, Berlin 2009
14. Popik P., Dlaczego narkotyki, Wydawnictwo Prószyński i S-ka, Warszawa
2000.
15. Raport Krajowy, National Bureau for Drug Prevention, Warsaw 2011
16. Raports EMCDDA, Lisbon 2008, 2009, 2011
17. Ruden R., Byalick G., Żarłoczny mózg. Pułapki uzależnień, Wydawnictwo
Gunter + Jahr, Warszawa 2003.
301
18. Sauer O., Weilemann S., Drogen: Eigenschaften – Wirkungen –
Intoxikationen, Schultersche, Hannover 2000.
19. Seligman M., Walker E., Rosenhan D., Psychopatologia, Wydawnictwo
Zysk I S-ka, Warszawa 2003.
20. State of the drug problem in Europe Annual report 2009, 2010, 2011,
EMCDDA, Lisbon 2009, 2010, 2011.
21. Szukalski B., Narkotyki. Kompendium wiedzy o środkach uzależniających,
Instytut Psychiatrii i Neurologii, Warszawa 2005
22. Śledzianowski J., Uzależnienia wśród dzieci i młodzieży szkolnej,
Świętokrzyska Academy Printing House, Kielce 2004
23. Tien A. Y., Anthony J. C., Epidemiologic Analysis of Alcohol and Drug
use as Risk Factors for Psychotic Experiences, The Journal of Nervous
and Mental Disease, 178/1990.
The Category of Gender and the CAN Syndrome
Silvia DONČEVOVÁ Dr.
Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius (Slovakia)
The Category of Gender
and the CAN Syndrome
Abstract:
The Category of Gender and the CAN Syndrome. The study analyses
a problem of violence in a gender context, especially in the problem
of the CAN syndrome, and also compares many scientific views on
aggressiveness and violence in our society. An important part of the
study is founded on findings of research carried out within a dissertation
thesis. Findings of research give a new view on problems of families facing
domestic violence and also try to make a proposal for an amendment of
the existing theory.
Key words:
gender, gender stereotype, gender equality, social justice, CAN syndrome,
domestic violence.
Introduction
The gender viewpoint is a different view on the life reality enabling to
reveal the real causes of many socio-pathological phenomena abstracting
from gender inequality and social injustice. It enables to see the reality from
a different, more critical point of view, in other connections and contexts.
It extends both human knowledge and experience (often presented as
predominantly male) with a female dimension enriching the life reality, onesidedly aimed at performance and separation, by dimensions of tolerance,
empathy, co-operation, and intimacy. The humanities should reflect gender
differences as one of the possible effective alternatives of humanization, but
mainly of modernization of its subject and content. The need to apply the
304 Silvia Dončevová
problem of gender in assisting professions, social pedagogy, social work and
so forth seems to be extraordinarily useful.
The problem of gender in various theories:
aggressiveness and violence vs social justice
The gender is usually defined as a socially formed attitude and model
of behaviour, divided in male and female. It is a social category which is
not subject to biological (i.e. „natural“, as it is often erroneously presented),
but to social relations. They reflect the development of society, traditions
and customs that have been constructed on the background of a patriarchal
society, i.e. by the male dominant potential. The gender reflects social and
cultural disparities, and the condition of the real relations between men
and women in our society. In the gender-conditioned process, a transfer
of characteristic models of behaviour and gender relations, expected and
required by society, is secured (Kiczková, 2006, p. 20, Przybysz-Zaremba,
2014, 2012, p. 337-356). For our needs, it is important to know that the gender
is a power relation (Smetáčková, 2006, p. 9). Power is no characteristic of
individuals, but the basic aspect of social life, part of the existing social
relations. Those whom it concerns do not realize their privilege because they
take it for granted. From the gender point of view, men as a group have more
power than women – within these two groups there exist big differences as
for power. Since men dominate the vast majority of social hierarchies and
control a majority of social resources (economic, symbolic, social, political,
etc.), this is why they have much more favourable conditions to affect the
everyday regime of society and its development than women do. This results
in disparities proceeding from the gender hierarchy and affecting people´s
future based on their sex.
Why should we look for the problem of gender in such phenomena as
aggressiveness and violence? According to Ondrejkovič, the author of many
studies in this phenomenon, the so-called domestic violence (at present
unequivocally defined as gender-conditioned violence) takes in this millenium
the same place beside other violent demonstrations of people to their own
species, such as war conflicts, religious or social disorders. Moreover, he
points out the phenomenon which is typical for domestic violence – the
so-called banal evil. „It is a case when people commit evil without their
realizing it. However, in this case they loose their ability to distinguish evil,
to realize and name it. Mainly the mass media significantly contribute to
this.“ (Ondrejkovič, 2008, p. 395) Owing to them, we are becoming passive
and sensation-seeking recipients of news concerning this kind of violence
which, however, leaves us cold after we have heard or read it („this does not
concern me, this cannot happen to me“).
Karsten (2003, pp. 93 - 94) explains the presence of violence in the life
of a man based upon an analysis of self-conception of adolescent boys.
During their adolescence, boys have a need to distance themselves from the
behaviour and actions of their mothers, in order to more adapt themselves
to the behaviour and actions of their male models in their families or near
environment. „The future men are not only allowed to stand their grounds,
they are even expected to assert themselves – in case of need even by force
and harshness. If a woman behaves aggressively in an escalated dispute, it
is considered a forbidden, „inappropriate“, „hysterical“ action. On the other
hand, an aggressive action of a young man is not met with criticism, but with
understanding. Excuses – common up to now – correspond to the traditional
cliché of sexual roles: „the real man is assertive and, if need be, he asserts
himself also by force“. The boys are thus instilled to be harsh, insensitive
and adamant in case of conflicts when in touch with the other sex (Karsten,
2003, p. 93). Experience gained in a gender stereotypical environment
and in contact with equally old girls only confirms this view, and the boys
have in this period only very few possibilities how to obtain competency
in interpersonal relations, feeling and understanding for other people. In
extreme cases, however, their behaviour tends to degenerate into violent
attacks, and the aim need not be only a concrete person of female sex, but
anybody who differs from the aggressor (a foreigner, disabled person, child,
old man, etc.). This knowledge should initiate an inevitable change in the
choice of the educational style of parents and other educating persons and it
should be based on stressing of emotionality, empathy, pro-social behaviour
and tolerance of differences (the characteristics that are usually considered
female) already with small boys at the preschool age.
Research
The general aim of our research was to describe and analyze how the
presence of gender inequalities and stereotypes is shown in families where
domestic violence occurred or occures. A research concept of our research
was the grounded theory. The essence of our research was formed by in-depth
interviews which represent the most important part of the grounded theory.
In our research, we used semi-structured interviews, taking into account the
particularities of the selected sample. The in-depth interviews with children
305
and adolescents, the direct actors of domestic violence, have been analyzed
and interpreted. In the interviews, the ways and dynamism of behaviour of
parents to each other, how they behave to their children, and how children
behave to each other, the interaction with close relatives and the surroundings
of a family, how housework is divided, the care of children, how free time is
spent, but also the ideas of our respondents concerning a happy family, their
future family, views of violent behaviour and so forth have been studied.
The research sample was formed by both the present and former clients of
crisis centres for victims of domestic violence, Centrum Nádej (Bratislava),
Maják Nádeje (Bratislava), Náruč (Žilina), and Amoret (Lučenec) at the
age of 12+. The research interviews were carried out in the facilities of the
individual crisis centres (except one interview, carried out in the home of our
female respondent). The sample contained 8 respondents, out of these 6 girls
and 2 boys at the age of 12 to 23 years.
The basic data of our research were made up of the data obtained during
an open coding which is the basic analytical process of the grounded theory.
This process was followed by an analysis based on a constant comparison
by way of analytical techniques, axial and selective coding. By the method
of an open coding, the basic text of the interviews had been divided in subcategories that were integrated in the basic categories based upon their
characteristcs. By way of open coding, a set of codes (sub-categories) was
created and categorized based upon their characteristics and relations to each
other, i.e. they were integrated in the individual higher categories having the
same characteristics of all subordinated sub-categories.
In the initial phase of the open coding (after the first two analyzed
interviews), a basic general hypothesis had been created: the atmosphere
in a family is given by a measure of the father´s participation in what is
going on in a family and the mother´s support. That was why we focused
mainly on this studied sphere in the subsequent interviews, and the obtained
data have confirmed the truth of the basic hypothesis that the measure of the
father´s support and participation in what is going on in a family (free time,
housework, care of children, finances, psychical and cultural background)
is an extraordinarily high determinant of not only the overall atmosphere
in a family, but mainly of the position of the mother in a family, of how she
perceives, accepts and realizes her expected role of the mother sacrificing her
free time to satisfy the needs of all family members at the expense of her own
needs and interests.
After the open coding and repeated data collection had been finished,
the main categories and relevant sub-categories, their characteristics and
dimensions with links to the direct quotations of parts of the interviews could be
formulated within the primary interpretation. In the secondary interpretation,
these categories have been subjected to analytical methods following the open
coding, to the axial and selective coding. The first step has been to determine
the central category of our research, which is the father´s participation in
what is going on in a family, and the mother´s support. The second step has
been to place the central category and auxiliary categories in mutual relations
based upon the obtained characteristics and their dimensions.
Results
We are persuaded that the present paradigm concerning violence in
a family shows anomalies misrepresenting the objective and true view of
this problem. Under such anomalies are understood the myths concerning
violence in a family, for instance a connection of this phenomenon with the
presence of addictions, weak economic conditions, many children in a family,
an incomplete family, etc. The danger of these anomalies consists in their
negative effect on the quality of work of experts and workers in assisting
professions. Our aim was to re-evaluate the old paradigm and to formulate
a new one, enriched with a category of gender and a view of violence through
a gender perspective. Based upon the obtained data, we can say that violence
in a family environment is a phenomenon that is independent of a family type
(incomplete, complete – complemented, with many children, etc.) and of other
socio-pathological phenomena which are present in a family (addictions,
poverty, etc.). These factors are often present in families facing violence, but
their presence is no condition or reason to accelerate it. The cause of violence
in a family environment is contained in a generally accepted idea of the father
as a central personality in a marital relation and family as a whole, and of
the mother as a complementing person „predestined“ to ensure the running
of a household and the care of her husband´s offspring. On the background
of this premise, through a connection of a man and a woman is created the
traditional environment of family whose framework is made up of the father
with his „natural“ power, authority and generally positive position in family
(in the eyes of his partner, children and often also in reactions of the outside
world) and the child having no power and subordinated to all in a wider
environment of a family.
The mentioned image of a family environment results in the atmosphere
in a family where the father, mother and children are variables forming
the measure and intensity of aggressiveness and violence. Inclinations to
aggressiveness and violence are natural part of personality of each man, and
307
their manifestation and intensity are the result of personality (subjective)
factors, coming from environment (objective factors). One of the most
relevant objective factors is upbringing in a family environment. If this
significant forming environment is based on imbalance of power, authority
and position between the father and the mother, it is a family environment with
a high precondition of violence occurrence. According to us, it is not relevant
to study if it is direct or indirect, visible or hidden violence, because every
manifestation of „innocent“ use of power at the expense of some other family
member is violence committed on him or her, and it should be considered as
such. In this way, inequality of power between sexes creates a „vicious circle
of violence“ from the process of upbringing in a family, and this circle is
taken over by children in their behaviour and actions, and so on.
How does the imbalance of power manifest itself in a family? Both the
father and the mother are equally the parents and husband and wife, having
equal duties to each other and to their children. However, here is the end of their
equality. According to our research, in the real family environment the father
is not equally present nor is he equally engaged as the mother. Throughout the
development of the human society, his duties have been reduced to biological
and material ones. The mother´s position is characterized by a syndrome of
double burden which together with the absence of a psychical and emotional
support from the side of the father destructively affects the wife / mother.
The mother often takes over the duties of the father´s role and has absolute
tangible responsibility for her family (every failure of a child produces a bad
image of the mother, not of the father), while the father´s role is characteristic
of „formal“ responsibility, resulting from the role of the father.
How is it related to aggressive and violent behaviour of the father?
The father who admits the male superiority of his position in a family and
the inequalities and stereotypes connected with it is not able to naturally
participate in what is going on in his family, because the opposite would
mean to admit (personally and publicly) that:
• there exists no „male and female“, but common family work,
• there are no „your“, but „our“ children,
• it is not true that a good mother is always able to take better care of her
children than their father,
• if a woman is married, this does not mean she is „left to the mercy of
her husband“, but it means a duty of both parents to behave and act
responsibly and tolerantly to each other.
What are the consequences for the mother? If the father does not fulfil
his duties towards the mother and children, i.e. he is no support for his
wife and a positive model for his children (he does not participate in what
is going on in his family, in housework and care of children), the mother
fails in the relation to herself and to her children and reaches for crisis
strategies of solution of a negatively excessive situation. This results in
a high incidence of aggressiveness and violence against the children, mainly
in a form of neglecting the care and needs of them, disproportionate physical
punishments and overall negative atmosphere in a family. And it is the very
negative, aggressive atmosphere in a family, reproaches and verbal attacks of
the mother against her partner which is very often the incentive of violence
against the mother and children. The manifestation of violence of the father
against the mother is then the culmination of neglecting the roles resulting
from the role of the father. The whole process, beginning with not meeting
the needs of both the mother and children from the side of the father (but the
other way round, adopting these needs to his own needs, yielding to gender
stereotypes), results in multiple damage of the role of the mother because:
• the mother´s role is transformed into the servant´s role, this resulting in
the so-called double burden (work in a job plus housework),
• since she has almost no free time, the mother sactifices her hobbies and
time to relax for her family,
• those for whom she does it almost never appreciate her effort, and her
work and everything connected with the mother´s role is depreciated,
• the father´s negative approach to family duties is almost always
connected with aggressive and violent behaviour whose essence is
a deformed view of the role of both a man and woman in family and
society,
• the mother is not able to cope with such a burden without strategies
which are a reaction to the father´s behaviour and action; these
strategies are always a source of the mother´s frustration and of her
self-accusation of failure.
Regardless of the form of the strategy of behaviour and action of the
mother in a family, the role of the child is endangered in all respects. The
child is a fully-fledged percipient of what is going on in the family, even in
the case of both direct and indirect forms. According to our findings, resulting
from our studied sample, the further functioning of the child is negatively
affected by:
• interiorizing the father / man´s role as dominant and that of the mother
/ woman as subordinate,
• interiorizing the gender stereotypes in connection with concrete
activities and actions in a family,
• the absence of positive models in both sexes,
• the direct and indirect forms of violence affecting the child,
309
• the intolerance and violence being natural ways of behaviour in
interpersonal relations.
The external effect of environment is a distinct determinant of what
is going on in a family. Based upon our findings, in the father´s case it is
a matter of:
• a strong deforming effect of his own family: the father as a model of
behaviour and action in the family, and the mother whose relation to
her son is pathologic for both parties owing to the effect of the gender
stereotypes in a family environment,
• friends and leisure activities which are almost always at the first place
for the father, and the family accommodates to them, not the other way
round.
Why is the father´s role often connected with his not carrying out his
duties towards both the mother and children? What leads the father / partner
to his not being able to be a fully-fledged support of his partner and not being
willing to effectively participate in what is going on in the family in such
a way that the mother´s role is not deformed to an unpaid executor of service
work, and she could have time for herself as well? Why, in principle, the man
/ father / partner believes the activities connected with a family dishonour the
man´s role? The answer is the presence of gender inequalities and stereotypes
surviving in the society-wide thinking, but mainly in upbringing.
Bibliograpy:
1. Karsten, H., Weiblich- männlich (geschlechterrollen durchschauen).
Munchen: Reinhardt 2003.
2. Kiczková, Z., Rod - gender vo výskume v oblasti spoločenských vied.
[in:] Macháček, L. (Ed) 2006. Rod - gender v pedagogickom výskume
a praxi. Trnava: FF UCM 2006.
3. Ondrejkovič, P., Násilie − spoločensky nežiaduci jav. [in:] Sociológia
- Slovak Sociological Review. Volume 40, 2008.
4. Przybysz – Zaremba, M., Rodinný a pracovný priestor životnej
oblasti žien. Problémy, konflikty a úspechy, Vydavateľstvo Litovskej
edukologickej inoverzity, Vilnius 2014.
5. Przybysz – Zaremba, M., Pomiędzy pracą a domem – narracja
kobiety przeciążonej rolami, [in:] Labor czy opus? Socjopedagogiczne
konteksty pracy ludzkiej, (Ed.) A. Dobrychłop, E. Kowalska, P. Prufer,
Oficyna Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego, Zielona Góra 2012.
6. Renzetti, C., M., Curran, D., J., Ženy, muži a společnost. Praha:
Karolinum 2003.
7. Smetáčková, I. 2006. Gender ve škole II. Příručka pro budoucí
i současné učitelky a učitele. [online]. Otevřená společnost: Praha. [cit.
2010-17-01]. Dostupné na:
8. http://www.osops.cz/cz/projekty/genderova-rovnost/publikacegender-ve-skole
311
Mariusz JĘDRZEJKO Prof.
University of Social Scienses (Poland)
Marzena NETCZUK-GWOŹDZIEWICZ Dr.
Agata KATKONIENĔ M. Ed.
Psychological and social aspects
of aggressive behaviour
Key words:
aggression, social relations, theories of aggression
Abstract:
Aggression becomes one of the key features of social relations and media
coverage, as a result of which essential part of children experiences various
types of aggression – from aggression on the roads, through computer games
and cartoons to transfer of politicians’ behaviors. The number of offensive
gestures and words passed on by people increases what makes them a
“normal” part of interpersonal relations. The authors analyze the problem
of aggressive behaviors from the perspective of chosen psychological and
educational theories, indicating a destructive influence of aggression on
interpersonal relations.
The modern world is characterized by paradoxes: we live longer and
constantly create new situations, behavior (behaviour) or substances that make
our lives- both individually and socially- more and more sick; the more we know
about what disturbs social relations, the more such problems are generated;
although we design devices that help with the functioning of various aspects in
our life, these same devices tend to be the source of threats and addiction; the
314 Mariusz Jędrzejko, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Agata Katkonienĕ
more we expand freedom, the more we turn it into willfulness and playfulness.
Thus, almost every positive deed of a man is accompanied by his denial, among
others, taking a form of risky behavior, addictions, compulsive or aggressive
actions. Often negative behavior and consequences coexisting together make
even greater havoc in social, somatic and mental health. We are making this
observation as critical hazards to a man generates a man himself, and his life in
the twenty-first century, the age of technology and insatiable desire to possess
is full of numerous stresses, aggression and self-destruction. As Erich Fromm
writes: ‘As the society which we live in is overwhelmed with the desire to
acquire properties and crave for profit, we rarely see the evidence of existential
modus being, and most people see the modus of possessing as the most natural
way or realizing existence…’ (Fromm, 2012, p.47). We emphasize that it is
precisely the relation to the world in which material goods are becoming more
and more a key factor in ‘defining’ position and values of a man, and the man
alone lives in an ever deeper stress.
Interesting reference is also presented by Jan Borkowski who points
out that a modern man is not only unsafe, but also…dangerous. The author
points out that ‘[…] a threat is any factor, a phenomenon, a natural and (or)
civilizational process having destructive potential, which in certain broadly
defined difficult situations can harm important material and (or) immaterial
values’ (Borkowski, 2011, p.15).
In the light of large literature, factors which threaten a man can be
cataloged as tangible or intangible, including in the former, among others,
physical violence, drugs, alcohol, crime, war, terrorism, unemployment, work
overload; the latter includes dependence of a man, destructive ideologies,
psychological violence, digital overload (information) and the entire package
of behavioral addictions. There are also types of risk in between both groups,
such as behavioral addictions. Sometimes what threatens a man is described
as a social pathology (extreme deviation from the norm), resulting in a
syndrome of assumed threats affecting an individual or a social group, the
outcome of which is weaker individuals becoming their victims. The most
common disorders threatening a man in psychological and/or somatic sphere
include aggression- below are some of its symptoms from March 2014:
• violent behavior of supporters at the game of Polish football teams
Jagiellonia Białystok- Legia Warszawa, which led to its break and
required intervention of large police formations;
• TV media coverage with manifestation of various forms of violence
accompanying the Russian invasion of the Ukraine (Crimea), showing
not only brutality, but also the powerlessness of the international
community;
Psychological and social aspects of aggressive behaviour
• the language of aggression in Polish politics, far from conciliation and
dispute through dialogue;
• aggression on the road by cutting off, insulting, dangerous maneuvers,
threatens and aggressive gestures (TV reports and personal
experiences);
• new aggressive computer games (addressed to a young audience),
where killing is the most effective way of survival ‘in the battlefield’.
In the literature aggressive behavior is portrayed as a feature of modern
times, with what is characteristic of recent decades is the emergence of
entirely new types of aggression, such as cyberbullying, stalking, grooming,
aggressive advertising. Their plurality, severity and disclosure in almost all
age groups of the society encourages to study the etiology of this phenomenon
(see: Braslauskiene, Jonutyte, 2005).
Picture 1. Some features of modern threats of aggression
Prevalence of mass media on aggression- TV, the cinema, computer
games
New types of aggression (cyber aggression, football fans fights, labour
exploitation, false financial offers)
New types of aggression
Complex models of aggression- multifaceted aggression (e.g. emotional
abuse at work and home psychological and physical violence)
Increasingly lower age of contact
with aggression
Language of hatred and enmity in
politics and social interaction
The difficulty of identifying the
actual aggressor
Promotion of new electronic devices
that teach children and the youth
various forms of violence and killing
Source: own work.
Although aggression for years has been focusing attention of researchers
interested in human behavior, it was impossible to find a single definition
and concept to explain it in terms of psycho-social aspect, however, it seems
reasonable that the social space itself, types of economic life and models of
human life1 create the conditions for aggressive human attitudes- below there
are five such examples (see: Indrašienė, Suboč 2012, s. 233-242):
• work, one of the key human needs, has adopted many antihumanist
faces, for example, workaholism, physical fatigue, new forms of
exploitation, the so-called junk contracts, unemployment, economic
migration;
1
E.g. getting longer evening-night and weekend work.
315
• family, as a key form of collective human functioning, goes through
a multidimensional crisis (divorces, aggression as a form of relieving
marriage crises, unstable partnerships, economic separation);
• socio-economic dichotomism (e.g. social development according to
the model 4xB - the poor get poorer, the rich get richer2);
• quickened growing of children and adolescents (as a result of a ‘chemical’
nutrition of children and the strong impact of media technologies);
• system aggression in which state institutions or model of its functioning
is based on aggression and violence.
Colloquially, aggressive behavior is understood to be hostile aimed at
harming someone: physically or mentally. Most researchers believe that
aggression can be discussed only when accompanied by a clear intention
to harm someone (Kenric, Neuberg, Cialdini, 2002 p.487). On the other
hand, other scientists consider it regardless of intentions, treating it as a
tool to achieve personal goals of a given person (Hamer, 2005, p.76). No
matter what analytical perspective is, we see that the result of aggression
are multidimensional losses, some of which are revealed immediately, while
others can accompany a man for many years- even a lifetime.
There are many concepts seeking answers to the question what the causes
of aggression are. Some authors are of the opinion that it is innate instinctive
human trait, others argue that aggressive behavior must be learnt (Skorny,
1989, p.188). These theories can be ordered in two basic groups:
• psychosocial theories
• biological theories.
Let us emphasize here that the specificity of aggression compels the
researchers to diagnose entirely different conditions and processes of ‘states of
aggression’: the other conditions will be sought in the diagnosis of aggression
directed towards the supporters of democracy in Afghanistan, the forces of
radical ideology, another in the’ collisions’ of supporters of football teams,
yet another in aggressive attitudes of Internet users. However, despite these
differences, one can see some ‘grounds’ and specific features that, despite
dissimilar aspect of aggressive behavior, indicate the existence of primary
common parallel similarities of a state development which leads in the end to
an aggressive attack.
Relevant is also indication that a man has internal ‘features of aggressor’
which should be understood not as assurance of its occurrence, but of its
potentiality.
2
In 2013 14.5 thousand Poles (in 2012- 13.3 thousand) declared income over 250
thousand euro. In the same year the number of families applying for social assistance
increased.
Tabel 1. „Activating” potentials of aggression through external factorsexample3
External condidion
Long stay among the same soldiers on
duty in the event of an external threat
(Polish battalion of UNPROFOR force
on the area of the former Jugoslsavia)
Rections ohserved
- verbal aggression in relations among
soldiers,
- jostling,
- taunting and insulting other person,
- beating attempts,
- serious injury to a soldier, and as a result the
victim dies,
Long-term use of amphetamines
- son’s aggressive behaviour towards parents,
- thefts of house property,
- physical extortion of money from the
mother,
- severe beating of a father standing up for
the mother,
- verbal aggression towards parents,
- physical resistance during attempts to limit
playing,
- physical attack on the mother with the use
of the knife,
No modeling of child - digital
technology relation - repeated long
hours of playing
Source: own work
Aggression as an inborn tendency
One of the first psychologists who analyzed aggression in this perspective
– and then gave to this a broad theoretical dimension- was Sigmund Freud.
He assumed that since the day of being born a man has two contradictory
instincts: the instinct of life (Eros), which promotes the fact that the body
develops and maintains the life, and the death instinct (Tanatos) working
towards self-destruction of an individual. He believed that the death
instinct is often directed outward, against the surrounding world, in the
form of aggression towards others. According to Freud, the energy of death
instinct is constantly generated in the human body, and if it cannot ‘unload’
in small doses and in socially acceptable manner, then it will accumulate
and eventually discharge in an extreme and socially unacceptable form.
(Zimbardo, Ruch, 1998, p. 584). Freud presented graphically the energy,
comparing it to the water accumulating in the tank and finally pouring out
from it in some aggressive action. However, it may be discharged in different,
more ‘safe’ ways, including here catharsis, in which emotions are expressed
Based on personal research and analysis resulting from professional practice of the
authors from the years 1996, 2009, 2010.
3
317
with full intensity, e.g. by crying, by words, by verbal behaviour or other
symbolic measures. Some experimental support for this concept can be found
in studies by William Sears and Geoffrey Megargee. Let us remind, however,
that Freud’s theory, despite some data supporting it, is criticized by many
psychologists for not specifying precisely the factors which could be used to
predict the occurrence of aggression or direction and form which it will take
(Browne, Herbert, p.41).
Another theory which emphasizes inherent nature of aggression is
presented by Konrad Lorenz. Based on animal studies, he alleged an argument
that ‘aggression is an innate spontaneous readiness to fight, which is essential
for the organism to survive’ (Zimbadro, Ruch,1998, p.584). However, in the
case of other species, acts of aggression between individuals belonging to the
same species rarely cause their actual injuries or death, because one of the
animals in the end indicates surrender or submission, which, for example, can
be observed in packs of wild dogs, herds of lions.
It can be assumed that in this case aggression is a way to position the
group hierarchy. According to Konrad Lorenz, in the relations between human
beings ways of inhibiting aggression have been lost while maintaining at
the same time the instinct of aggression and the ability to escalate it till the
critical final. Despite the fact that the researcher is trying to prove the analogy
between aggression among humans and animals, there is no doubt that there
are fundamental differences between them. Firstly, due to the characteristic of
the human ability to remember and evaluate, their actions are often a reaction
to the memories and ideas, not to the current situation. Secondly, because of
their ability to make tools and to plan, they can intentionally inflict almost
unlimited damages, not even experiencing aggressive feelings and not going
into personal interactions with their victims. Let us also add that the work of a
man can activate numerous acts of aggression, which once initiated no longer
require additional parts of a perpetrator, for example, as a cyberagression.
Noteworthy is the fact that more systematic observations have shown that
the only difference between humans and animals given by Konrad Lorenz, in
fact, does not exist. The reactions of animals to submissive behavior on the
part of others are very diverse, as it is in the case of humans. It is difficult to
predict the circumstances in which signs of weakness and submission will
cause sympathy and in which they will simply stimulate even more intensive
acts of violence (Zimbadro, Ruch, 1998, p.589).
Nowadays the concept of innate biological conditions is treated with
reserve, as the concepts of genetic or biological ‘inferiority’ have been once
and for all disgraced by genocide, as a method for introducing ‘racial purity’.
It should be believed, however, that the same social and environmental
conditions do not give rise yet to predict whether someone will become a
perpetrator of violence or not?
Another factor contributing to the development of aggression is a personality
type, and personality tests show that offenders differ psychologically from
the so-called honest people.
The research shows that criminals are assertive, aggressive, unconventional, extrovert and unfit. A typical criminogenic personality included: lack of respect for the
value, social maladjustments, lack of inclination to conformism and lack of understanding social control.
The known examples- and including thousands of boys- are spectacular
studies which have shown that juvenile offenders, even three years before
they turned to crime, differed from colleagues in terms of instability, hostility,
impulsivity, irritability, self-centeredness and lack of contentment. Other
retrospective studies, involving 6,000 students, after 7 years have shown a
correlation between personality disorders in childhood and subsequent crime
(Górska, 2002, p.2)
It is assumed therefore that personality factor may be an important
predictor of aggressive behavior, whereas environment factors may enhance
them significantly.
Physiological basis of aggression
In literature there are also positions suggesting that aggression is an innate
phenomenon, as well as opinions indicating that the models are learnt. Still,
other researches put up the thesis that it comes to us instinctively. Studies
conducted in many research centres are looking for clues as to the actual
strength and significance of the causative agents of aggression. But what is
the truth?
Having looked for the answer for years, there appear studies and analyzes
indicating that the source of man’s aggressive behavior may be inherent in the
mechanisms and structures of the brain functioning. This might be related,
among others, to diseases involving the limbic system or the temporal lobe,
where people with this disorders are stated with the so-called syndrome of
lack of control, characterized by senseless brutality, pathological excitement,
sexual assaults or multiple causation of car accidents (Moir, Jesel, 1998,
p.85). It should be emphasized, however, that despite multiple studies
providing evidence of a hereditary, the base of aggressiveness is not clear.
The popular concept of ‘bad genes’ or ‘bad blood’ was supported by the
319
results of early studies, but in the subsequent analyzes it was stated that the
conclusions were sometimes biased and unreliable. In turn, in the 60s in 3% of
examined men staying on treatment in prison mental hospital the presence of
an additional chromosome Y was detected. However, although a statistically
significant percentage of inmates of prisons and mental hospitals belongs to
the type XYY, the numbers are too small and these people do not show more
aggressive behavior more than other inmates. Further studies on a larger
group of population showed that most of the extra Y chromosome carriers
are people whose signs of aggression have not gone beyond the statistical
norm (Szymborski 1996, p.23). However, the research aimed at providing
the genetic determinants of aggression are still in the process. Perhaps the
use of modern technology in the field of research into human DNA will soon
allow to settle the role of genes in the mechanisms of aggression. This issue
is waiting for the final decision.
Neurological and chemical determinants of
aggressive behavior
Any aggressive behavior of a man has its origin in the amygdala, and
intense stimulation of this area of the cerebral cortex can turn docile and
calm animals into aggressive beasts. Similarly, animals become mild after
discontinuation of supply of that stimulation to the amygdala (Moir, Jesel
1998, p.87), which honestly explain in their research Anne Moir and David
Jesel. The influence of social factors on this relationship can be seen, for
example, among the apes4
In the neurological theories the ‘blame’ for aggression is put to the damage
within the frontal and temporal lobes- the former are responsible for our
plans and actions, the latter however for consciousness and self - awareness.
Depending on where the damage is, we deal with other consequences. Damage
to the left frontal lobe and both temporal lobes triggers aggression, because
they control the emotions occurring in the amygdala (Górska 2000, p.2.)
If the area of the amygdala in the male monkey will be irritated and the individual
will stay in the presence of other members of his group then his behavior will depend
on the male position in the hierarchy, which is taken by an individual standing closest to
him in relation to the male. If this individual will stand lower in the hierarchy, then the
male will attack him. In the case where the same individual will become higher in the
hierarchy, then the male will prepare to flee.
4
Already quoted Anne Moir and David Jessel, reviewing studies of criminals’ brain,
they are of the opinion that the degree of the brain damage is proportional to the difficulty of the committed offense. The study of these authors show that 90% of the 2000
recidivists had organic damages mainly at the level of the frontal lobes.
Supporters of the explanation described here claim that brutal, impulsive,
insensitive and mindless behavior is associated with damages to the frontal
lobes or the limbic system and also temporal lobes; disorders occurring in the
latter may also cause sexual deviation.
In turn, according to James Dabbs, the cause of aggressive behavior is
testosterone. He found that free testosterone concentration was the cause
of violent crimes committed in 11 out of 22 patients (Gilbert, 1999, p.67).
However, one cannot forget about the other factors that affect this type of
behavior, for example, hormones are responsible for shaping the overall
patterns of behavior, whereas neutrotransitters mobilize the body to concrete
actions, allowing communication between different areas of the brain. Control
of our emotions and motivation is dependent on neurotransmitters secreted
in the neural pathways in the limbic system and brain stem- a particularly
important role in the regulation of aggressive behavior plays serotonin.
Interesting is also the fact that among women suffering from ‘premenstrual
syndrome’ the level of this neurotransmitter lowers, which can affect the
amount of crime committed by them at the time (Rutter, 1998, p.78).
The search for sources of aggression has led to a variety of tests conduct,
both animal and human studies that involved biochemistry of aggressive
behavior. It was found that reactions of this type promotes low concentration
of the metabolite (waste product) of serotonin in cerebrospinal fluid (Toch
1969, p.66). The conducted tests showed for example low level of serotonin
among American soldiers who could not control the aggressive behavior,
children maltreating animals, impulsive people and those who performed acts
of self-destruction. The studies have also shown that the level of serotonin
depends on biological and environmental factors, but it is generally higher in
men by 20-30% than in women (Moir, Jesel 1998, p.56)
The relationship between aggressive behavior and serotonin is not simple.
Relying on research by Coccaro, the researchers Olivier and Oorschota
emphasize that aggression is positively related with serotoninergic activity,
and the inverse relationship exists between the serotoninergic activity and
impulsive aggression with violent character (Kenric, Neuberg, Cialdini 2002
p.501). Lewis presents a correlation between high level of serotonin in the
blood and aggression, whereas Goveas and colleagues showed an inverse
correlation between aggression and serotonin level in the blood of patients
321
with personality disorders, which according to the authors, may reflect a
similar change in the central serotoninergic system. An important role in the
level of serotonin also play factors relating to the economic situation of the
family, type of diet, stress level and all socio-economic factors. It is believed
that more impulsive people have lower level of serotonin. The essential amino
acids needed for serotonin production can be provided to the body only with
food. The fact is that serotonin level drops when we do not eat. Thus, there is
a relationship between hunger and aggression (Rutter, 1998, p.48).
Also, changes in the amount of serotonin with age have been observed,
and thus: the level is high in infancy, it begins to fall in a difficult period of
puberty, and then it rises again. Due to the fact that impulsive people who
typically have low level of serotonin, the mechanisms responsible for glucose
concentration are damaged. Thus, the insulin concentration is high and this
results in aggression. Also, low levels of adrenaline and cortisol (reticular
activating system) causes this type of behavior (Moir, Jessel 1993, p. 56).
It is also believed that the offender needs a stronger incentive to achieve
the same effect than a person without conflict with the law. The study also
confirmed that in each of the hemispheres there is another concentration
of neurotransmitters – in the right hemisphere there is more serotonin and
noradrenaline, which are responsible for causing and suppressing emotions,
while the left one comes under control of dopamine, which manages the
concentration and selective attention deciding when to retrain and control
the emotions of the right hemisphere. Zimbardo thinks that dopamine
causes inhibition of impulses and thus further socially undesirable behavior
(Zimbardo 1998, p.584).
For the brain chemistry what is also important is lowered concentration
of glucose. Among impulsive people with lower concentration of serotonin,
mechanisms responsible for maintaining appropriate concentration of glucose
are damaged. We already know that high concentration of glucose in blood and
its deficiency occurs among aggressive people and antisocial individuals. It is
believed that there is a relationship between the concentration of serotonin,
alcohol consumption and crime, although this hypothesis still requires
clarification. Other studies have shown that people whose urine and blood
has less adrenaline are generally more aggressive and have the tendency to be
destructive (Gromska, 2002, p.241). It also turns out that a violent offender
needs a stronger stimulation than an average person (Gelles, 2000, p.67).
As it was already mentioned, serotonin deficiency causes the same effect
as an excess of testosterone in the body, that is, increased level of aggression
(Zimbardo 1998, p. 592). Prisoners convicted of offenses with the use of
physical violence were found with higher level of testosterone than other
prisoners. On this basis, it is therefore evident analogous relationship which
applies to both men and women. This raises the question of whether or not,
due to the fact that men have more testosterone, they are more aggressive
than women? Experiments and laboratory tests conducted by Eleanor
Maccoby and Carol Jacklin, which included children from different social
classes and cultures prove the truth of this thesis (Aronson, 2006, p.56). They
proved that no matter the circumstances boys tend to be more aggressive
than girls. Moreover, this relationship is evident, as mentioned before, among
adult offenders where the vast majority is men who commit crimes with the
use of physical violence (murders or assaults), where women are usually
guilty of the crimes against properties (thefts or forgeries) (Herzberger,1999,
p.56). So what is the cause of the stated differences? Do they have a social or
biological character? These questions are still unanswered, but according to
James Wilson and Richard Hermstein, the existing differences in the severity
of aggression between the sexes have their biological background (Gilbert,
1999, basis (Gilbert, 1999, p.45).
Over the last 35 years there has been no increase in crimes committed against life and
health among the population of adult women (considering the data on male population), while there has been an increase in the number of offenses committed by them
without the use of physical violence. This may be related to the changes in the role a
woman plays in the society. Other researchers point to the particularly rapid increase
in aggressive behavior among young teenage girls and the fact that physical aggression performed by them is nearly as intense as the boys.
In the recent references in literature and conference speeches we have also
found other suggestions on possible reasons for the increase in aggressive
behavior among teenagers:
• consumption of large quantity of products containing high doses of
preservatives, dyes and other chemicals;
• copying aggressive behavior seen in the media and society;
• copying patterns of aggression from aggressive computer and network
games;
• overwork of young people as a result of shorter sleep;
• very fast pace of life, beyond the psychophysical strength;
• increase of aggression in the so-called problematic families.
From numerous studies, we know that men, regardless of their culture, are more likely
to show aggressive behavior, and on the basis of data on the number of crimes and
offenses it can be concluded that in 9 male offenders there is 1 woman.
323
Similarly men are more likely to risk with alcohol, cigarettes and drugs,
for example, in Poland in the group of over 16 – year olds about 70% of
those experimenting with drugs are men. However, Alice Eagly and Valerie
Steffen, on the basis of a review of previous studies, argue that in this case
there are no such significant differences between the sexes (Aronson, 2006,
p.50).
Summarizing the factors which genetically determine crime the following
should be mentioned: low intelligence, low susceptibility of the brain to
stimulate, low concentration of serotonin, injuries and diseases in the life
of an individual and negative environmental effects ( copying patterns of
aggression5). These are factors of behaviour.
Alcohol and aggression
Based on observation and research, it has been proved that 75% of suspects
of a crime (such as robbery, rapes or murders) is under the influence of
alcohol while being stopped (Zimbardo, 1998, p.600). This is because alcohol
effectively frees from any limitations revealing all the original aspirations
and desires6 and it works as a remedy lowering the resistance against the
behaviour disapproved by society. It triggers aggression in people who are
prone to it and, analogically, calm and affection in someone who longs for
closeness. Alcohol apparently interferes with the normal mechanisms of
information processing (Kinney 1996, p.35).
We know that the cases of sexual abuse7 among children or their emotional,
economic, educational, biological neglect are clearly more frequent among
women with alcohol problems than women who do not have such problem.
The theory of social learning developed by Albert Bandura (1973) – a man learns
aggressive behavior as a result of receiving rewards for such behavior, or watching someone else is being rewarded for it.
6
According to numerous studies, there is a bidirectional relationship between alcohol and violence (see Reiss, A.J., Jr., Roth, J.A., eds. Understanding and Preventing
Violence, vol. 3. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1994). They show that not
only may alcohol consumption promote aggressiveness but also the victims of violence
may drink excessive amounts of alcohol.
7
These thesis can be found in the discussion of the study presented by B.A. Miller
entitled Investigating links between childhood victimization and alcohol problems, [in:]
S.E. Martin, S.E.(ed.) Alcohol and Interpersonal Violence, .NIAAA Research Monograph No. 24/1993, s. 315-323.
5
Could external conditions, pain and discomfort be
the cause of aggressive behaviour?
The best studied out of welfare environmental factor which causes violent
relationships is high temperature. Its effect on aggression is confirmed not
only by common observations and experimental studies, but also by statisticsthe biggest number of violent crimes are committed in those states in the
USA where the summers are long and hot. Many studies have also indicated
an unfavourable role of crowding, as highlighted for the first time, while
observing the burst of aggression in rats forced to live in crowded places
(Kenric, Neuberg, Cialdini, 2002 p. 498).
Long lasting traffic jams and unfavourable situations on the road are a strong stimulator of aggressive behavior. Also, a relationship between verbal and physical aggression with those gatherings where there is a confrontation team, e.g. grandstandswhere there are fans of opposing teams.
Similarly, one can refer to the example of people in prison and those
causing riots, in which the most frequent reason is seen in an excessive
crowding, leading to uncontrolled aggression. According to the study by
Leonard Berkowitz, which included s group of students, it was found that
those who had their hands dipped in cold water more often reacted with
aggression to the people standing nearby (Aronson, 2006, p. 29). It was also
found that factors such as heat, air pollution and low humidity may also affect
the increase in the tendency to aggression among humans. An interesting
experiment was conducted in laboratory conditions by William Griffit and
Russel Veitch. The students were divided into two groups that were placed
in two separate rooms in which the temperature was different (in one, it was
normal, in the other it was 27 degrees Celcius). The respondents from the
‘overheated’ room said about growing aggression and hostility towards the
people whom they had to evaluate and describe (Kenric, Neuberg, Cialdini,
2002, p.498).
Conclusions
All psychosocial and environmental factors associated with the formation
and regulation of aggressive behavior remain in mutual relationship, and also
in interactions with biological factors. We are not able to fully understand
all the factors that cause the phenomenon of aggressive behavior. However,
our knowledge of the subject is wide enough to make attempts to prevent
325
aggression, we can make more effective interventions in the form of
psychological counseling for families and people who are particularly at
risk.
Various ways of explaining the causes of aggression are useful because
they highlight the diversity of factors involved in the occurrence of violence.
Paul Gilbert claims that violence cannot be explained by a single factor, as
it is a multi-faceted phenomenon (Gilbert 1999, p.35). In contrast, Irena
Pospiszyl-like many other researchers- is of the opinion that there is no need
to look for specific clinical reasons for motives of using violence (although
certainly they are also present), it is enough to say that in most repeated cases
such behavior simply pays off (Pospiszyl, 1998, p.56). Violence is attractive
because in most situations it is effective. It gives instant results, a sense of
power and possibility of immediate use, from an attempt to discipline to the
enforcement of appropriate behavior.
In all probability, a part of aggressive behavior is the result of the offender’s deliberately planned strategy, under which they intend to achieve their goal, knowing that the
victim of this violence will not cope or will be scared of them. In this sense, violence
is nothing but a means to achieve the goal.
Bibliography:
1. Aronson E., Psychologia społeczna - umysł i serce, Pub. „Zysk i S–ka”,
Poznań 2006.
2. Braslauskiene R., Jonutyte I., Vaike agresyvaus elgesio prevencija
ugdymo institucijose: mokomoji knyga, Klaipedos universiteto leidykla,
Klaipeda 2005.
3. Browne K., Herbert M., Zapobieganie przemocy w rodzinie, Państwowa
Agencja Rozwiązywania Problemów Alkoholowych, Warszawa 1999.
4. Gelles R. J., An exchange/control theory. The Dark Side of Families:
Current Family Violence Research, Beverly Hills 2000.
5. Fromm E., Mieć czy być?, Pub. Dom Wydawniczy Rebis, Poznań 2012.
6. Gilbert P., Male voilence: towards an integration. Routledge Press,
London 1999.
7. Górska J., Anatomia przemocy. Przemoc a neurobiologia, Psychiatria w
Praktyce Ogólnolekarskiej, tom 2, nr 4/2002.
8. Hamer H., Psychologia społeczna. Teoria i praktyka, Pub. Difin,
Warszawa 2005.
9. Herzberger S. D., Przemoc domowa. Perspektywa psychologii społecznej,
Warszawa 2009.
10. Kinney J. Lepton G., Zrozumieć alkohol, Państwowa Agencja
Rozwiązywania Problemów Alkoholowych, Warszawa 1996.
11. Indrašienė V., Suboč V., Šeimos pagalba vaikui patiriančiam mokymosi
nesėkmes, (w:) L. Hurło, M. Przybysz-Zaremba (eds.), Społecznopedagogiczne aspekty życia rodziny, Oficyna Wydawnicza Prospekt,
Olsztyn 2012.
12. Kenric D. Neuberg S., Cialdini R., Psychologia społeczna, Pub. Gdańskie
Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdańsk 2002.
13. Moir A., Jesel D., Zbrodnia rodzi się w mózgu. Zagadka biologicznych
uwarunkowań przestępczości, Pub. Wydawnictwo Książka i Wiedza,
Warszawa 1998.
14. Moir A., Jesel D., Płeć mózgu, Pub. Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy,
Warszawa 1993.
15. Pospiszyl I., Przemoc w rodzinie, Pub. Wydawnictwa Szkolne i
Pedagogiczne, Warszawa 1998.
16. Reiss, A.J., Roth, J.A., (eds.), Understanding and Preventing Violence,
vol. 3, National Academy Press, Washington 1994.
17. Rutter M., Aggression and the family, London 1998.
18. Szymborski J., W poszukiwaniu genu agresji, Wiedza i Życie, no
10/1999.
19. Toch H., Violent Man, Chicago 1969.
20. Zagrodzka J., Skąd w nas tyle zła, Wiedza i Życie, no. 11/2009.
21. Zimbadro P. G., Ruch F., Psychologia i życie, Pub. Wydawnictwo
Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1998.
22. Wolfgang M., The Subkulture of Violence. Tavistock, London 1998.
327
Sense of Coherence versus Styles of Stress Management among Soldiers Leaving...
Artur GOŁĘBIOWSKI Dr.
Marzena NETCZUK-GWOŹDZIEWICZ Dr.
Mariusz JĘDRZEJKO Prof. Dr.
Centre of Social Prevention (Poland)
Sense of Coherence Versus Styles of Stress
Management Among Soldiers Leaving
for Peacekeeping Missions
Abstract:
The project addresses the problem of a sense of coherence and styles of
life management among soldiers leaving for a mission. The study area
consisted of 75 professional soldiers with overseas missionary experience
from the 10th Armoured Cavalry Brigade from Świętoszów. In their
military career, they lived for a long time in harsh conditions performing
demanding tasks that required combat. According to the previous studies1,
the relationship between the sense of coherence and the choice of style of
managing in a stressful situation was observed. It has been verified that
the sense of coherence is connected with the style of coping in stressful
situations. The higher the level of sense of coherence, the more one can
expect the style of coping focused on the task.
Key words:
sense of coherence, styles of coping, health, combat stress
330 Artur Gołębiowski, Marzena Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, Mariusz Jędrzejko
Stress in military service
Stress accompanies us every day, in the street, at home, especially at work.
There are professions, in which it plays a significant role. Often difficult
decisions, that might decide about someone’s life, are made in difficult
conditions. Such profession for sure is the work in the army. Since the dawn
of time a soldier was a man who was strong and formidable among people
(Łosiak, 2007, p. 45). It was usually believed that a warrior is someone
deprived of emotions, feelings, someone who is always able to ruthlessly
kill another human being. The myth went down after many years, when the
problem among soldiers with stress related to combat was noticed. At first,
it was considered a sign of weakness, therefore these disorders were named
differently, which was aimed at protecting fighting people from shame of
cowardice. In subsequent years the problem was recognized and people
began to study it (Figley, Nash, 2010, p. 32).
The first publication discussing battlefield stress problems in the medical
literature appeared in 1678. Its author Hoffer described the disease, which
affected Swiss mercenaries serving in France. There appeared symptoms that
Hoffer described as depression, persistent melancholy, constantly thinking
about home, sleep disorders, insomnia, fatigue, loss of appetite, anxiety, heart
palpitations, stupor, fever. It happened that soldiers fell into madness and
died4. These symptoms started to be commonly called as nostalgia. Until
the nineteenth century, many people thought that nostalgia symptoms were
caused by pathological changes in internal organs of patients, but they were
not connected with mental health problems (Strelau, 2004, p. 56).
The concept of nostalgia was widely used until the World War I, when
there appeared changes in the diagnosis and methods of treatment of soldiers
suffering from stress connected with chronic exposure to the front line.
Initially, the soldiers who did not cope with the combat stress were diagnosed
as suffering from hysteria, which was, as it was believed, caused by the loss of
the will to fight, laziness or demoralization. These soldiers were evacuated to
the hinterland and provided with rest. In some cases, the symptoms subsided,
but most of them were dismissed from service (Figley, 1978, p. 22).
After a long stay at the front and participation with battles, soldiers
suffered from headaches and dizziness, concentration problems, forgetfulness,
nightmares. The symptoms were exacerbated, interalia, due to lack of sleep.
Doctors pointed to combat stress - related disorders called artillery shock or
trenches neurosis. It was noted that the trenches neurosis affected mainly
soldiers with no injuries. Practically they were not present among the injured
ones, as a result of being shot or hit with shrapnel wounds.
The experience of War World II, included in the works of Kardiner, Spiegel
and Grinker, provided a new perspective on nosology and treatment of stressrelated consequences of the war. Of great significance was the scientific
evidence that the anxiety may be rooted in the realities of the battlefield,
and that the stress of combat is not a homogenous phenomenon, but rather
a process developing with acute and chronic phases which must be carefully
monitored so that it can be properly diagnosed (Terlak,2001,p. 54). In the
seventies of the twentieth century, due to the neuropsychiatric conditions 60%
of soldiers were withdrawn from Vietnam. Alcohol abuse and drug addiction
took on the nature of epidemic. A major problem became the assimilation
of veterans into civilian life and their re-assimilation with American society
(Figley, 1978, p. 32).
Based on the Israeli experience of the war in 1973, we can conclude that just
a few hours of fighting can lead to large losses of mental health. They could
not be caused due to the exhaustion. Among other reasons, Israeli scientists
prefer the term CSR – Combat Stress Reaction - battlefield stress response,
fight fatigue – manifested by anxiety, psychomotor inhibition, withdrawal,
increased sympathetic nervous system stimulation, stuttering, loss of control,
dissociation, nausea, vomiting, confusion (Figley, Nash, 2010, p. 24).
In many armies, CSR is defined as a disorder of functioning, taking place
when the soldier ceases to perform his duties and acts in a way that threatens
him and his fellow fighters. It can be said that CSR is a soldier’s inability
to cope with traumatic stress and to take appropriate action in the face of
stress. During operations in the Persian Gulf, apart from fighting exhaustion
syndrome, there were disorders caused by remoteness from family and fatigue
(Bryant, Harvey, 2011, p. 24).
Thanks to the doctors of psychiatry and psychologists, the evacuation from
the area of military action was reduced by half due to psychiatric reasons12.
An Israeli definition of CSR is another option of naming the reactions of
some of the soldiers in the face of combat stress. The term operating stress
(Figley, 1978, p. 32) is also used. However, there is a widespread use of the
term PTSD. Among the population exposed to stressors, PTSD is in the range
from 36% to 75%.
Currently, terrorism and numerous conflicts around the world have
transformed the foreign policy of many countries. The strategy of safety in their
own countries is involving soldiers in foreign missions, often in distant lands
and harsh conditions. In addition to stabilization missions, Polish soldiers are
sent on a typical combat missions, such as in Afghanistan. A sense of danger
and the related stress is common among soldiers (Korzeniewski, 2008, p. 43).
Deprivation of human life, especially when it is not our intention and happens to
331
be under the influence of increased excitement and stress, becomes a traumatic
experience and carries a heavy psychological cost. Personality and anxiety
disorders, persecution manias are only some of the troubles that literally keep
one awake at night (Carson, Butcher, Mineka, 2003, p. 32). Grossman writes:
the burden of killing is so huge that most people try not to admit to have human
life on their conscience. They deny killing in front of others and try to deny the
murder out of their own consciousness (Grossman, 2010, p. 45).
Among the veterans, nearly 10-30% meet the criteria for post-traumatic
stress. The scale and the importance of this phenomenon indicates, inter alia,
the need to improve the method of selecting soldiers to units designed for
military and peacekeeping operations17. The Scandinavian experience shows
that a good mental condition before taking actions significantly affects the
good functioning during the operation, as well as after returning home. What
becomes important is to recognize the risk factors of PTSD and the occurrence
of traumatic events and PTSD among various population subgroups (Dudek,
2003, p. 35).
The sense of coherence
and stress management styles
A detailed issue which was attended relates to the sense of coherence
and the styles of managing stress among soldiers leaving for missions. An
interested approach to health seemed to be presented by Antonovky. The
researcher’s revolutionary character of the idea to define health is based on
using the salutogenetic perspective that is health - oriented. The researcher
assumes that the normal state of human functioning is a dynamic state of
unstable balance. A man constantly experiences stimuli (stressors) to which
he reacts and adjusts in order to maintain a dynamic balance of life processes
at a certain optimal level of functioning (Antonovsky, 2005, p. 23). The sense
of coherence has been defined by Antonovsky metaphorically as ‘the key to
health’. It is an internal, central factor that causes people to cope with stress,
not to get sick and quickly to return to health.
According to the researcher, people with a strong sense of coherence
have a tendency to pro-health behaviour. Taking into account the concept
of a sense of coherence, one could detect the new rules governing human
resistance to disease (Antonovsky, 2005, p. 24). The sense of coherence is
a general attitude of orientation, expressing an ongoing and dynamic belief
in the predictability and rationality of the world and one’s own position in life
(Heszen, 2008, p. 98).
The components of coherence are:
• Asense of rationality – arises from the fact that a man perceives the incoming information as ordered, consistent and clear, allowing it to be
understood. Thus, there arises the feeling that events can be understood.
• A sense of resourcefulness – determines the extent to which a man
perceives availableresources as sufficient in order to meet the requirements posed by incoming stimuli. Having a sense of resourcefulness,
a person does not feel helpless but feels that the difficulties and surprises of life can be remedied.
• A sense of reasonableness – determines the extent to which a person
feels that life makes sens, that the demands of life are worth the commitment and effort. It is a motivational-emotional component. People
with a high sense of reasonableness take the challenges of life, search
for meaning and make an effort to solve problems and deal with them
(Heszen, 2013, p. 78).
The components of a sense of coherence remain with each other in
certain relationships. It is assumed that the most important is the sense of
reasonableness. When it is strong, the other components tend to increase,
and when it is weak, the whole complex is in decline. A sense of coherence
is a changeable personality that has the structure of beliefs about the world,
the person itself and its relation with the world (Brzeziński, Cierpiałkowska,
2008, p. 67). Functionally speaking, this variable is motivated to undertake
activities to cope with the requirements and thanks to regulatory functions it
controls the choice of resources to meet the requirements. Empirical studies
show that the sense of coherence has a positive effect, in a differentiated
manner, direct and indirect, on health and effectiveness of coping with stress.
Highly developed sense of coherence mobilizes a person to act (probably due
to a sense of reasonableness (Antonovsky, 2005, p. 32). In the course of this
activity, cognitive schema and and competences are activated in order to help
one to reduce the effects of stressors or to evaluate them as positive stimuli
or burdensome regulatory mechanisms (Łosiak, 2004, p. 33). When assessing
stressors, challenge dominates; a human mobilizes his abilities, so that he can
cope with the requirements of life. This allows the tension not to turn into
chronic stress and negative health consequences. Success, on the other hand,
has an influence on fulfillment and development of resources, as well as on
strengthening the sense of coherence (Antonovsky, 2005, p 22). If, however,
the stressors are numerous and strong, a man suffers from a lack of resources,
and if the sense of coherence is weak one can expect that the tension will not
be effectively reduced and will change in stress, and this could cause the
collapse of health (Lis-Turlejska, 2002, p.56).
333
This model refers to the interactive concept of stress and managing
by Lazarus and Folkman. Its essence is to focus on effective coping. This
paradigm is focused on the search for the factors, forces and the properties
which can be described as negentrophical, or eliminating, overcoming or at
least weakening the state of entropy, which is assumed – as the natural state
of the human body (Heszen, 2013, p. 57).
Each of us presents various methods and strategies of coping with stress
that we have
developed in the process of socialization. Wrześniewski introduced
a distinction between three concepts: style, strategy and the process of coping
with stress. In our research, we focus on styles of managing stress, which
can be defined as a style typical of the individual behaviour in a variety of
stressful situations. It is regarded as a stable, personality disposition of the
individual to a particular struggle with stressful situations (Terlak, 2001, p.
76). According to Lazarus and Folkman, there are four basic ways to deal
with stress: the search for information, direct action, refraining from actions
and intrapsychic processes. Theoretical basis in the scope of stress coping
styles is the theory of coping styles by N.S. Endler and JD Parker. The authors
distinguish three styles of stress management:
• style focused on the task- characterized by people who, in stressful
situations, make an effort to solve the problem by cognitive
transforming or by trying to change the situation with a focus on
solving the problem,
• emotion - focused style- characterized by people prone to wishful
thinking and fantasizing, who in a stressful situation concentrate on
their experiences and emotions, the purpose of these activities is to
reduce the tension associated with the stressful situation,
• style focused on avoiding- which may take two forms; engaging in
alternative activities, such as watching television, overeating or seeking
social contacts (taking up another tasks) (Łosiak, 2007, p. 56).
Dealing with environmental requirements by a unit depends on intelligence,
special aptitudes, skills, knowledge, personality and temperament traits,
physical appearance characteristics, past experiences and current physical
and mental condition of the individual (Strelau, Jaworowka, Wrześniewski,
Szczepaniak, 2005, p. 56). Taking onto account the purpose and the nature
of peacekeeping missions and formulated on this basis tasks for the soldiers
taking part in them, the ability to cope with various threats not only has
a direct connection with their safety, but it mainly involves the provisions
of collective security (Gruszczyński, 2000, p. 67). It is clear that the areas
covered by the war are the territories commonly encountered threatening
situations, in which soldiers are forced to make many decisions, including
difficult moral choices.
Methodological basis of the research
The aim of our study was to examine the level of sense of coherence and
stress management styles among soldiers leaving for peacekeeping missions.
We were interested in: What is the sense of coherence and styles of stress
management among soldiers leaving for missions?
To give an exhaustive answer to the question posted in the above mentioned
main problem, the following detailed issues were formed:
• Is the sense of coherence associated with stress coping among people
going on missions?
• Are the people leaving on a mission different from each other in terms
of level of coherence?
The subjects
The study was conducted in 2012, with the participation of 75 soldiers
from 10th Armoured Cavalry Brigade from Świętoszów preparing to go on
missions. These were men. The age of the subjects ranged from 27 to 41
years old, SD 8,04. In the given group dominated higher education 67%, the
remaining 23% had secondary education. People were tested individually;
the standard procedure consisted of a questionnaire survey conducted during
one meeting.
The rate of sense of coherence and its components was based on:
• Life Orientation Questionnaire (SOC-29) by Antonovsky, consisting
of 29 items. The tool includes three scales: intelligibility (11 items),
resourcefulness (10 items), meaningfulness (8 items) (Antonovsky,
2004). Research in original and Polish version indicates that it has
a satisfactory level of reliability (Pasikowski, 2001, p. 45).
The indicator of stress management styles were the results of:
CISS questionnaire (Endler and Parker, 1999). The authors included in the
questionnaire three scales corresponding to the categories of distinguished
stress management styles. The first is focused on the specific task (16 items),
the second is the style focused on emotions (16 items), the third one is focused
on avoidance (16 items). The latter consists of two subscales: engaging in
alternative activities and seeking social contacts. The questionnaire consists
of 48 items (Sapolsky, 2011, p.67).
335
To describe the variables, descriptive statistics and distributions of variables
were used. The estimation of differences was based on F Fisher’s analysis
of variance test. The test compounds were performed by using Pearson’s
correlation coefficient. The test values satisfying the condition that p <0.05
were considered as significant statistical data. The analysis was performed
using STATISTICA 6.0.
Analysis and interpretation of test results
The analysis of the data shows that the average age of the respondents was
31 (the youngest person was 27, the oldest 41 SD 8.04).
Assessment of the level of coherence and its components (Table 1)
Table 1. Differences in the level of coherence and its components in the
test group
SUM OF Sense of
Sense of Sense of
GLOBAL reasonable- resource- rationality
SOC
ness
fulness
Variable Descriptive statistics (Coherence)
N
Average Trust
Trust
impor-95,000 +95,000
tant
%
%
Minimum
Maxsi- Standard Standard
mum
Diver- Mistake
gence
75 47,3600 45,3697 49,3503 24,00000
66,0000 8,65032 0,998853
75 50,5067 48,7012 52,3121 25,00000
66,0000 7,84714 0,906110
75 44,5333 42,8966 46,1700 24,00000
55,0000 7,11362 0,821410
75 142,4000 137,7020 147,0980 98,00000 184,0000 20,41925 2,357812
In the tested group of the three subscales of the sense of coherence
resourcefulness achieved the greatest result. The average was 50.50, the
minimum score was 25, maximum 66, standard divergence of 7.84. This
demonstrates the considerable diversity of the subjects.
In the case of intelligibility, the average was 47.36. It was lower than in
the case of resourcefulness, a minimum score was equal to 24, while the
maximum was 66, which is the same as the maximum result obtained in the
case of resourcefulness. The standard divergence of resourcefulness was 8.6,
with an average of 47.36. It can therefore be concluded that the intelligibility
differentiated the subjects.
When evaluating the reasonableness: a minimum score was 24, while the
maximum obtained by the respondents was 55, the standard divergence of
7.11, with an average of 44.53, it also exceeds 15% of the average value.
The average result of the global level of coherence was equal to 142.4, the
minimum score comprised 98, the maximum 184, and the standard divergence
was 20.4. The ratio of the standard divergence to the average value exceeded
39% of the average value. This indicates that the subjects were significantly
different from each other in a global sense of coherence.
Comparing the results of the study group with the research presented
by Antonovsky, it can be concluded that the respondents have a high sense
of coherence. Among the presented groups, they achieved a high level of the
sense of coherence.
Tabel 2. The result of the sense of coherence with the use of the
questionnaire (SOC- 29)
Population
American students
American psychology master’s students
Factory workers of the New York state
An attempt represented by residents of Israel
Tested group
Average
133.13
139.71
133.01
136.47
142,40
Source: Based on A. Antonovsky, Rozwikłanie tajemnicy zdrowia, Jak radzić sobie ze stresem i nie
zachorować.
Further evaluation was related to the application by the respondents of
different styles of tress management (Table 3).
The most common task was the style of the task. The average value was
62.44. Another frequently occurring style was the emotional style, with the
average equal to 38.32, while significantly less preferred style was the style
focused on avoiding, with the average of 8.1. The subscales of the style
focused on avoiding – alternative activities achieved and average of 17.28,
while social contacts- comprised an average of 16.13. In the case of the taskstyle, the minimum score was 45 points, with a maximum of 78, standard
divergence of 7.6. There is no difference in the task style.
Analyzing the emotional style, the average score was equal to 38.32,
minimum 25, maximum score of 60, the standard divergence equaled 8.4. That
is highly variable as it exceeded 20% of the average value. It can therefore be
concluded that the respondents differed strongly in terms of emotional style.
337
Style Focused on
Avoiding
seeking social
contact (SSC)
Style Focused on the
Task
Style Focused on
Emotions
Style Focused on
Avoiding engaging in
alternative
activities (EAA)
Variable
Variable
16,13333
17,28000
75
75
38,32000
15,24117 17,02550
16,14743 18,41257
36,38200 40,25800
8,00000
8,00000
25,00000
25,00000
30,00000
60,00000
3,877633 0,447750
4,922535 0,568405
8,423198 0,972627
Statystyki opisowe (Koherencja)
Statystyki
Variable
Statystyki
Variable Statystyki op- Variable
opisowe
opisowe
isowe
(Koherencja)
(Koherencja)
(Koherencja)
62,44000
60,68034 64,19966
45,00000 78,00000
7,648070 0,883123
Variable
75
Statystyki
opisowe
(Koherencja)
75
Table 3. Differences in the styles of coping with a difficult situation in the study group
The data obtained in the case of the avoiding style were the following:
the minimum score of 3, maximum 14, and the standard divergence of 8.04.
The respondents exceeded 27% of the average value, as in the case of strong
emotional style, they differed significantly.
Alternative activities also diversify the group. The minimum score was
8, the maximum 30, and the standard divergence of 4.9. In the case of social
contacts, the standard divergence comprised 3.8, with an average of 16.1,
which comprises approximately 23% of the average value. This allows one
to find much greater variation among the respondents.
Analyzing the obtained results, it can be concluded that the subjects did
not differ in the style focused on the task, but they differ in the style focused
on emotions and in the case of the style subscales focused on avoiding, that
is alternative activities and social contacts.
The analysis of the correlation between the variables of the sense of
coherence and the variables of stress coping styles showed the presence of
statically significant (with p < 0.05) strong correlation between the style
focused on the task and the sense of meaningfulness and global sense of
coherence. The results are presented in the Table 4.
Table 4. The connection between the level of the sense of coherence and
its components and styles of coping in the study group
Variable
Style Focused
on the Task
Style Focused
on Emotions
Correlations (Coherence)
Marked coordination correlates are significant with p < ,05000
Sense of
Sense of
Sense of
Sum
Intelligibility Resourcefulness reasonableness of SOC
,1232
,2072
,3568
,2561
N=75
N=75
N=75
N=75
p=,292
p=,074
p=,002
p=,027
-,5654
-,5991
-,5126
-,6483
N=75
N=75
N=75
N=75
p=,000
p=,000
p=,000
p=,000
-,1157
-,0667
-,2316
-,1553
N=75
N=75
N=75
N=75
p=,323
p=,570
p=,046
p=,183
Style Focused
on Avoiding
(engagement in
alternative activities)
Style Focused on
-,0135
Avoiding (searching N=75
for social contacts) p=,908
Style Focused
-,0328
on Avoiding
N=75
p=,780
,2362
N=75
p=,041
,0302
N=75
p=,797
,1360
N=75
p=,245
-,1885
N=75
p=,105
,1324
N=75
p=,257
-,0680
N=75
p=,562
339
The correlation ranged from 0.35 to 0.25, which means that the higher
the sense of coherence the tested person had, the more frequently the style
of coping with stress focused on the task is used. According to Antonovsky’s
theory, people with a strong sense of coherence tend to take effort to solve
the problem, change the situation or to restructure cognitively (Antonovsky,
2005, p. 56)
However, in the case of the emotion-focusd style, strong negative
correlations were achieved with the level of the sense of coherence; they
ranged from -0.51 to -0.64. The lower the sense of coherence, the more often
the tested person applied the style focused on emotions. People with a low
sense of coherence tend to focus on themselves, on their own emotional
experiences, they often feel anger, guilt, tension and have wishful thinking
(Sęk, 2001, p. 67).
In the group of soldiers leaving for missions, two groups were distinguished,
which differed significantly in the level of the sense of coherence. In the first
group there were people with a low sense of coherence, while in the second
group there were people with a strong sense of coherence. In order to check,
whether these two groups differ in the frequency of the use of particular styles
management stress, factor analysis with ravimax rotation was performed.
Table 5. Factor analysis
Variable
Sense of Intelligibility
Sense of Resourcefulness
Sense of Reasonableness
Style focused on a Task
Style focused on Emotions
Expl.Var
Prp.Totl
Style focused on a Task
Style focused on Emotions
Expl.Var
Prp.Totl
Factor Loadings (Varimax normalized) (Coherence-ost1)
Extraction: Principal components
(Marked loadings are>,500000)
N (valid observation)
Average
0,821087
0,055195
0,871002
0,232534
0,737741
0,458243
0,031922
0,960743
-0,849588
0,173942
2,699909
1,220388
0,539982
0,244078
0,031922
0,960743
-0,849588
0,173942
2,699909
1,220388
0,539982
0,244078
The conducted analysis showed the presence of differences in the average
frequency of using the style focused on the task and emotion-focused style for
selected groups. And so, the respondents from the second group- with a high
degree of coherence – often use the style focused on the task in comparison
with those of the first group – with a low sense of coherence. It indicated that
individuals with a higher sense of coherence using the style focused on the
task put the main emphasis on the task or on solving the problem.
The analysis of the use of the emotion-focused style for selected groups
also showed the presence of statistically significant differences in the average
frequency. Those of the second group – with a high degree of coherence –
rarely use the style focused on emotions, compared to those of the first grouphaving a low sense of coherence.
The subjects of the first group – with a low sense of coherence – more
often than those with a high sense of coherence concentrate on themselves,
on their own emotional experiences, they often feel anger, guilt, tension and
have wishful thinking (Bacon, Staudenmeie, 2003, p. 89).
The results of the analysis showed that the soldiers going on missions
show differences in the global level of the sense of coherence and its
components: meaningfulness, resourcefulness and intelligibility. The given
results indicate that people with a high sense of coherence often use the coping
style focused on the task. As Antonovsky puts it, the sense of coherence has
a very specialized functions in stress management. It is the kind of resource,
thanks to which a man has a feeling and belief based on experiencing the
environment as a constant, optimally loading and giving guarantee in making
important decisions (Dudek, 2003, p. 3).
The conducted research on the sense of coherence and the stress coping
styles allow to refer to the made hypothesis in our work.
(1) The results obtained by the soldiers leaving for missions testify to the
fact that they have a high sense of coherence and use the task-focused
style of coping with stress.
(2) The sense of coherence is associated with the preferred style of coping
with stressful situations. Soldiers with a higher level of coherence
often use the style of coping with stress focused on the task than on the
emotions.
The obtained results may help to answer the question of: how a person will
behave in the key moments of stress development and during treatment. This
will allow to avoid the development of emotional disturbances, and to obtain
better treatment effects. Therefore, it is so important to observe the behaviour
and the performance of soldiers by commanders during the realization of
tasks and missions in order to pre-diagnose the degree of ‘shock’ stress and
suitability for the use in the fight of a particular man as soon as possible.
Every person has different physical and mental strength, which do not always
go together. Until the twentieth century, the military thought assumed the
ideas of full exploitation of soldiers, and therefore there was no tendency
341
to diagnose the mental state of the soldiers. At the same time, in the armies
of NATO it is assumed that the cases of battlefield stress will comprise onefifth (20%) of the total combat loss rate. NATO medical planning indicator
also implies that a significant proportion of soldiers who develop battlefield
stress cases (BSC- Battle Stress Cases) may return to service providing
that the proper treatment towards them will be applied (Materiały do zajęć
z kształcenia obywatelskiego. Stres bojowy. Przyczyny, oznaki, zapobieganie,
2008, p. 43).
Combat stress is generated by many factors. The elements that affect
the soldier are the main components of the complex process of the combat
stress formation process. It mainly consists of physical and mental factors
(Tomaszewska, 2008, p. 27). It is similar in terms of emotional and social
issue, which is influenced by other people. Colleagues from the subdivision
and the commander have a significant impact on how a soldier returning from
a tragic mission will feel. Their own ways of coping with stress are also
important. A soldier as a person acting quickly and definitely should have the
style focused on the task. The examination conducted before joining the army
can give us the answer to the question whether this is the right person who can
cope with a stressful situation. Each soldier can be provided with discussions
on behaviour in a stressful situation, but their individual predispositions
define how they will be prepared for tough situations. The study confirms
the assumed hypothesis that the soldiers are properly focused on styles of
coping with stress. The existing condition should be maintained and there
should be focus on the adaptation of young soldiers who are particularly
susceptible to combat stress. The soldiers should be also encouraged to talk
with a psychologist and to use the help of specialists.
Conclusions
The research on a group of professional soldiers show that it should be
a group of people with the style of coping with the task-oriented stress. These
people focus on solving the problem. Their approach to the phenomenon of
stress is less emotional and they do not avoid confrontation with it. This helps
to control the stressful situation and to e lesser extent, affects a person. Thus,
the behaviour of the person who is focused on the task is easier to predict,
which is especially important in the use of weapons. This is especially
important on military missions, where very often there are situations in which
soldiers are exposed to high stress impact on their minds.
In the case of soldiers departing on a mission, determining the level of the
sense of coherence can be used as an index in predicting care for returning
from a mission. It seems that the proper selection for military service, training
based on the development of imagination and innovation can significantly
reduce the consequences of traumatic experiences of war. Analyzing the
findings of conflicts, combining them with new forms of training and soldiers
support, we can more effectively cope with the aftermath of war trauma.
The studies on the sense of coherence and various factors that may moderate
them in Poland have been conducted since recently. The relationship between
the sense of coherence and the functioning in terms of salutogenetic paradigm
of health is an important topic of scientific discussion. It is reasonable to
continue to conduct research in this area, which would include different and
more numerous groups of subjects, enabling objectification and generalization
of the conclusions.
Bibliography:
1. Antonovsky A., Rozwikłanie tajemnicy zdrowia: jak radzić sobie ze stresem i nie zachorować. Warszawa 2005.
2. Brzeziński J., Cierpiałkowska L., Zdrowie i choroba. Gdańsk 2008.
3. Bacon B. L., Staudenmeier J. J., A historical overview of combat stress
control, [in:] Military Medicine 2003.
4. Bryant R. A., Harvey A. G., Zespół ostrego stresu. Teoria, pomiar, terapia. Warszawa 2011.
5. Carson R. C., Butcher J. N., Mineka S., Psychologia zaburzeń. Człowiek
we współczesnym świecie. Gdańsk, 2003.
6. Cienin M., Chełpa S., Psychologia wojskowa. Warszawa 1998.
7. Dudek B., Zaburzenie po stresie traumatycznym. Gdańsk 2003.
8. Figley C. R., Nash W., Stres bojowy. Teorie, badania, profilaktyka i terapia. Warszawa 2010.
9. Figley C. R., Stress disorders among Wietnam veterans, New York,
1978.
10. Grossman D., O zabijaniu. Warszawa 2010.
11. Gruszczyński W., Zdrowie psychiczne żołnierzy. Łódź,2000.
12. Heszen I., Psychologia stresu. Warszawa, 2013.
13. Korzeniewski K., Zaburzenia psychiczne na współczesnym polu walki.
Waplewo, 2008
14. Korzeniewski K., Przyczyny ewakuacji do kraju żołnierzy Polskiego
Kontyngentu Wojskowego pełniących służbę w Iraku, Warszawa, 2005.
343
15. Lis-Turlejska M., Stres traumatyczny. Występowanie następstwa, terapia. Warszawa, 2002.
16. Łosiak W., Psychologia stresu. Warszawa 2004.
17. Łosiak W., Natura stresu. Spojrzenie z perspektywy ewolucyjnej. Kraków 2007.
18. Pasikowski T., Struktura i funkcje poczucia koherencji: analiza teoretyczna i empiryczna weryfikacja. [in:] Sęk H., Pasikowski T. (ed.). Zdrowie––Stres–Zasoby. Poznań 2001.
19. Sapolsky R., Dlaczego zebry nie mają wrzodów. Psychofizjologia stresu.
Warszawa 2011.
20. Sęk H., Salutogeneza i funkcjonalne właściwości poczucia koherencji
[in:] Sęk H., Pasikowski T. (red.). Zdrowie — Stres — Zasoby. Poznań,
2001.
21. Strelau J., Osobowość, a ekstremalny stres. Gdańsk 2004.
22. Strelau J., Jaworowka, A. Wrześniewski K., Szczepaniak P., Kwestionariusz Radzenia Sobie w Sytuacjach Stresowych CISS. Warszawa 2005.
23. Terlak J., Psychologia stresu. Bydgoszcz 2001.
24. Tomaszewska I, Stres służby wojskowej. Wybrane zagadnienia. Warszawa 2004.
25. Materiały do zajęć z kształcenia obywatelskiego. Stres bojowy. Przyczyny, oznaki, zapobieganie. Warszawa 2008.
Notes about the Authors
ALEKSIENĖ Vilmantė - Doctor of Social Sciences (Educational Sciences),
Associate Professor at the Department of Social Education, Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences; areas of scientific interests: music therapy,
socialization through arts, supervision.
Contact: [email protected].
AUGUTAVIČIUS Rimvydas - Master in Social Work, Lecturer at
MykolasRomeris University; coordinator of Family Strengthening
Programmesat SOS Children Villages of Lithuania, a member of General Social
Care Council. Fields of particular interest are family social case management
and mediation, social environment and influence of experience on human
behaviour. He is the leader of the group of social workers – supervision,
tutoring and management of the multidisciplinary professional groups.
Contact: [email protected]
BARKAUSKAITĖ LUKŠIENĖ Živilė - Master of Social Sciences
(Educational Sciences), Lecturer at MykolasRomeris University. She is
a lecturer in the project Tools of Creation and Implementation of National
Science Popularisation System and in the project Educational Science and
Technology Promotion Activities for Preschool Children „Preschooler“. She
participates at national and international scientific conferences. Areas of
research interests are modelling of educational process, (self-) development
of life skills, development of social competences, training of social workers
and teachers.
BUTVILAS Tomas - Assoc. Professor at the Institute of Educational Sciences
and Social Work at Mykolas Romeris University (Lithuania). An author of
more than 50 scientific and public articles, participant of many international
and local conferences. Tomas has participated in 6 internship programs
abroad. Scientific interests focus on children socialization, loss phenomenon,
social education issues and social research methodology.
346 Notes about the Authors
DANIELA Linda - Dr.paed., Associate professor and Senior researcher at
the University of Latvia; Expert in education at the Council of Sciences of
the Republic of Latvia; Scientific adviser of doctoral research and master’s
theses. Research interests include educational processes in school, behavioural
problems and solutions for reducing social exclusion in educational process.
She is an author or coauthor of 25 publications and several books.
DEVENSON Miglė - Bachelor Music Education, music teacher; areas of scientific interests: music education, pedagogical psychology, music therapy.
DONČEVOVÁ Silvia - graduated from master and doctor study in the
Department of Philosophy and History of Philosophy and the Department
of Pedagogy of the Faculty of Arts of Comenius University in Bratislava. At
present, she works as a fellow lecturer in the Department of Public Policy and
Public Administration at the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of
Ss. Cyril and Methodius at Trnava, where she was a vice-dean for study and
accreditation prior to her maternity leave.
DROMANTIENĖ Leta - Doctor of Humanities, Doctor Habilitus and
Professor of Social Science, Dean of Faculty of Social Technologies at
Mykolas Romeris University. Scientific interests: European social policy and
social cohesion, lifelong learning, management of higher education.
DUDAITĖ Jolita – Doctor of Social Sciences (Educational Science), Mykolas
Romeris University, Lithuania, Faculty of Social Technologies, Institute
of Educational Sciences and Social Work, Lecturer. Research interests:
methodology of Social Sciences, test theory, comparative educational
research, entrepreneurship, quality of education, quality of life.
GOŁĘBIOWSKI Artur – Cpt. - assistance lecturer at the Department of
Humanities at the General Tadeusz Kościuszko Military Academy of Land
Forces in Wrocław.
GUDŽINSKIENĖ Vida - Doctor of Social Sciences, Professor at
MykolasRomeris University; The member of Vocational Sector Committee
Health Care, Social Work, Beauty and Service. She is the Leader of the work
group of the project Multicultural Volunteering Centre: Mutual Harmony of
Lithuanian Society and Third-country Nationals. She is also Leader of the
work group of the project Food Consumption Quality and Social Exclusion.
She is scientific supervisor of doctoral students. She participates at national
and international scientific conferences. Areas of her research interests are
self-development of life skills; development of social competences; training
of social workers and teachers.
INDRAŠIENĖ Valdonė - Professor has been developing research in directions:
facilitation activity of an educator with respect to management of learning
problems and promotion of interest and motivation in learning; analysis of the
opportunities of social/pedagogical facilitation in team work; and analysis of
effectiveness; education of risk group children. She has a long-term experience
in preparation and management of national and international projects, including
research activity. Recently has done a three-year scientific research study of
assistance for children with socio-educational problems and their family. She
has 15 years experience of project work and 20 years experience of preparation
and implementation social work training programs.
JEGELEVIČIENĖ Violeta - Assoc. prof. of Social Communication
Department, Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work, Mykolas
Romeris University. Scientific interests: unsuccessful learning and motivation,
research methodology.
JĘDRZEJKO Mariusz – associate profesor; pedagogue, sociologist; scientific
director of the Social Prevention Centre; scientific interests: phenomenon of
drug addiction and new addictions, paradrugs, risky behaviour of juvenile,
pathological use of digital technologies.
KAROLCZAK–WAWRZAŁA Ewa - an English teacher at the University of
Silesia in Katowice and the Academy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza.
347
KATKONIENĖ Agata - a lecturer at Mykolas Romeris University for seven
years. Her main teaching subjects are Social Work Methodology and Social
Work with Family. Her scientific interests area includes such objects as social
assistance, social services, social welfare, career planning. Agata has practice
in social worker’s training courses and raising their competences. She is
a doctoral student of management and public administration, her thesis topic
is focusing on quality management models in social services for the family.
KIRLIAUSKIENĖ Rasa – Doctor of Social Sciences (Educational Sciences),
Associate Professor at the Department of Music, Lithuanian University of
Educational Sciences; areas of scientific interests: training of music teachers,
stage fright, self-Regulation.
MERFELDAITĖ Odeta – a Doctor of Social Sciences (Educational Science),
an associate Professor, at Mykolas Romeris University, Institute of Educational
sciences and Socialwork, Faculty of Socialtechnology. Scientific interests:
socialpedagogicalaid; child welfare and socialization.
NETCZUK-GWOŹDZIEWICZ Marzena – psychologist, psychotherapist,
special educaton teacher. Her main area of academic research interests concerns
the application of psychological knowledge for the issues of health, illness
and healthcare system. She is particularly interested in issues of promoting
healthy lifestyle and maintaining healthy form, the impact of psychological
factors on health and illness and the application of psychotherapeutic
techniques in assisting treatment.
She conducted the study, the aim of which was to describe psychosocial
functioning of women – victims of domestic violence undergoing therapeutic
interactions and to examine the effectiveness of the proposed therapeutic
offer. Through the researches based on the salutogenetic model, she analyzed:
A Life stress of soldiers departing on a mission – a sense of coherence and
coping mechanisms.
NORDSTRÖM-LYTZ Rita, PhD in the field philosophy of education, at Åbo
Akademi University in Finland. The dissertation is written in Swedish and
the title, translated into English, is “Encountering the Other. The twofold
educational task from the perspective of Martin Buber´s philosophy of
dialogue”. Working as a university teacher at the faculty of education, Åbo
Akademi University. Publications: Om språk för pedagogik i senmodern tid
(2008). In Michal Uljens (red.), det händer i pedagogiken. Röster om bildning
i det senmoderna (ss 99-110). Rapport från Pedagogiska fakulteten vid Åbo
Akademi, nr 23. Presence as silence in the educational encounter (2013)
In Henny Fiskå Hägg & Aslaug Kristiansen (Eds.), Attending to Silence.
Educators and Philosophers on the Art of Listening (ss 81-92). Kristiansand:
Portal Academic. Att leva med eller bredvid den andra - om närvaron som en
didaktisk dimension. I Birgit Schaffar (red.), Filosofins didaktik. Filosofiska
betraktelser om att lära sig tänka (ss 139-152). Stochkolm. Thales.
PIESTRZYŃSKI Wojciech - Assistant Professor in the University of Social
Studies and Economics in Gdansk. Research interests: psychological and
pedagogical aspects of aging, psychology of human development in the
context of one’s psychosexuality, social pedagogy, health security.
PIVORIENĖ Jolanta - an associated professor at Mykolas Romeris
University, Institute of Educational sciences and Social work, Faculty of
Social technology (Vilnius, Lithuania). Research interests: social problems,
social changes.
PRAKAPAS Romas - Doctor of Social Sciences (Educational Science),
Associate Professor at Mykolas Romeris University, Faculty of Social
Technologies, Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work. Scientific
interests: law education, education of children from the risk groups, research
methodology.
PRAKAPIENĖ Dalia - Doctor of Social Sciences (Educational Science),
Associate Professor at General Jonas Zemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania,
Department of Management. Scientific interests: education, human recourses
management, leadership.
PRUSIK Anna - Dr., pedagogue and social educationalist; lecturer at the
Department of Social Pedagogy at the University of Computer Sciences and
Economics in Olsztyn; Dean of the faculty of Sociology and Pedagogy at the
349
University of Computer Sciences and Economics in Olsztyn; till 2013 she was
the deputy dean at this faculty. Member of the Polish Pedagogy Association.
Her professional interests focus on issues concerning contemporary family
especially its transformations. She is author of scientific papers and chapters
in joint publications concentrating on family and current social issues.
PRZYBYSZ-ZAREMBA Małgorzata - Ph.D., professor in the Academy of
Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza Social Prevention Centre (Poland). Expert
in the Robert Hołowczyc Foundation “Safe driver”. The author of nearly
100 scientific publications published in Poland and abroad including 3
monographs: Family, work, education as the women’s space of life. Successes,
conflicts, problems (2013), Addiction of the youth to contemporary media
(2008), Professional and mutual therapy in the alcohol addiction (2006) and
7 works – scientific edition. Participant of numerous international conferences
organized in Poland and abroad. Scholarship holder – twice. In 2013 she was
honoured with the Safety Shield for the scientific research conducted within
the frames of the project: “I’m clear headed, so I drive sober”.
RADZIEWICZ-WINNICKI – Prof. Ph.D., pedagogue, sociologist at the
University of Zielona Góra and Social Pedagogic Department at the Academy
of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza. He has years of experience in the field of
social pedagogy, sociology of education.
RAILIENĖ Asta - Assoc. prof. of Social Communication Department, Institute
of Educational Sciences and Social Work, Mykolas Romeris University.
Scientific interests: Career education, Child welfare and socialization.
SADAUSKAS Justinas – Assoc. prof. dr. at Mykolas Romeris University, seven
years works as full time teacher at. has seven years of direct social work practice
with homeless people and two years of administrative social work practice
in NGO sector, two years worked as Senior Specialist at State Child Rights
Protection and Adoption Service. He participates in two educational networks:
European Social Educational Network for Cooperation and Exchange and Adult
Life Long Learning in Social Work. Publications on topics: social exclusion,
community social work, education and competence of social workers.
SAFJAŃSKI Tomasz – Doctor of Juristic Science, long-term official in the
Central Bureau of Investigation and Europol. Specializes in analyses of drug
problem in Poland.
SARZAŁA Dariusz, PhD. - University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn
Dr. Dariusz Sarzała, Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Social Sciences,
University of Warmia - Mazury in Olsztyn. His research interests focus
on issues of social pathologies, social maladjustment and rehabilitation. It
also performs research on the impact of cyberspace on human pathological
behavior. It also deals with issues concerning the role of the family in the
process of socialization and upbringing.
Author of several scientific publications in the mentioned range of subjects.
ŠERSTOBOJEVA Auksė - Master graduate from Vilnius University the
Department of Education. Auksė is mainly interested in multiligualism
issues in childhood. Also her scientific interests cover such areas as children
socialization, diverse families, migration contextualization etc.
ŠIMAITIS Algimantas - Lecturer and doctoral student of Klaipeda University,
Faculty of Pedagogy, Department of Social Education. Chief specialist of
Lithuanian Ministry of Education and Science in the Department of General
Education and Vocational Training Department, Division of Non-formal
Education and Education Support. Since 2000, A. Šimaitis have worked
as a coordinator of the establishment of social pedagogues in Lithuanian
educational institutions. Together with other members of the working group,
he developed a Lithuanian Government Resolution on the establishment
and funding of social pedagogues. Together he developed legal documents,
which regulate preparation of social pedagogues in Lithuanian institutions of
higher education, and documents related to the organization and operation
of social pedagogues in educational institutions, qualification requirements,
and exemplary job instructions. A. Šimaitis coordinates ongoing Lithuanian
ESPAD study. He is interested and works on such issues as child and youth
socialization, education assistance, global education, student self-government,
parent education and other related problems.
ŠINKŪNIENĖ Jautrė Ramutė - PhD, Doctor of Social Sciences (Education
Studies), assoc. prof. at Mykolas Romeris university, faculty of Social
351
technologies, Institute of Education sciences and social work. Scientific
interests and areas: Socio-cultural work and community, socialization of
disabled and art, music therapy and communication. Educational and practical
experience – practice of Music Therapy and Drama methods with mentally
and physically Disabled people, Piano play, Art social projects and events.
VALANTIEJIENĖ Sandra - Social pedagogue in the Centre of Special
Education and Psychology. Since 2010, she coordinates pedagogicalpsychological services provided by social pedagogues and developed the
recommended forms of activity for this category of specialists. The main
area of her activity is drug abuse prevention. Sandra is also the instructor of
two preventive programs she is interested and is working in development
and deployment of prevention programs, as well as training of social skills,
socialization of children and youth, education assistance, social pedagogical
education of parents.
VIRBALIENĖ Rita - assoc. prof. dr. at Mykolas Romeris University,
Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work. Research interests: special
pedagogy, social pedagogy, entrepreneurship development.
WALANCIK Marek - Ass. Prof., Ph.D., social educator in Social Pedagogic
Department at the Academy of Business in Dąbrowa Górnicza. His scientific
achievements portraits a classical form of the borderland of several social
studies subdisciplines. He locates his science interests in social education,
sociology of education and securitology.
ŽIBĖNIENĖ Gintautė – assoc. prof. dr. at Mykolas Romeris University,
Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work. Research interests:
teaching/ study quality assurance, quality assessment of study programmes,
assessment methodology, assessment of competencies and individual
achievements, entrepreneurship development.
Contact: [email protected].

social education - Centrum Profilaktyki Społecznej

Transcription

Similar documents

World Youth Day

Ambersail Voyage Marks Lithuania`s Millenium in NYC and Around

DVSN Brochure - The Bedford Citizen

A NEW DAY Brochure Women - The Tree of Peace Friendship Centre

Abuse in close relationships - Upplands

200 DPI

Yoga in Daily Life in Poland - Vishwaguru Mahamandaleshwar

konf_IT_20141105_pla..

Prezentacja nowego produktu

ZILUKS IN POLAND Dear Diary, Last week I was in Poland. It is an