An Integrated Approach to Municipal Solid Waste Management in

An Integrated Approach to
Municipal Solid Waste Management in Crete
Thesis written by: Sannah Grüner
Advisors: Tyge Kjær and Niels Schrøder.
Institute of Environment, Technology and Social Studies
Roskilde University, May 2007
An Integrated Approach to Municipal Solid Waste Management
A Case Study of MWS in the Island of Crete
Acknowledgements
A big, warm thank you to all the people who have supported this process within the worlds of
waste management and tourism in Crete, to Irene and Mamalee for linguistic care and
culinary catering and last but not least to Tyge Kjær for invaluable input and counseling.
2
Abstract
The thesis explores how an integrated approach to Municipal Solid Waste Management
(MSW) can be applied in the island of Crete, seen as a case example of the general deposit
issue within the EU. An Integrated Waste Management approach involves, what could be
termed a holistic perspective on waste management, taking the contextual environmental, and
economic as well as social factors into account. Moreover, the different waste management
activities are seen as interrelated activities that must be ‘coordinated’ in order to achieve the
most ‘eco-efficient’ waste management system possible.
Waste accumulation and illegal dumping have been a problem in Crete for the last 20 years. A
comparative review of waste treatment technology options: bio-gasification and incineration,
is therefore conducted, as one of the possible next steps in an island community, where
landfill locations as well as energy supply are often limited. Secondly, it is assumed that
improvements of the waste management system cannot be implemented without the support
of the community. As environmental issues are generally not high on the agenda in Crete, the
tourism industry is examined as a potential, influential stakeholder with a long-term interest in
a healthy ‘destination’ environment. More specifically, the study looks into the drivers and
barriers of the supportive role of the hotels and the tour operators.
The study concludes that from an environmental and economic perspective, incineration
would be a preferable solution for a number of reasons. In particular, because it diverts the
largest part of the MSW stream away from landfill, while replacing fossil fuels and delivering
CO2 neutral energy. However, it should not serve as an ‘end-solution’, replacing waste
prevention and recycling. Furthermore, incineration is more technically proven and therefore
also a more feasible technology than bio-gasification. Yet, from a social point of view, the
establishment of any waste facility, in particular, incineration is very unpopular in Crete and it
is uncertain whether the authorities will be able to transform the public resistance.
Regarding the role of the tourism industry, the main contribution of the hotels to local waste
management appears to be participation in waste separation, seen as the basic requirement for
a differentiated waste treatment system. As far as the tour operators are concerned, their
supply chain systems towards their hotel suppliers appear to mainly affect an internationallyoriented luxury segment. Partnerships of a broader nature, involving local NGO’s and tourism
associations would seem advantageous for both the tour operators’ and the authorities’ point
of view.
Dansk resumé
Specialet omhandler planlægningsproblematikker vedr. affaldshåndtering på Kreta. Kreta ses
som et case eksempel på en central del af affaldsproblemet inden for EU, nemlig at
3
affaldshåndteringen stadig primært består i deponering, hvilket medfører både forurening og
tab af ressourcer. Derudover er der en række specifikke karakteristika ved Kreta som
middelhavs ø med en turisme-baseret økonomi, der også har indflydelse på affaldssituationen.
Specialets tager udgangspunkt i en ’integreret’ tilgang til affaldshåndtering, betegnet som
’Integrated (Solid) Waste Management’. Dette koncept indebærer, ifølge specialets definition,
en helhedsorienteret tilgang, hvor kontekstuelle, miljømæssige, økonomiske og sociale
parametre inkluderes i planlægningen af et affaldssystem. Derudover lægges vægt på hvordan
samspillet mellem de forskellige dele af affaldssystemet (sortering, indsamling, behandling,
deponering) påvirker systemets samlede, miljømæssige præstation.
Specialet konkluderer, at fra et miljømæssigt og økonomisk perspektiv, er forbrænding med
energi-indvinding den mest foretrukne løsning, idet det både reducerer den deponerede
affaldsmængde samtidig med det substituerer fossile brændsler. Dog skal dette ikke ses som
en erstatning af affaldsforebyggelse eller genanvendelse. Også fra et økonomisk synspunkt er
affaldsforbrænding mere rentabelt end bio-forgasning, bl.a. fordi det er en mere fleksibel
teknologi baseret på et større erfaringsgrundlag. Der er dog den slagside, at alle typer
affaldsanlæg er meget upopulære på Kreta. Især forbrænding møder meget stor modstand i
befolkningen.
Mht. turismeindustriens rolle, består hotellernes primære bidrag i udbredelsen af
affaldssortering, set som grundlaget for et differentieret affaldsbehandlingssystem, bl.a. pga.
hotellernes koncentrerede affaldsmængder, men også pga. af deres mere forudsigelige
fraktioner. Der kunne også identificeres et vist forebyggelsespotentiale, men dette er dog
svært at kvantificere, nærmere. Vedrørende rejsekoncernernes rolle, har deres produkt-kæde
initiativer tilsyneladende mest indflydelse på de internationalt orienterede luksushoteller. For
at nå de øvrige hoteller ville et gensidigt bredere interessentsamarbejde, der også inkluderede
lokale NGOer og turistforeninger, være en fordel fra både rejsebureauerne og
myndighedernes perspektiv.
4
An Integrated Approach to MSW in Crete
List of Content:
SECTION I........................................................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER 1: FIELD OF STUDY ............................................................................................................. 12
1.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 12
1. 2. PROBLEM FIELD ........................................................................................................................... 13
1.2.1. Waste Issues in Island Communities ....................................................................................... 13
1. 2. 3. Waste Issues in Crete .............................................................................................................. 14
1.2. 4. The Role of Tourism................................................................................................................. 15
1. 2. 5. Problem Formulation............................................................................................................. 16
1. 2. 6. Working Definitions ............................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 18
2. 1. PROJECT DESIGN......................................................................................................................... 18
2. 2. ANALYTICAL APPROACH ............................................................................................................. 18
2. 2. 1. The Role of Theory.................................................................................................................. 19
2. 2. 3. The Scope of the Study........................................................................................................... 19
2. 2. 3. 1. Focus on MSW..................................................................................................................... 19
2. 2. 3. 2. EU as a Frame of Reference ............................................................................................... 20
2. 2. 3. 3. Target Group ....................................................................................................................... 20
2. 2. 3. 4. Technology Reviews ............................................................................................................ 20
2. 3. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH DESIGN .................................................................................................. 21
2. 3. 1. Explorative Case Study........................................................................................................... 21
2. 3. 1. 1. Case Selection ...................................................................................................................... 21
2. 3. 1. 2. The Focus of the Case Analyses ......................................................................................... 22
2. 3. 2. Qualitative Informant Interviews .......................................................................................... 23
2. 3. 2. 1. Selection of Informants regarding Waste Management in Crete ................................... 23
2. 3. 2. 2. Selection of Informants regarding Waste Practices in the Tourism Industry ............... 24
2. 3. 2. 3. Selection Criteria for Hotels ............................................................................................... 25
2. 3. 2. 3. 1. Location............................................................................................................................ 25
2. 3. 2. 3. 2. Size and Classification..................................................................................................... 25
2. 3. 2. 3. 3. Chain Relations and Ownership .................................................................................... 26
2. 3. 2. 3. 4. Hotel or Apartment ......................................................................................................... 26
2. 3. 2. 3. 5. Accessibility...................................................................................................................... 26
2. 3. 2. 3. 6. Environmental Management.......................................................................................... 26
2. 3. 2. 4. Interview Strategy concerning Hotels ............................................................................... 28
2. 3. 2. 5. Selection of Hotel Informants............................................................................................. 28
2. 3. 2. 6. Selection of Tour Operator Informants ........................................................................... 29
2. 3. 3. Secondary Empirical Sources................................................................................................. 30
2. 4. THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE STUDY ........................................................................ 30
5
2. 4. 1. Validity ..................................................................................................................................... 30
2. 4. 2. Reliability ................................................................................................................................. 31
CHAPTER 3: EU WASTE POLICIES AND STRATEGIES ....................................................................... 34
3. 1. THE EU WASTE LEGISLATION .................................................................................................... 34
3. 2. WASTE MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES OF THE EU ........................................................................ 35
3. 3. THE DEVELOPMENT OF EU WASTE POLICIES AND STRATEGIES ............................................. 36
3. 3. 1. The Environmental Action Programmes .............................................................................. 36
3. 3. 2. Implementation Issues ............................................................................................................ 37
3. 3. 3. Waste Prevention..................................................................................................................... 37
3. 4. WASTE MANAGEMENT TRENDS IN THE EU................................................................................ 38
CHAPTER 4: WASTE LEGISLATION AND MANAGEMENT IN GREECE ................................................. 40
4. 1. THE WASTE MANAGEMENT SITUATION IN GREECE .................................................................. 40
4. 1. 1. The National Waste Laws and Authorities ........................................................................... 40
4. 1. 2. The Current Waste Management Practices.......................................................................... 41
4. 2. WASTE MANAGEMENT IN CRETE ................................................................................................ 42
4. 2. 1. Facts about Crete..................................................................................................................... 42
4. 2. 2. Current Waste Management Practices in Crete................................................................... 43
4. 2. 3. Waste Management Actors in Crete...................................................................................... 43
4. 2. 4. The Regional Waste Management Plan of Crete................................................................. 44
4. 2. 4. 1. The Central Waste-to-energy Treatment Plant................................................................ 45
4. 2. 5. The Estimated Waste Flow of Crete ..................................................................................... 45
4. 2. 5. 1. Waste Quantities.................................................................................................................. 46
4. 2. 5. 2. Waste Composition.............................................................................................................. 47
CHAPTER 5: TOURISM AND WASTE ................................................................................................... 50
5. 1. THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN CRETE .................................................................................... 50
5. 1. 1. Tourism Policies ...................................................................................................................... 51
5. 1. 2. The Impact of Tourism .......................................................................................................... 52
5. 2. INCENTIVES FOR SUPPORTING ISWM WITHIN THE TOURISM INDUSTRY ................................... 52
5. 2. 1. The Accommodation Industry in Crete................................................................................ 53
5. 2. 2. Green Incentives in the Accommodation Industry.............................................................. 53
5. 2. 3. The Green Incentives of the Tour Operators....................................................................... 53
5. 2. 3. 1. The Chain Position of the Tour Operators ....................................................................... 54
5. 2. 4. The Green Supply Chain Systems of the Tour Operators................................................. 54
5. 2. 4. 1. Monitoring and Tracking Systems..................................................................................... 54
5. 2. 4. 2. Supportive Measures.......................................................................................................... 55
5. 2. 4. 3. Trends at the Hotel Suppliers............................................................................................ 56
5. 3. SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................... 56
CHAPTER 6: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .......................................................................................... 57
6. 1. AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT .................................................... 57
6. 1. 2. An Integrated Waste Management System........................................................................... 57
6. 2. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON WASTE MANAGEMENT ........................................................ 58
6. 2. 1. A Treatment-oriented Approach .......................................................................................... 58
6
6. 2. 2. A Preventive Waste Management Approach....................................................................... 59
6. 2. 2. 1. Life Cycle Analysis and Material Flow Account ............................................................. 59
6. 2. 2. 2. Supply Chain Management (SCM)................................................................................... 60
6. 2. 2. 3. Cleaner Production (CP) ................................................................................................... 60
6. 3. DEVELOPMENT OF A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................................ 61
6. 3. 1. Theory and Case...................................................................................................................... 61
6. 3. 2. Eco-efficiency as an Ideal for Integrated Waste Management Planning .......................... 62
6. 3. 3. Stakeholder Participation...................................................................................................... 64
6. 3. 4. Summary of the ISWM concept............................................................................................ 64
6. 3. 5. The Integrated Solid Waste Management Planning Circle ................................................ 66
6. 4. ANALYTICAL STRATEGY ............................................................................................................. 67
6. 4. 1. Waste Treatment Technology Options................................................................................. 67
6. 4. 1. 1. The Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Waste Management System ............................ 68
6. 4. 2. The Supportive Role of the Tourism Industry..................................................................... 70
SECTION III: EMPIRICAL FINDINGS AND ANALYSES............................................................ 72
CHAPTER 7: WASTE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS IN CRETE – EMPIRICAL FINDINGS .......................... 72
7. 1. SORTING OPTIONS....................................................................................................................... 72
7. 1. 1. Sorting at Source .................................................................................................................... 72
7. 2. COLLECTION SCHEMES ............................................................................................................... 72
7. 2. 1. Collection and Sorting at Source in Chania.......................................................................... 73
7. 3. MECHANICAL SORTING................................................................................................................ 73
7. 3. 1. The Sorting Plant for Packaging Material at Alikarnassos................................................. 74
7. 3. 1. 1. Facts about the Sorting Plant of HERRCo ..................................................................... 74
7. 3. 1. 2. Sorting Issues ....................................................................................................................... 75
7. 3. 1. 3. The Recycling Campaign.................................................................................................... 76
7. 3. 2. The Recycling Plant of DEDISA ........................................................................................... 76
7. 3. 2. 1. The Mechanical Sorting Plant........................................................................................... 77
7. 3. 2. 2. Recycling Rates.................................................................................................................... 78
7. 3. 2. 3. Sorting Issues ....................................................................................................................... 79
7. 3. 3. The Composting Plant............................................................................................................. 79
7. 3. 3. 1. The Flow of the Composting Plant..................................................................................... 79
7. 3. 3. 2. Barriers Encountered in the Composting Process........................................................... 80
7. 3. 3. 3. Campaign Experiences........................................................................................................ 81
7. 3. 3. 4. The Future Plans of DEDISA............................................................................................ 81
7. 4. SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................... 82
CHAPTER 8: ANALYSIS I WASTE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS ........................................... 84
8.1. THE PRIMARY SYSTEM ................................................................................................................. 84
8. 2. THE SECONDARY SYSTEM: RECOVERY TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS ............................................. 85
8. 2. 1. Relevant Technology Options................................................................................................. 86
8. 3. INCINERATION ............................................................................................................................... 87
7
8. 3. 1. The Incineration Process ........................................................................................................ 87
8. 3. 2. Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC) ......................................................................................... 89
8. 3. 3. An Integrated Waste Management System based on Incineration..................................... 90
8. 3. 3. 1. The Impact of Incineration on the Waste Flow and the System Coherency.................. 90
8. 3. 4. Plant Capacity.......................................................................................................................... 91
8. 3. 4. 1. The Development of Waste Quantities ............................................................................. 92
8. 3. 4. 2. Energy Efficiency and Demand......................................................................................... 93
8. 3. 5. Pros and Cons of Incineration Technologies....................................................................... 94
8. 3. 5. 1. Environmental and Technical Parameters ..................................................................... 94
8. 3. 5. 2. Economic Parameters ........................................................................................................ 95
8. 3. 5. 3. Social Parameters ................................................................................................................ 96
8. 4. BIO-GASIFICATION ...................................................................................................................... 96
8. 4. 1. The Anaerobe Digestion Process............................................................................................ 96
8. 4. 2. An Integrated Waste Management System based on Bio-gasification .............................. 98
8. 4. 2. 1. Plant Capacity...................................................................................................................... 99
8. 4. 2. 2. Environmental and Technical Parameters ..................................................................... 100
8. 4. 2. 3. Economic Parameters ....................................................................................................... 100
8. 4. 2. 4. Social Parameters .............................................................................................................. 101
8. 5. SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 101
8. 6 DISCUSSION OF WASTE TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS IN CRETE .................................................... 103
8. 6. 1. Bio-gasification vs. Incineration........................................................................................... 103
8. 6. 2. Awareness Raising and Prospects for Public Participation............................................... 105
8. 6. 3. Central vs. Decentral Waste Management Solutions ......................................................... 106
CHAPTER 9: WASTE PRACTICES AT HOTELS - EMPIRICAL FINDINGS ............................................ 107
9. 1. WASTE PROFILES OF THE LARGE HOTELS .............................................................................. 107
9. 1. 1. Royal Mare Village............................................................................................................... 107
9. 1. 1. 2. Stakeholders..................................................................................................................... 108
9. 1. 2. Lyttos Beach Hotel .............................................................................................................. 109
9. 1. 2. 1. Stakeholders...................................................................................................................... 110
9. 1. 3. El Greco Hotel ...................................................................................................................... 111
9. 1. 3. 1. Stakeholders...................................................................................................................... 112
9. 1. 4. Summary of the Waste Profiles of the Big Hotels.............................................................. 112
9. 2. WASTE PROFILES OF THE SME HOTELS (BELOW 250 BEDS) ................................................ 115
9. 2. 1. Eleni Apartments................................................................................................................... 115
9. 2. 1. 1. Stakeholders....................................................................................................................... 116
9. 2. 2. Idillios Traditional Apartments ......................................................................................... 116
9. 2. 2. 1. Stakeholders....................................................................................................................... 117
9. 2. 3. Summary of the Waste Profiles of the SME hotels............................................................. 117
CHAPTER 10, ANALYSIS PART II: THE POTENTIAL SUPPORTIVE ROLE OF THE TOURISM INDUSTRY
............................................................................................................................................................. 120
10. 1. CHARACTERISATION OF THE WASTE FLOW OF THE HOTELS ............................................... 120
10. 1. 1. Waste Composition and Quantity...................................................................................... 120
8
10. 2. TRENDS AND POSSIBILITIES REGARDING THE HOTEL’S WASTE FLOW ............................... 122
10. 2. 1. Paper vs. Plastic.................................................................................................................. 122
10. 2. 2. The Glass Fraction .............................................................................................................. 122
10. 2. 3. The Organic Fraction.......................................................................................................... 123
10. 2. 4. The Metal Fraction.............................................................................................................. 123
10. 2. 5. Waste Quantities of the Hotels ........................................................................................... 123
10. 2. 6. Summary .............................................................................................................................. 124
10. 2. 6. 1. Further CP Possibilities for Hotels ................................................................................ 125
10. 3. DRIVERS AND BARRIERS AT THE HOTELS AND THE TOUR OPERATORS ............................. 126
10. 3. 1. Internal Barriers and Drivers at the Hotels..................................................................... 126
10. 3. 1. 1. Size .................................................................................................................................... 126
10. 3. 1. 2. Classification.................................................................................................................... 126
10. 3. 1. 3. Chain Association ............................................................................................................ 127
10. 3. 1. 4. Waste Practices as Part of Environmental Management ............................................ 128
10. 3. 1. 5. Employee Participation................................................................................................... 128
10. 3. 1. 6. Monitoring ....................................................................................................................... 129
10. 3. 2. Internal Drivers and Barriers at the Level of the Tour Operators................................. 129
10. 3. 2. 1. The Role of Destination Staff ......................................................................................... 129
10. 3. 2. 2. The Potential of Green Supply Chain Tools ................................................................. 130
10. 3. 3. External Drivers and Barriers for the Hotels and the Tour Operators ......................... 132
10. 3. 3. 1. Customer Demand Wanted ............................................................................................ 132
10. 3. 3. 2. Market Conditions .......................................................................................................... 132
10. 3. 3. 3. Local Capacity Building ................................................................................................ 133
10. 3. 3. 4. Possibilities of Influencing the Local Community....................................................... 133
10. 3. 4. Summary ............................................................................................................................. 134
10. 4 DISCUSSION OF THE ROLE OF THE TOURISM INDUSTRY ....................................................... 135
10. 4. 1. Potential Supportive Actions to ISWM ............................................................................ 135
10. 4. 2. Incentives............................................................................................................................. 136
10. 4. 3. Partnerships Targeting Hotels and Waste ....................................................................... 136
CHAPTER 11: CONCLUSION............................................................................................................... 137
FURTHER PERSPECTIVES: ................................................................................................................. 141
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 144
APPENDICES ....................................................................................................................................... 150
OVERVIEW OF APPENDICES............................................................................................................... 150
Overview of Appendices on the Disc.............................................Fejl! Bogmærke er ikke defineret.
9
List of Tables and Figures
Tables
Table 1:Waste Management Informants………………………………………………….......20
Table 2: The main case features of the large hotels…………………………………………..24
Table 3: The main case features of the SME hotels…………………………………………..24
Table 4: Informants within Hotels…………………………………………………………....25
Table 5:Informants within Tour Operators…………………………………………………...26
Table 6: MSW (kg) generated per Capita per year (1996-2004)…………………………......37
Table7:Waste Quantities distributed on prefectures………………………………………….43
Table 8: Waste Composition and Quantities…………………………………………………46
Table 9: Average Composition of the Recyclable Materials (Nov 06-Feb.07)………………72
Table 10:The total quantities recycled by HERRCo in Greece………………………………73
Table 11: The development of HERRCos sorting activities, 2006…………………………...73
Table 12: Quantities of sorted packaging waste……………………………………………...79
Table 13: Summarising table - Status and Scope of the Waste Management Practices….......83
Table 14: Incineration Types…………………………………………………………………81
Table 15: Waste Quantities distributed on ‘treatment fractions’..............................................84
Table 16: The projected waste generation in Crete 2000-2020………………………………85
Table 17: The Future Development of the Combustible Fraction……………………………93
Table 18: Waste Quantities distributed on ‘treatment fractions’……………………………100
Table 19: The Projected waste quantities available for bio-gas generation…………………101
Table 20: Summarising Table of the Environmental/technical Parameters…………………103
Table 21: Summarising table of the economic parameters………………………………….104
Table 22: Summarising table of the social parameters……………………………………...104
Table 23: The waste profiles of all the SME hotels…………………………………………122
Table 24: The Estimated Waste Composition of Crete……………………………………...125
Table 25: Estimated Average Waste Composition of Hersonissos…………………………125
Table 26: The Estimated Average Waste Composition of the Hotels………………………125
Table 27: Waste Quantites at the Large Hotels……………………………………………...128
Table 28: Waste Quantites at the SME Hotels………………………………………………128
Figures
Figure 1:Project design……………………………………………………………………….15
Figure 2: Overview of the EU Waste Legislation………………………………………….....31
Figure 3. The Waste Hierarchy…………………………………………………………….....32
Figure 4: Map of Crete: displaying the four prefectures and their main cities……………….39
Figure 5: The seasonal variation of waste quantities in Crete………………………………..45
Figure 6: Annual Waste Composition of Crete……………………………………………….45
Figure 7: The seasonal variation of the waste composition…………………………………..46
Figure 8: The Elaborated Waste Hierarchy……………………………………………...........61
Figure 9: The ISWM concept…………..……………………………………………………..62
10
Figure 10: The ISWM Planning Circle……………………………………………………….64
Figure 11: Model of the Primary, Secondary and Tertiary systems………………………….66
Figure 12: The Flow of the Sorting Plant…………………………………………………….71
Figure 13: Diagram of the Sorting Flow……………………………………………………...73
Figure 14: Diagram of the current Waste Management System……………………………...82
Figure 15:Diagram of Grate-fired Incineration Plant………………………………………...84
Figure 16: Diagram of rotary fluidised bed…………………………………………………..90
11
Section I: Introduction
Chapter 1 Field of Study
1.1. Introduction
One of the major threats to the environment today, is the increasing generation of waste.
Increased waste generation can be viewed as a growing trend in most modern societies partly
caused by the ever increasing consumption patterns and partly as a result of poor resource
efficiency (ETCW,1999:5, EC, 2005c).
The member countries of the EU are considered to be frontrunners within the development of
waste technologies and practices. However, despite the efforts of the EU to decouple the
generation of waste from economic growth, it seems that so far the regulation strategies of the
EU have not been able to achieve this goal (EEA signals, 2004).
Waste generation in the EU is estimated at more than 1.3 billion tons per year. Municipal
solid Waste1 (MSW) represents one of the central and most challenging types of waste due to
its scope and varying composition (EC, 2005a:6).
MSW is increasing at rates comparable to economic growth. For example both GDP and
municipal waste grew by 19% between 1995 and 2003, corresponding with an increase from
204 million tonnes, equivalent of 457 kg per capita, to 241 million tones equivalent of 534 kg
per capita (EC c, 2005:18).
The OECD predicts that MSW will increase by around 43% between 1995 and 2020, whereas
the EEA estimated a lower rate of around 20% increase within the same period. MSW growth
in the new EU-10 Member States is expected to be even faster due their future economic
development (EC c, 2005:18). Despite the uncertainty about the more precise growth rate,
there is no doubt that the quantities of MSW are increasing significantly.
One explanation behind the uncontrolled development of the waste flows in the EU is the
inherent complexity of the issue. Every man-made activity, whether performed by industries,
organizations, households, or individuals, contributes in one way or another to the waste
streams of society. Consequently, these waste streams involve a vast range and mix of
materials and substances that are diffused into urban as well as ‘natural’ environments on a
local, regional, and global scale. Waste therefore represents a highly complex issue not only
inflicting many different types of serious pollution, but is also tied to many different
economic as well as political and civilian interests. Different interests are very often linked to
different perspectives on the matter. In this thesis the concern of the environment will be the
1
MSW is defined as: waste from households, as well as other waste, which because
of its nature and composition is similar to waste from households Article 2 (b) of the landfill directive 99/31/EC.
12
overall interest. However, within this frame of perspective there are a number of different
ways the issue of waste can be approached starting with the basic question: When has a
material lost its value.
The understanding of waste, as a resource rather than a terminal product, is becoming
increasingly popular, being among other things promoted in the 6th Environmental Action
Plan of the EU Commission (EC, 2005). Thus the understanding of waste solely as an
expensive problem appears to be gradually changing, parallel to the progress within recycling
and waste treatment technologies (IME, 2001, ISWA, 2002, EC, 2005a). On the one hand,
this means an increased focus on the potential of ‘waste’ re-entering the production cycle,
thereby saving energy and/or valuable raw materials. On the other hand, there is a long way to
go since landfill is still the predominant form of waste management in most of the EU (EC d,
2005).
This study will look into the issue of applying, what is termed an integrated approach to solid
waste management in the case of Crete, where landfill has been the main type of waste
management for the past twenty years.
1. 2. Problem field
1.2.1. Waste Issues in Island Communities
The problematic link between the growing material consumption and waste, is not least the
case for the island communities of the EU. Around 400 islands communities exist within the
EU, hosting a population of some 13 million people. Despite the geographical and cultural
differences, they share a number of common characteristics regarding the handling of waste.
First of all, proper places for waste treatment and disposal are inherently spatially limited. The
lack of space is further stressed due to the requirement for farmland and the need to protect
vulnerable areas such as: villages, beaches and areas of natural beauty or ecological fragility.
Finally, their isolated nature makes export of waste to places of proper treatment more
difficult (EXERGIA, 2003).
However, exactly these problematic features and ‘uptight’ environmental conditions have
become the driver behind a number of networks and projects exploring the concept of
‘sustainable’ island societies, making them interesting cases of how waste management can
be handled under the given circumstances.
One example of an environmental island initiative is the European Islands’ network
established to explore the potential of insular renewable energy sources (www.islenet.net). In
addition, a number of UN initiatives target island communities, including: networks,
13
newsletters, and conferences where ‘sustainable island development’ is a key focus
(http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sids/sids.htm).
Energy and water issues seem to be the most prominent on the agenda of island network
conferences and forums, such as INSULA a network of European Island Authorities
promoting sustainable and efficient energy and environmental management
(http://www.insula.org/). It is not surprising that such urgent areas have top priority. Yet, it
can be argued that waste issues are very much interrelated with a healthy water environment
and are also relevant to consider as a potential ‘renewable’ energy source. I have therefore
found it relevant to explore the issue of ‘insular solid waste management’ more in depth.
1. 2. 3. Waste Issues in Crete
In Crete, as in many Mediterranean islands a large tourism industry combined with a shift to a
modern lifestyle has created an increased generation of solid waste growing in quantity as
well as in complexity of composition (EXERGIA, 2003). During the 60ties and 70ties a
transition occurred in the Cretan economy from solely depending on agriculture to tourism,
becoming the main source of income. During this development not very much attention has
been paid to the environmental consequences of this transition, including the rapid and
uncontrolled expansion of building activities, extended use of natural surroundings and an
increased import and consumption of goods due to the more than doubled population during
the peak season (Andriotis, 2001). Thus the necessary technology and infrastructure for
dealing with the increased waste production have not been addressed sufficiently.
Landfill is the main method of waste management employed in Crete, which is problematic
not only in terms of adhering to the EU waste legislation, but also in terms of insular
conditions, in particular lack of proper landfill locations. Crete counts seven sanitary landfills
and around 125 illegal dump sites. Many of the sanitary landfills are already full and local
waste management organisations are struggling to find new locations (Appendices 1b, 1d &
5d). It therefore seems relevant to look into what technological treatment options could be
relevant in order to reduce the amounts of MSW sent to landfill.
For a number of years different waste management plans have been passed, but so far not
much has happened on the regional level, the most obvious level for dealing with waste
treatment solutions such as recycling and energy recovery. The municipalities have thus been
left to deal with the problems at the level of collection and landfill. However, a number of
initiatives have been launched on the basis of the most recent regional waste plan in Crete.
Among other things, this involves that a sorting system for packaging waste is being
implemented and the regional waste authorities are planning the establishment of a waste-toenergy treatment plant within the next couple of years. Yet, these measures to a large extent
depend on the support of the population. The general awareness of environmental issues has
14
so far not been very high. In any case, after many years of solely sending waste to deposit, the
population is not educated to participate in e.g. source sorting programmes. From the point of
view of the authorities, it would therefore be interesting to attain support for the alterations of
the waste management system from central community stakeholders with an interest in
improved waste management.
1. 2. 4. The Role of Tourism
It is generally acknowledged that tourism in many different ways burdens the local
environment of destinations, but at the same time it has also been recognised that tourism has
the potential to contribute to the improvement of environmental conservation, infrastructure,
economy, and the general standard of living (UNEP, 2003).
The tourism industry is considered one of the largest and fastest growing industries in the
world (World Tourism Organisation:www.unwto.org). One of the main assets of the industry
is its holiday destinations and it therefore has a vested interest in well-functioning and
attractive destinations. From the beginning of the early 90ties, this interest has been reflected
in initiatives around concepts such as ‘responsible’ or ‘sustainable tourism’2, particularly
among the larger tour operators and travel agents (WWF, 2000). Some of the tour operators
such as TUI, Hotel Plan and Kuoni were among the first to formulate sustainability policies in
recognition of the fact that ‘well performing’ destinations, among other things, are highly
dependent on a healthy natural environment. Also prominent hotel chains, such as Hilton3 and
Intercontinental have developed principles and practices for green hotel management (Faulk,
2000:14, TUI 2004, Kuoni, 2004, Hotel Plan 2002).
Other manifestations of the concerns about the negative impact of tourism is the
establishment of the Sustainable Tourism Charter (World Conference on Sustainable
Tourism, Lanzarote, 1994) and the forming of the Tour Operators Initiative in cooperation
with the UN and the World Tourism Organisation (http://www.toinitiative.org/).The members of
the initiative have committed themselves to engagement in ‘sustainable tourism’ projects,
spanning from environmental stakeholder websites, the establishment of an environmental
destination fund, to destination guidelines for the protection of specific coastal areas for tour
guides and visitors on diving holiday (TOI, 2003).
2
Here defined as:“Sustainable tourism development meets the needs of present tourists and host regions while
protecting and enhancing opportunity for the future. It is envisaged as leading to management of all resources in
such a way that economic, social, aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity essential
ecological processes, biological diversity, and life support systems. Sustainable tourism products are products
which are operated in harmony with the local environment, community, and cultures, so that these become the
permanent beneficiaries not the victims of tourism development” (The Agenda 21 programme for Travel and
Tourism, 1997).
3
(http://hiltonworldwide.hilton.com/en/ww/promotions/Environment_and_Sustainability/index.jhtml)
15
This does still not change the fact that there are also a number of dilemmas and
contradictions, let alone vagueness in regards to what ‘sustainable tourism’ actually is.
Nevertheless, as the tourism industry plays a vital role in many island societies, such as Crete,
it makes sense to explore the supportive potential of the tourist industry, when looking at
waste management solutions.
The annual MSW generation of Crete is estimated to be around 193.000 ton (Gidarakos et al.
2005:671). Tourism-related waste accounts for approx. 28-50.000 ton of this amount, which is
seemingly not much considering that the Cretan population of 600.000 is visited annually by
at least 3 mio. tourists (app.4d and 1.1). However, due to the sector’s enormous, economic
significance (Andriotis, 2005:23), the tourism industry can be considered a very important
stakeholder in the community, especially in the light of its assumed business interest in a
healthy destination environment. Crete, viewed as a tourism destination, thus becomes a
common denominator for a number of actors, in this case the authorities and the tourism
industry, including local as well as international players, all with a potential interest in
maintaining rather than wasting the natural resources of the island.
With the previous considerations in mind the study poses the following problem formulation:
1. 2. 5. Problem Formulation
•
What waste treatment technology options are relevant for Crete as an
island community based on an Integrated Solid Waste Management
approach?
•
How can the tourism industry support Integrated Solid Waste
Management in Crete?
1. 2. 6. Working Definitions
The following will provide a set of working definitions of the central concepts outlined in the
problem formulation. These will be further elaborated and put into perspective in the
theoretical framework.
Solid Waste: Solid waste is defined as:” Useless, unwanted, or discarded materials with
insufficient liquid to be free lowing” (ISWA, 1992).
Solid Waste Management: The management of solid waste refers to:“ The purposeful
systematic control of the generation, storage, collection, transport segregation, processing,
16
recycling, recovery, and disposal of solid wastes” (ISWA, 1992). When mentioning waste or
waste management it implies solid waste management unless anything else is mentioned.
Integrated Solid Waste Management:
The concept refers to a holistic approach to waste issues, involving environmental as well as
economic and social parameters. However, especially, the environmental aspect will be
stressed in this thesis. The term ‘integrated’ is furthermore associated with harmonising the
different waste management activities in order to achieve the optimal system efficiency based
on the above-mentioned parameters. The relevance of various treatment options will thus be
based on the concept of Integrated Solid Waste Management which will further be elaborated
in the theoretical framework.
Integrated Solid Waste Management System:
The term ‘system’ refers to the waste technology components and methods applied within an
authority jurisdiction on a municipal, regional, or national scale. Sorting, collection,
treatment4, and disposal are thus seen as interrelated parts of a technical system.
4
Refers broadly to all types of waste treatment undertaken after collection.
17
Chapter 2: Methodology
The purpose of the methodology is to provide a map, explaining how the problem formulation
will be answered. The first part of the chapter deals with the analytical approach, the project
design, and the scope of the study. Then follows a presentation of the empirical research
strategies and a discussion of the validity and reliability of the study.
2. 1. Project Design
The project design illustrated below provides an overview of how the different parts of the
thesis contribute to the conclusion of the problem formulation.
Figure 1:Project design
Problem Formulation & Methodology, Chapter 1 & 2
Theoretical Approach:
Chapter 6
An Integrated
Solid Waste Management Approach
Empirical Approach: Chapter 3, 4, 5, 7
&9
- Qualitative informant interviews:
Authorities & Tourism Industry
-Desk study of international, national,
& local studies, reports and data.
Analysis I, Chapter 8: Identification of ISWM options based on
the current waste management situation
Analysis II, Chapter 10:
The supportive potential of the Tourism Industry
Conclusion, Chapter 12
2. 2. Analytical approach
The aim of the thesis is to take an empirical and solution-oriented approach to waste
management. Therefore the study seeks to take the present waste management situation of
Crete as the relevant context for analysing and discussing different practical waste
management solutions based on an integrated approach to solid waste management.
18
Accordingly, the theoretical and analytical framework is seen as a tool for structuring and
understanding the empirical findings.
2. 2. 1. The Role of Theory
The concept of Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is employed as the normative
view point of the study, but at the same time it has been developed to suit the reality of the
empirical case. The relation between case study and theory is thus seen as iterative and
interactive, with the theoretical framework serving as a tool for examining the issue of waste
management in Crete as opposed to a one-fits-all-theory. The concept of ISWM will be
further developed and made ‘operational’ in the theoretical and analytical framework.
2. 2. 3. The Scope of the Study
As waste management comprises a very broad and complex field of study, I have found it
necessary with a number of delimitations.
2. 2. 3. 1. Focus on MSW
First of all I have chosen to focus on one specific waste stream known as ‘Municipal Solid
Waste’ (MSW) because it represents a central part of the societal waste stream, while at the
same time posing a great challenge to treatment due to its variable composition. Furthermore,
data on other specific waste streams are difficult to retrieve.
MSW is a relative term, referring to the various types of waste, collected as refuse. It can
include waste streams from households as well as industries. MSW therefore varies a lot in
quality and quantity according to the waste flow of the specific municipality, region, or
country. Yet, at least in theory, it excludes a number of fractions which by the landfill
directive are either not permitted in non-hazardous landfills or are required to be collected
separately. These fractions include:
• Fluid Waste
• Hazardous waste
• Tyres
• Bulky waste
• Construction and Demolition Waste (C&D waste)
• End of Life Vehicles (ELV)
• Electronic and electrical devices (including white goods, PCs, mobiles etc.)
(Council Directive:1999/31/EEC)
19
Moreover, sludge from waste water treatment plants will not be included in the scope of the
report either, as it is not part of the daily collected refuse stream. The organic waste from
agricultural activities is not counted as a part of the biodegradable waste fraction by the EU or
the Greek waste legislation. However, it holds a resource potential which is relevant to
discuss in relation to the recovery possibilities for the organic fraction. Another fraction I
have found relevant to include is ‘green waste’, referring to organic waste from private
gardens and green, public areas.
2. 2. 3. 2. EU as a Frame of Reference
The EU Waste Legislation and the waste management experiences of other EU countries are
used as frame of reference for waste management in Greece and Crete. However, since most
of the existing data and studies are from the EU 15 countries, ‘EU countries’ will only refer to
these countries, unless otherwise specified.
2. 2. 3. 3. Target Group
The study addresses the waste management authorities as the main target group and the
tourism industry as the secondary. However, a third group that can be regarded as vital to the
Integrated Waste Management in Crete, is the local population. In this regard, a central
assumption of the study has been that generally, the population of Greece does not have a
very high level of environmental awareness. E.g. refrigerators and cars are dumped randomly
in gorges and other natural areas. This impression has also been confirmed by several
informants (app.1b, 3b, 7b). Therefore other actors seem more relevant to address as
facilitators of integrated waste management. However, how to approach and involve the
citizens of Crete in an appropriate way, is still a very important issue. Not very many studies
seem to have been made in Greece or Crete regarding public opinion towards waste
management on a more specific level concerning questions such as: Is waste a problem? Is it
being handled satisfactorily? Who is responsible for solving waste issues? What could
motivate people to participate etc. Although this study does not focus directly on public
opinion concerning these questions, e.g. via population surveys, the potential of public
participation will be discussed.
Although, the study is oriented towards the perspective of the authorities, I have chosen to
focus on the level of the waste management system rather than the regulatory instrument level
and therefore various types of waste policies expressed in legal or economic instruments, are
not examined. Apart from time-constraints, it has been my impression that the legal
framework is not very closely connected to waste management in practice.
2. 2. 3. 4. Technology Reviews
Regarding the technology reviews of feasible treatment options, these are not to be regarded
as in- depth technological studies. They are meant as indicative assessments of advantages
and disadvantages of the most proven technologies, based on a desk study of MSW treatment
methods. The pros and cons are mainly weighed in terms of environmental and technical
20
feasibility. Overall economic concerns are also included, however, more specific comparative
cost estimations depend to a large extent on the specific plant design, and will not be in focus.
Moreover, I will not go into the further treatment of the recyclable material, but mainly focus
on technology options concerning energy recovery as the next most likely step of the waste
authorities in Crete.
Concerning work environment on present or future waste management facilities, this can be
considered an important factor to e.g. the sorting quality at the mechanical sorting factories,
however for the sake of delimitation, I have chosen not to examine this issue further.
2. 3. Empirical Research Design
The empirical research includes informant interviews and information collected from case
studies, surveys, authority reports, plans, and websites.
2. 3. 1. Explorative Case Study
An explorative case study approach has been found as a relevant research method, as it
appears that not many studies of the combination of waste and tourism have been conducted
in Crete or else- where in Europe. This approach is characterised by uncovering and
examining issues within an already broadly but not well-defined field of study (Yin, 1993:7).
Furthermore, studies of waste issues in Crete and Greece are very scarce, particularly on a
local level which has required a flexible research design. Complimentary to the explorative
approach, qualitative interviews have been employed as the main method of inquiry, allowing
for the necessary flexibility and interaction between the inquirer and the informants.
In addition, the assessment of the waste management situation in Crete has been inspired by
the methodological guidance notes for waste management planning by the European Topic
Centre for Waste and Material Flows. The methodology includes creating an overview of: the
waste flow based on key figures, including population growth, waste generation per capita/per
day and consumption patterns as well as waste management practices and facilities. This
relatively simple approach has proven useful as the data on the waste flow in Crete is scarce,
in particular regarding the development of waste patterns over time (EUWTC, 2003:28ff, 34).
2. 3. 1. 1. Case Selection
The island of Crete has been chosen as a case for a number of reasons. First of all, because of
its relevance to the two main aspects of the problem formulation: One the one hand as an
example of waste issues in an island community where landfill is the predominant mode of
21
waste management, on the other as a popular tourism destination, depending on a healthy
natural environment.
There has been a growing need to find solutions to the waste issues in Crete, which are
becoming more and more urgent both on a legal as well as a material level, why it could be
assumed that the local community (citizens, authorities, tourism enterprises etc.) would be
more ready for supporting changes of the waste management system. Finally, the island has a
certain size, involving more possibilities in terms of waste treatment options and economy of
scale.
As a vast number of factors influence the waste management situation, it is necessary to
create a more specific frame of study by focusing on different levels and dimensions of Crete
as a case area.
2. 3. 1. 2. The Focus of the Case Analyses
As shown in the project design, the case analysis focuses on two issues. The first part of the
analysis will examine the feasibility of different technological treatment options within an
integrated waste management framework. The concept of Integrated Waste Management will
be further elaborated in the theory framework. The second part of the analysis looks into the
potential supportive role of the tourism industry in order to explore how waste practices at
hotels can support Integrated Waste Management. The hotels of Crete receive most of the
approx. 3 million tourists, visiting Crete every year and therefore could play an important role
as frontrunners of good waste practices. Finally, I will look at the role of the tour operators as
potential facilitators of environmental awareness and ‘green’ waste management at hotels.
I have chosen to focus on two authority levels. The first being the regional level referring to
waste issues related to the whole island region of Crete and the organisations responsible on
this level.
The region of Crete is divided in four prefectures (counties). As the prefecture of Chania has
developed its own system, the study of waste treatment options will not include Chania.
However, the experiences of DEDISA, the waste management organisation in Chania, are
relevant to take into account, when looking into the possibilities for the rest of the island.
Regarding tourism and waste, I have chosen to focus on the municipal level. The chosen
municipality of Hersonissos was one of the first areas for tourism development to take place
in Crete, where tourism today still plays a very significant role. It is situated on the north
coast within the prefecture of Heraklion, the most populated prefecture of Crete. Moreover,
the municipal administration of Hersonissos is interested in participating in the new waste
packaging sorting programme of HERRCo. In general, it has shown a more pro-active interest
in solving waste than most municipalities in Crete (App. 3b, 7b).
22
Taking the perspective of ‘local’ planning, the main emphasis of the study will thus be put on
the municipal and the regional (insular) levels, whereas the EU and national levels of
planning will only be included when relevant as a contextual framework.
The case research was mainly conducted through qualitative interviews with informants
related to waste management or the tourism industry.
2. 3. 2. Qualitative Informant Interviews
Qualitative informant interviews have been used as the central method of research. Since most
of the already very limited documents, websites, data and studies on waste issues, are in
Greek, the most reliable sources of information are the local organisations and residents
working with waste. More information could be found regarding tourism in Crete, but in order
to link the two subjects, qualitative interviews with relevant people within the tourism
industry and the local authorities seemed a relevant way of covering the gap.
Semi-structured interviews with both factual and open ended questions have been employed
as the method of interviewing. This approach has been chosen due to its flexible design with
possibility of finding out facts as well as allowing for exploration of unexpected themes.
2. 3. 2. 1. Selection of Informants regarding Waste Management in Crete
Regarding the general waste management situation and treatment possibilities, I have focused
mainly on organisations and persons operating on a regional or a municipal level. The
prefecture (county) level is less important, since the overall waste management plans are
made on the regional level. An engineer from ESDAK, the regional waste management
organisation of Crete was interviewed about the role of the organisation, the current waste
management practices and the content of the regional waste management plan of Crete. The
first waste management organisation in Crete, DEDISA operating specifically in the
prefecture of Chania, was interviewed as a complimentary source to ESDAK, because of their
hands on experience with sorting at source and the operation of a recycling plant. HERRCo,
the association responsible for implementing programmes for recycling of packaging material
in Greece, has set up their first sorting plant for packaging waste in Crete and the plant
engineer has been interviewed about the experiences and results with the recycling
programme so far.
In my search to find agencies with knowledge about researched or practiced waste
technologies in Crete, I interviewed The Regional Energy Agency of Crete (REAC) regarding
their views on waste-to-energy technologies. On the municipal level, an employee of
Hersonissos Municipality, involved in the municipal waste management system, was
interviewed concerning the waste management situation on a municipal level and their views
on waste management at hotels. In order to get a picture of the attitude of the local community
23
towards waste and environmental issues I interviewed the former leader of the environmental
movement in Crete as well as the secretary of the Environmental Protection Association of
Hersonissos. Finally, I have been assisted by a waste management consultant in order to put
the puzzle of information together. The table below presents the informants interviewed.
Table 1:Waste Management Informants
Organisation
ESDAK
DEDISA
Hersonissos Municipality
REAC
Waste Management Consultant
HERRCo
Environmental Movement of
Heraklion, Crete
Hersonissos enviro. Protection
association
Informant
Olga Christou, Chemical
Engineer
Maria Flemetaki, Chemical
Engineer
Manolis Vardakis, Manager of the
alternative collection system
Foutini Kasteraki, administrative
employee.
Nikolas Zografakis, Manager of
REAC
Haroula Filoxenidi, Chemical
Engineer earlier employee of
regional waste organisations.
Vassilis Zissimopolos, Manager
of the mechanical sorting plant,
mechanical engineer.
Nikolas Levantakis, Former
leader of the movement.
Jorgos Valeris, Secretary of the
association.
2. 3. 2. 2. Selection of Informants regarding Waste Practices in the Tourism Industry
As representatives of the tourist industry, I have chosen to focus on hotels as central players
in the local tourism industry due to the variety of services they provide. The term ’hotel’, in
this study, refers to rooms, studios and apartments with and without self-catering facilities.
This excludes other local tourist-related businesses such as restaurants, souvenir shops and
tour-agencies. Yet, it can be argued that hotels are a more central source of waste due to the
scope of services provided including e.g.: accommodation, restaurant meals, self-catering
facilities, shops, spa centres and various leisure activities.
In addition, the tour operators have been chosen as important representatives of the tourist
industry due to their strong market influence combined with a recent trend among tour
operators to develop environmental policies that also reach out towards their accommodation
24
suppliers, the hotels. Furthermore, tour operators hold a central position due to their
possibility of influencing not only suppliers but also the consumers.
2. 3. 2. 3. Selection Criteria for Hotels
The main point, when choosing hotels, was to cover a variety of case features in order to
discuss differences and similarities regarding waste practices, patterns and views among the
hotels. With this purpose in mind, the specific selection criteria will be elaborated below.
2. 3. 2. 3. 1. Location
As a starting point, the hotel cases have mainly been chosen within the municipality of
Hersonissos. However, through the process of establishing contacts two hotels outside this
area were added to the list, mainly due to convenience since it is much easier contacting a
hotel through a personal contact. This has however, not given additional differences to take
into consideration.
2. 3. 2. 3. 2. Size and Classification
One of the main criteria was to find hotels of different size. The importance of this criterion is
based on the assumption that hotels of different size are likely to have different waste profiles
both in terms of waste quality, quantity and procedures. However, the main difference is
assumed to be that larger hotels have more resources and therefore more easily can implement
environmental measures. Six large hotels and six small and medium (SME) hotels have been
selected. The EU-definition of SMEs refers to companies with max. 250 employee and an
income of max. 50 mio. Euro.5 However, this does not apply directly to hotel companies,
where the guest capacity is also a central part of the size of the ‘production’. As no specific
definition appears to exist for hotels (HORESTA, 2006), I have chosen to use these figures as
a rough guide where employees are translated into guests- or bed capacity, which is more
relevant in regards of this study, where the following distinctions are used:
•
•
•
Large hotels: More than 125 rooms (approx. 250 beds).
Medium: 35-125 rooms (approx. 70-250 beds)
Small: Below 35 rooms (approx. 70 beds)
Another central distinction is that of classification. As no international, harmonised
classification system exists, the following classifications used in Greece are meant as a
relative indication of varying degrees of primarily quality and price. In Greece the star
classification system from 1-5 stars is used officially next to a parallel A-E classification
system. The difference is that A-E classified hotels have not applied for public approval of
their status (IHRA/WTO, 2004).
5
www.europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/enterprise_policy/sme.htm
25
In this regard, there seems to be some correlation between size and classification – especially
in the high and low end of the system. E.g. 5 star hotels are usually resort hotels of a
considerable size, whereas 1 star or hotels without stars are most often smaller establishments.
The study of the large hotel segment includes mainly 4 and 5 star hotels. However, two large
hotels of 2 and 3 star classification have been included in order to compare the similarities
and differences tied to the criteria of classification. I aimed at having an overweight of larger
hotels within what could be termed the ‘luxury segment’ for three reasons. First because a
general competitive strategy in Crete is to focus more on luxury tourism, so this segment can
be expected to be predominant in the future too. Secondly, because it appeared from web-sites
and studies that these hotels could represent more progressive hotels in terms of
environmental and waste management actions and thus could serve as Best Case Practices.
2. 3. 2. 3. 3. Chain Relations and Ownership
Another feature is that hotels can be part of different types of chain associations. There seems
to be mainly to types of chain relations – what could be termed ownership-related and brand
associated, respectively. The most common chain relation seems to be the ownership type.
Also some hotels were part of both types, where the market/brand association as the name
suggests solely entails a common concept or number of criteria on which the marketing
activities are based. There seems to be a predominance of larger hotels being part of a chain,
especially the 5 and 4 star hotels. Concerning ownership, this factor also might have influence
on the procedures of the hotel, e.g. whether it is a foreign or local owner.
2. 3. 2. 3. 4. Hotel or Apartment
One of the main differences between hotels (in the standard sense of the word) and
apartments, is the fact that apartments often have self-catering facilities and are not linked to a
restaurant, resulting in less kitchen waste than otherwise. Generally, hotels are cleaned more
often, whereas apartment guests are more often involved in the daily cleaning including
taking out the waste. Furthermore, it is possible that apartments attract different customers
with different consumption patterns. However, there are also mixes between the two types
e.g. 4 star apartments that are cleaned on a daily basis, or hotels with studios with kitchen,
where it is standards that the guests buy accommodation including a full board in the hotel
restaurant.
2. 3. 2. 3. 5. Accessibility
A basic criterion was of course the willingness of the hotel to participate as well as good
communication conditions such as email which is practical in terms of the first contact and
later follow up. The hotels that had web pages were also given some priority.
2. 3. 2. 3. 6. Environmental Management System (EMS)
Apart from providing general information websites also gave information about, whether the
hotel had environmental management. This criterion was included as a variable for two
26
reasons. First of all the intention was to look for some Best Case Practice (BCP) examples.
Secondly, to see what effect environmental management had as framework for working with
waste. I searched for EMS among both big and SME hotels, but it was apparently mainly
practices by the big hotels.
Generally, the description of the case-criteria above is not solely based on the case hotels but
also on observations made while using the local hotel search engine (www.gto.gr) and by
visiting the hotel areas of Hersonissos. The case criteria for the hotel cases will be used as a
basis for looking into similarities and differences of the hotels’ waste practices and patterns.
In sum the selection criteria have been the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Location: mainly within the municipality of Hersonissos
Size – division into the following 2 segments: Large and SME:
Class – ensuring that the most typical classifications were represented.
Chain relation +/- part of a chain
Hotel and/or Apartment
Restaurant and/or self-catering – restaurants assumed to generate larger amounts of
waste.
Accessibility.
+/- EMS
20 hotels were contacted out of which 12 agreed to participate. I had estimated that 10 hotels
would be the minimum no. of cases needed in order to cover a variety of differences and
similarities in terms of the mentioned criteria. The number of cases chosen reflects a balance
between the number estimated to provide a varied picture of relevant characteristics and the
time limitation related to the field study abroad.
Table 2: The main case features of the large hotels:
Large Hotels
Hotel
Royal Mare Village
Restau.
Beds
Class
X
X
934
5*
X
Elounda Beach
X
X
500
5*
X
Robinson Lyttos
X
X
600
4*
X
Grecotel
X
X
500
4*
X
Stella Village
X
X
800
B/3*
X
298
2*
Hotel Arminda
Apart.
X
Self cat.
X
Chain
27
Table 3: The main case features of the SME hotels
SME Hotels
Hotel
Apart.
Self cat.
Hotel Aloi
Eleni Apart.
X
X
Idillios apart.
X
X
Hotel Galini
X
Dorian apart.
Galaxy apart
X
X
X
X
X
X
Restau.
Beds
Class
X
50
C (2*)
(X)
23
2*
12
3*
120
C (2*)
22
1*
200
A (4*)
X
Breakfast
Chain
X
2. 3. 2. 4. Interview Strategy concerning Hotels
As with the other informants, semi-structured interviews were conducted with the hotel
representatives. An interview guide was made for large and SME-hotels respectively,
containing factual as well as open-ended questions (Cf. App.B). The purpose of interviewing
the hotels had three purposes. One was to understand the point of view of the hotels regarding
waste: Are they aware of environmental issues in general, do they see waste as a problem, do
they have suggestions for improvements regarding the current system and what possibilities
do they see for hotels to support local waste management – is e.g. sorting of waste realistic.
The other purpose was to get an idea about the waste patterns of different types of hotels quality and quantity-wise in order to compare with the general figures on how much and what
type of waste tourists produce. As some of the big hotels were chosen as Best Case Practices,
the guidelines were adapted to find out about their BCP regarding waste. Finally, an important
aim was to examine the ‘supply chain effect’ and what kind of impact the green supply chain
measures of the tour operators had on the hotels.
2. 3. 2. 5. Selection of Hotel Informants
In order to answer the questions above regarding hotels and waste, I found it most relevant to
speak with a manager who had an overview of the daily operation of the hotel. At the large
hotels it seemed most relevant to speak with the technical manager whom, among other
things, was in charge of ‘environmental’ issues such as: energy, water and waste.
Furthermore, as a middle manager, the technical manager would be familiar with both the
staff and the top management or owners of the hotel. A few of the large hotels had a specific
department or person who was in charge of the environmental area. In some cases I was lucky
to speak with more than one person, e.g. the technical manager and the food and beverage
assistant.
At the SME hotels the manager is often synonymous with the owner, especially with the small
hotels. Besides most SME hotels only have a few employees and therefore it can be assumed
that the manager has a good idea about what is happening in ‘all corners’ of the hotel.
28
Table 4: Informants within hotels
Hotels
Informants
Big hotels
Royal Mare Village
Sofia Klotza, quality and development
employee and the technical manager.
El Greco
Katarina Velokaki, Manager of
environmental and cultural activities
Lyttos Beach
Yannis Koutsounakis, Technical
Manager
Elounda Beach
Technical Manager, Michalis Volyrakis,
Food and beverage assistant.
Stella Village
Dimitris Tzirakis, General Manager
Arminda Apartments
Liza Christoulaki, receptionist
SME hotels
Galaxy Apartments
Stavros Popuzakis, daily manager
Eleni Apartments
Jorgos Chambalakis, manager/owner
Hotel Galini
Efthymis Kogerakis, General Manager
Hotel Aloi
Parma Gabrielle, Hotel Manager/owner
Idillios traditional Apartments
Eva Papadakis, owner/manager
Dorian Apartments
Lambros Kanakakis, Owner/Manager
2. 3. 2. 6. Selection of Tour Operator Informants
Concerning the tour operators, the main selection criterion was to find tour operators with
some kind of supplier policy that included environmental issues and waste. Secondly, I was
looking for tour operators with some experience within the field. I contacted the middle
managers of five different tour operator within environmental or ‘sustainability’ corporate
work. Three of them agreed to participate, two were interviewed by phone, one preferred to
answer the questionnaire in writing. In all three cases follow-up interviews were conducted.
The German based TUI-group is considered the European Market leader among tour
operators followed by Thomas Cook and Kuoni. The purpose of the interviews with the tour
operators was to find out what kind of supply chain management tools they were using with
relation to waste management at their hotel partners. Furthermore, I was interested in their
evaluation of the effect of their efforts and finally I was also interested in their impression of
the general green trends in the tourism and hotel business e.g.: what type of environmental
practices is most common among hotels in Greece and Crete. It turned out, however, that such
country specific information was difficult to come by mainly because the information
collected by the tour operators had not been aggregated on a country specific level.
29
Table 5:Informants within Tour Operators
EU based Tour operators
Informant
TUI (Germany)
Arne Kretschmer, Quality &
Environmental Manager
Kuoni (Switzerland)
Mathias Leissinger, Environmental
Manager
Thomas Cook (UK)
Nancy Brock, Responsible Tourism
Manager
2. 3. 3. Secondary Empirical Sources
The qualitative interviews were supplied with a literature study based on local and national
and international research. The quality of the most important studies listed below, will be
dealt with in the section on the reliability of the empirical sources used.
The local studies include:
• A recent study on the waste composition of Crete comparing it to other parts and
islands of Greece. The study also includes the estimated waste quantities in Crete from
2005 (distributed on prefectures) and a general status on waste management in Crete
(Gidarakos et al. 2005).
•
A local study presenting estimates of the future waste development from the base year
2004 until 2020 (OANAK, 2004)
•
Studies on the development of tourism in Crete (Andriotis 2001 and 2005)
Regarding technology options, a literature study was conducted based on Danish and
European studies on the relevant technologies including the BAT documents of the European
Commission as well as various case studies.
2. 4. The Validity and Reliability of the Study
2. 4. 1. Validity
The study’s validity concerns the question of whether the project’s methodology and research
design addresses the research question sufficiently. In any study a number of delimitations are
necessary. Delimitations represents both the strengths and the weaknesses, as they on the one
hand allows the study to go in depth with certain issues, but on the other hand lead to
exclusion of other relevant issues.
30
When addressing the waste issues of Crete, a number of other focus areas could have been
chosen such as landfill management, the efficiency of the collection system or the willingness
of the population to participate in sorting schemes. Despite the intention of taking a holistic
approach to waste management, it has been necessary to focus some parts of the waste
management system more than others. Thus collection and landfill management are only
being described in general terms. These are both very relevant issues to waste management in
Crete but have been considered too time consuming and difficult to access due to few English
speaking among staff and managers in this field. In addition, I have found it more interesting
from an environmental view point to look into resource recovery treatment options as the next
steps of waste management in Crete.
The study focuses on MSW based on the fact that MSW represents a large part of the waste
stream and furthermore poses a big challenge to the waste management system due to its
varying composition.
Other waste streams such as C & D waste could also have been a relevant subject, as high
levels of building activities lead to substantial amounts of waste for which there is currently
no waste management system in Greece. Yet, the C & D waste is mainly inert and the
environmental threat therefore limited. Regarding space, it is dumped illegally and therefore
does not take up space in official landfills. Another important waste stream such as hazardous
waste may not take up a lot of space, but poses a serious threat to the environment. As no
system exists for dealing with this type of waste, it can, with some exceptions6, be expected to
be dumped or end up in the MSW stream.
Regarding the use of an explorative, qualitative case-study approach, this has proven a
relevant method, due to the many unknown factors influencing waste management in Crete.
The same is the case concerning the waste practices and views of hotels and tour operators.
A survey might have been a useful supplement for exploring the views and practices of the
hotels, however, in practice it would have been too time-consuming to gather representative
material. When hotel staff do not answer emails asking for a short interview they are also
likely not going to answer even short questionnaires either. Only one hotel, out of 10
contacted by email, replied back.
2. 4. 2. Reliability
The reliability of the study mainly relates to the trustworthiness of the empirical research and
the data used.
6
Exceptions are: Collection schemes for batteries, electronic/electric devices, and hospital waste.
31
Regarding the estimated waste flow of Crete, it is based on a recent study commissioned by
ESDAK, the regional waste management organisation of Crete. The waste composition in
seven sanitary landfills has been sampled at seasonal intervals (2003-2004) after recognised
sample standards (Gidarakos et al. 2005). A similar, but separate study was conducted by the
same researcher in the prefecture of Chania showing the same composition patterns (App.
2b). The estimated waste quantities distributed on landfill vs. other types of treatment,
depending on different treatment options, are also based on the estimated data of this study.
Since weighing bridges are not common equipment in all the landfills, the calculation of
waste quantities has been based on key figures for waste production per capita in Greece (cf.
chapter 4). However, it was stated by a representative of a local waste management
organisation that the study is likely to be outdated already in some respects. These
considerations will be included in the study (App.2f). Although these data, in any case, cannot
be viewed as accurate, they can still provide a reasonable indication of the present MSW flow
in Crete.
My calculations of the future amounts of waste distributed on landfill vs. other types of
treatment are based on the future projections of the MSW stream by the Eastern Development
Organisation of Crete (OANAK, 2004). The projected figures are again based on the
predicted growth in population and economy7 and will to be applied as indicative rather than
accurate data.
The information and data collected regarding the sorting plant in Alikarnassos and the waste
treatment facilities of DEDISA, the waste management organisation in Chania, are based on
the expert experience of plant managers and staff. In terms of informant reliability, the
persons interviewed regarding waste management did not avoid answering questions
regarding operational or organisational/structural constraints nor did they attempt to present a
rosy picture of the waste management situation in Crete.
Concerning the waste practices and views of the hotel sector, interviews were conducted with
hotel manager or owners. When making case studies of a company, it is often an issue that
both employees and management should be interviewed in order to acquire a more whole
picture of the company. However, I estimated that it would have been too time consuming to
also arrange interviews with relevant staff members such as cleaning ladies or the purchasing
responsible. In the case of the SME hotels, it can generally be assumed that the manager has a
good idea about what is happening in ‘all corners’ of the hotel. There is of course the risk that
the manager at a medium sized hotel of e.g. 120 beds is more occupied with administration
and ‘ground floor’ staff would have more direct knowledge of whether it would be realistic
for the hotel staff to sort the garbage. On the other hand, the overall decisions about how the
hotel handles waste would still lie with the general manager or the owner who could
implement policies and educate the staff in the new sorting procedures. Regarding the waste
7
I have not been able to retrieve these figures.
32
composition, the manager of a medium sized hotel would also have an idea about what
products: food and beverages, linen etc. are purchased by the hotel.
When it comes to the waste composition of the hotels, the opinion of the hotel manager can of
course only represent a rough estimate, which must be employed with precaution. The waste
flow of the hotels are therefore discussed in relation to the differences that can be expected
compared to the municipal and the regional waste flow, especially regarding tourism-related
waste patterns.
Finally, in a qualitative case study, the reliability depends on the coherency of the research
design rather than the amount of data generated. The interview results thus cannot be
generalised to other hotels in a quantitative sense. (Neuman, 2000:170f).The conclusions
drawn about the waste practices and views of the hotels are therefore based upon ‘contextual
equivalence’ or similar case characteristics such as size, type or concept and in this way can
be related to other hotels with similar characteristics.
33
Section II: Background
Chapter 3: EU Waste Policies and Strategies
This section gives an overview of the EU waste legislation, its development and
implementation status as an overall frame of reference for waste management in Greece and
Crete. Furthermore the waste management trends in the EU-15 will be presented.
3. 1. The EU Waste Legislation
The framework directive for waste was established in 1975 and forms the central part of the
EU waste legislation. The term ‘framework’ implies that the directive provides the general
guidelines but it is up to the member countries to formulate and implement national waste
programmes and strategies (Council Directive 75/442/EEC).
In general terms the framework directive forbids uncontrolled dumping or handling of waste
and prescribes that the organisation of a waste management network that enables each
member country to strive towards self-sufficiency in waste treatment. Moreover, the waste
framework directive refers to a number of specific waste directives as illustrated in the model
below (Council Directive 75/442/EEC as amended by Council Directive 91/156/EEC).
Figure 2: Overview of the EU Waste Legislation
Framework Legislation
Waste Framework
Directive
(Dir.75/442/EEC)
Hazardous
Waste Directive
Dir.91/689/EEC
Waste Shipment
Regulation
(Reg. (EEC) 259/93)
Treatment Operations
Incineration
Landfill
(99/31/EC)
89/369 & 429 (MW) 94/67
(HW)
Replaced by 2000/76/EC
Waste streams
Sewage
Sludge
Dir.
86/278/E
EC
Bat
teries &
Accumu
-lators
Dir.
91/157/E
Titaniu
m
Dioxide
Dir
78/176/E
EC
PCBs
Dir.96
/59/E
C
(Adapted from EC, 2005a:10)
Packaging
&
Packaging
Waste
Dir.
94/62/EC
Waste
oils
Dir
75/439/E
EC
Mining
Waste
Com
(2003)319
End-oflife
Vehicles
Dir
2000/53
EC
Restriction
of
Hazardous
Substances
Dir.2002/9
5EC
WEEE
Dir.2002
/95EC
34
3. 2. Waste Management Principles of the EU
The waste hierarchy represents one of the main guiding principles of waste management in
the EU. The hierarchy prescribes a set of prioritised waste management methods placing
prevention and reuse at the top and disposal as the least favoured alternative (Council
Directive 75/442/EØ).
Figure 3: The Waste Hierarchy8
1. Waste prevention – avoidance of waste generation
2. Reuse: Direct use of the waste product for its original intended purpose
3. Recycling: Use of waste material for its original intended purpose after treatment
4. Recovery: Incineration with energy recovery.
5. Waste disposal in landfill
Other central EU principles for waste management are (EC, 2002):
• BATNEEC – Best Available Technique Not Entailing Excessive Cost:
The principle prescribes that emissions to the environment should be reduced as much as
possible in proportion to economic feasibility.
•
The Principle of Proximity: Waste should be treated as close to the source as possible
•
The ‘Producer-Responsibility’ and the ‘Polluter Pays-Principle’: implying that waste
management costs are to be covered by the (waste) production owners.
Another central issue of the EU waste legislation has been to ensure a common set of waste
definitions and statistical approaches in all EU member countries. The lack of common
definitions constitutes a barrier to monitoring the implementation and results of the waste
directives. Statistical definitions and guidelines on waste are to be ready for use in 2008.
A common waste definition also includes the question of when a material has actually lost its
value and is no longer apt for recovery or recycling. The most recent review of the waste
frame directive is being followed up by scientific assessments of material streams suitable for
recycling (EC, 2005:23, Regulation 2150/2002/EF on waste statistics).
8
(Source: EC: 9, 2006, Council Directive 75/442/EEC as amended by Council Directive 91/156/EEC)
35
In order to assist implementation, attempts are being made to simplify the EU waste
legislation e.g. by integrating the hazardous waste directives and a number of other directives
with the frame directive (EC, 2005:22f).
3. 3. The Development of EU Waste Policies and Strategies
In the 1970ties and 1980ties a series of scandals related to the handling of waste, such as the
Seveso incident in Italy, put the issue of improperly handled waste on the political agenda.
Similar to the early environmental legislation, EU waste policies were characterised by an
‘end-of pipe’ and ‘single issue approach’ seeking to repair the damages, arising ad hoc rather
than implementing long term strategies preventing unwanted results altogether. Policies were
thus directed towards acute, visible problems such as the improper handling of hazardous
waste and the direct threat it posed to the environment and human health (EC, 2005:8,13).
3. 3. 1. The Environmental Action Programmes
The EU Environmental Action Programmes were launched by the European Commission in
the early 1970ties. A shift came with the 5th Environmental Action Programme (EAP), which
introduced long term objectives 10 years ahead (1993-2000). Other important contributions
were the integration of environmental concerns in policy areas related to environmental
degradation, giving preference to shared responsibility and partnerships rather than a
‘command-and-control’ approach.
The 6th EAP (2002-2012) contains seven thematic environmental strategies. Two of them
related to waste: the thematic strategies for resource use and waste prevention and recycling
(EC, 2002a).
The two waste related strategies of the 6th EAP represent a resource based approach as
opposed to the ‘end-of-pipe’ waste management that characterised former established waste
policies. Two main issues are emphasised. First of all the fact that resource efficiency and
waste prevention are the most suitable methods for obtaining the overall goal of decoupling
resource consumption and waste generation from economic growth .The second issue is the
importance of integrating waste management with resource management in line with the
Integrated Product Policy (IPP), aiming at reducing environmental impacts from products
throughout their life-cycle. E.g. by promoting measures such as eco-design, green subsidies,
prevention or recycling campaigns, and producer responsibility mechanisms (EC, 2002a).
However, many of the initiatives such as a forming of a strategy for sustainable production
and consumption patterns are still on the ‘paper’ level so the results remains to be seen (EC,
Status on Action, viewed, 2007).
36
3. 3. 2. Implementation Issues
While most of the EU legislation has been included in the national legislations, a number of
implementation gaps have been identified. Apart from the overall goal of decoupling waste
generation from economic growth, the EU has chosen to focus on the implementation of the
shipping and dumping of hazardous waste at sea and the implementation of the landfill
directive. The landfill directive in particular, involves some of the greatest structural changes
of waste management procedures including the diversion of specific waste streams from
landfills such as organic waste, packaging material, tyres and electronic devices. These focus
areas have been chosen as they are estimated to constitute the greatest hazard to the
environment and human health (EC, 2005:12, Council Directive on landfill of waste
1999/31/EC).
As mentioned above, the quantities of MSW are increasing. Despite the fact that the
proportion of municipal waste in landfills has been declining in some member countries, this
has been offset by the general increase in total waste generation, resulting in slow or no
reduction of waste disposal (EC, 2005 c).
One of the main objectives of the landfill directive, the diversion of the organic fraction, has
still not been implemented in many of the member states. Yet, there is a big gap between
member states as to their progression in diversion and treatment of the organic fraction (EC a,
2005). Another essential part of the landfill directive concerns the proper management of
landfills. However, it is difficult to estimate the existing no. of illegal landfills due to the lack
of data and varying definitions of the concept of an illegal landfill (Goulder Europe, 2005:68).
As far as the recycling rate of municipal waste is concerned, it is on the increase. The amount
of recycled MSW nearly doubled between 1995 and 2003 to reach 82.3 million tons.
However, as MSW is increasing at the same time, it does not result in actual waste reduction
(EC c, 2005:18). Although, the policy framework has contributed to pushing the technological
development of waste management forward, 50-60% of the waste in EU is still being
disposed of in landfills (EC a, 2005).
3. 3. 3. Waste Prevention
EU has chosen a framework approach to prevention which leaves the forming of prevention
strategies and targets up to the member countries. So far this has resulted in very little
reported activity in the area. Even though the importance of waste prevention is generally
recognised, a recent working report states that the prevention potential is clearly
underexploited (EC, 2005 c:13).
37
A number of barriers can be identified. First of all there seems to be an inherent contradiction
when seeking to combine the handling of waste materials in the waste phase with a resourceorientation, seeking to go backward in the cycle in order to prevent waste, optimising the use
of resources. This can partly be explained by the focus on the output of waste materials rather
than on the input of materials at the source in the production phase. As a result, the concept of
‘waste management’ naturally refers to waste treatment activities such as collection, sorting,
and incineration. So most often the sector dealing with waste does not have influence on the
prior stages of the material cycle.
The fact that prevention has apparently received so little attention compared to other areas
such as recycling, can partly be explained by the complexity associated with making the
necessary interventions in the chain of production and consumption. It therefore seems that
there is a need for a much better transfer of information between product developers and the
waste management sector in order to develop better coordination between production and
waste management (ETCW, 1999:12ff).
Although, the prevention potential is clearly very large, it is furthermore difficult to quantify
and therefore also difficult to measure (EC, 2005c:17). In addition the benefits will often be
long term and are most likely to be offset by the growth of waste quantities. With waste
quantities growing at faster rates than both waste prevention and recycling, the consequence
has so far been that deposit and diversion of waste from landfills remain the most visible and
urgent waste management issue.
3. 4. Waste Management Trends in the EU
The waste management situation in the EU 15 varies greatly in terms of collection systems
and hence also in terms of defining MSW. In some countries MSW includes e.g. bulky waste
and garden waste, making it difficult to compare the amounts of MSW on a more specific
level (EC, 2005b). In addition, using the waste generated per capita as a reference point, is
also a relative indication since the efficiency of the MSW collection systems vary.
In the UK a cost benefit model is used, pointing to the extended use of landfills and the
exploitation of landfill gas so far being viewed as the most feasible option. This approach is
also found in other Anglo-Saxon countries such as the US. and Australia, where the vast
availability of land supports this choice (ISWA, 2002:25ff). Yet, in most of the EU 15 the
landfill directive, and in some cases the limited space, has encouraged the implementation of
various diversion strategies. Only a few countries have managed not only to decrease the
proportion of waste disposal but also to slow down the growth of waste quantities.
Belgium has managed to slow down the growth of MSW, and in some parts of the country
there has even been a decline. 70 % of household waste is collected separately; most of this is
38
reused, composted or recycled. Germany has also succeeded in reducing MSW growth and
deposit through an extensive collection and recovery scheme including mandatory take back
for packaging producers. Similarly, in the Netherlands waste quantities and the amount going
to landfill have been on the rise until 2002, but are now decreasing due to the extended wasteto-energy and recycling schemes (EC, 2005b:432ff).
In the remaining EU-15 countries the successes mainly consist of decrease in waste going to
landfill as a result of recycling and recovery initiatives.
In Austria waste going to landfills has been reduced significantly (in the period 1995-2001) to
composting and recycling activities. Similarly in Sweden only 9% of the MSW is sent to
landfill (EC, 2005b:432ff).
Countries such as Italy and Spain generate quite high waste quantities per capita around 500
kg, however, waste sent to landfill is decreasing slowly due to the establishment of recycling
and recovery programmes often including composting or other types of bio-mechanical
treatment (EC, 2005b:432ff).
Denmark (60%), France (34%) and Portugal (20%) are the EU countries where incineration
so far is used as the main strategy to avoid waste deposit in landfill. In the latter case,
recycling and composting targets are both 26%, however 60% of the waste in Portugal is still
sent to landfill (EC, 2005b:432ff).
Although, Luxemburg has a high waste generation per capita, the country has managed to
create a recycling and recovery system covering 50% of MSW, thus significantly decreasing
the amounts going to landfills. The secondary strategy used is incineration (15%) (EC, 2005b:
:432ff).
Finland appears to be an exception. Whereas the waste generation from households have been
decreasing, this does not seem to be part of an integrated waste management plan as 60% of
the MSW is being landfilled, 29 % is recovered as material, and 9% as energy (EC,
2005b:432ff).
Ireland has made great progress in closing down dumpsites and establishing sanitary landfills.
Furthermore recycling programmes (26% of MSW) have been established successfully. Yet,
because of economic growth combined with the lack of waste management capacity, Ireland
is still facing the challenge of considerable growth of waste quantities (EC, 2005b:432ff).
The slowest progress is found in Greece, where landfill is still the main and until recently
only treatment form. The waste management issues in Greece will be further elaborated
39
All in all, very few countries have succeeded in decreasing the total generation of MSW, even
though most member countries have managed to divert some percentage of waste away from
the landfill by employing recycling or recovery strategies. Recycling of packaging material,
composting and waste-to-energy incineration plants seem to be the most popular methods.
However, most countries face the issue of growing waste quantities which to some extent can
be expected to offset the total decrease of waste going to landfill. The only aspect reported in
the status reports regarding waste prevention is whether the governments have made a waste
prevention plan or not. Most often this seems not to be the case (EC, 2002 and 2003).
Chapter 4: Waste Legislation and Management in Greece
4. 1. The Waste Management Situation in Greece
Greece has a population of around 11 mio. people, out of which approx. 1.3 mio. live in the
islands, covering one fifth of the Greek territory. The yearly production of municipal solid
waste in Greece is estimated to be 4.7 mio. tons of waste per year amounting to 430 kg per
capita/year (EC/Eurostat, 2006, www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece).
Over the last two decades, like in most EU countries the waste production has risen. From
1980-2003 the MSW generation in Greece increased from 2500 tons to 4710 tons due to the
growth of consumption following economic growth (Eurostat, 2006, OECD, 2006). In
Greece, this trend has been supported by heavy growth in urbanisation followed by increased
consumption and changing consumption patterns (Hellenic Environmental Ministry9,
2002:10).
Greece remains one of the few EU (15) countries where the amounts of waste going to landfill
is not decreasing. This can partly be explained by the fact that Greece has been lagging behind
in terms of recycling and recovery activities as well as waste reduction technologies (EC,
2005b 234ff).
4. 1. 1. The National Waste Laws and Authorities
The Greek waste legislation covers all the directives and definitions set by the EU.
Regarding the division of responsibility at the various levels of authority:
9
Officially known as: Hellenic Republic Ministry for Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works
40
•
•
•
The Ministry of Environment and Industrial Works is the responsible authority
regarding enforcement of the EU legislation.
The regional authorities are responsible to the ministry for making regional waste
plans to be reviewed every 5 years
The municipalities are responsible for initiating waste collection and landfill
operation (ESDAK, App. 5b).
In the national waste plan of Greece (2002) a range of objectives are set up corresponding
with the national needs as well as the guidelines of the EU waste hierarchy. No explicit
prioritising is mentioned but some emphasis is given to the rehabilitation of landfills and the
closing of dumpsites. This can be seen in the light of the deadline given to Greece regarding
closing and rehabilitating its landfills and dumpsites before 2008 (App. 5b).
Also awareness campaigns are stressed along with initiatives for furthering source-sorting,
recycling, and the production of energy from waste. In practical terms a number of specific
actions have been planned including: the rehabilitation of landfills and dumpsites, the
construction of mechanical sorting plants, the encouragement of sorting at source projects,
and the development of a PR strategy involving the citizens (Hellenic Environmental
Ministry, 2002:14, National Report of Greece, 2005).
4. 1. 2. The Current Waste Management Practices
In Greece, as in other EU countries, landfill is the main form of waste management.
Furthermore, waste quantities in landfills are increasing rather than decreasing.
Table 6: MSW (kg) generated per Capita per year (1996-2004)
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
337
363
378
393
408
417
423
(Eurostat, 2006)
2003
428
2004
433
Regarding environmental issues, the many illegal landfills and dumpsites (estimated to be
over 2000) are leading to the degradation of surface and groundwater, air pollution, and forest
fires. Some progress has been made concerning recycling schemes, and electricity production
from bio-waste gasses. The latter has increased from 1 GWh in 1999 to 126 GWh in 2002
(EC, 2005b:454, ‘Greek Environmental Ministry’, 2002:10).
In 2004 recycling projects have been started up apparently making efficient use of ‘the
polluter pays’ and ‘the producer responsibility’ principles. Within most waste categories, not
allowed in sanitary landfills, producer-driven recycling organisations have been set up
regarding the following materials: packaging material, batteries and accumulators, ELV,
residue oil and electronic and electric devices. Each organisation has license to operate as the
41
sole operator within its area in Greece and its activities are approved by the Ministry of
Environment and Public Works. The recycling companies are non-profit organisations
financed by their members: the producers related to the certain type of recycled material or
product. Recycling systems are still missing for construction and demolition waste as well as
hazardous waste (National Report, 2002, App. 5b).
Based on what Greece has reported to the EU, it is difficult to gain further insight into how far
Greece has come with the implementation of the different aspects of the national waste plan.
However, landfill still remains the main waste management method in the majority of the
Greek municipalities (EC 2005b:454, App.2f).
According to the landfill directive (1999/35/EC) and the packaging directive (94/62/EC)
Biodegradable Municipal Waste (BMW) and packaging waste going to landfill must be
reduced according to a number of target deadlines (cf. app. 2.). Whereas not much has
happened regarding reducing BMW going to landfill, more has happened regarding packaging
material, and it is estimated the target of 25% recycling of packaging waste in 2005 was
reached (Sifakis and Haidarlis, 2005).
4. 2. Waste Management in Crete
4. 2. 1. Facts about Crete
The isle of Crete covers an area of 8335 km2 and has a population of approx. 600.000
inhabitants. Geographically the island features big regional differences from cities and
villages to mountainous landscapes and more rural areas of olive, vine plantations, and green
house production. Demographically the island is characterised by a concentration of
population in the three main cities on the north coast, and by the more scarcely populated
areas on the south coast and in the far eastern part (www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete).
Crete is divided into four main prefectures (counties) with offices in the four biggest cities on
the north coast. From west to east these are: Chania, Rethymnon, Heraklion and Agios
Nikolaos situated in Lassithi prefecture. Some confusion arises from the fact that the first
three prefectures and their main cities share the same names. The highest political authority in
the island is the regional authority level of Crete headed by the general secretary instituted by
the government. The capital of the island is the city of Heraklion with around 140.000
residents. The service sector, mainly tourism, represents the island’s main source of economic
income (www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete).
Figure 4: Map of Crete: displaying the four prefectures and their main cities, Xes mark the
sanitary landfills).
42
4. 2. 2. Current Waste Management Practices in Crete
The current waste situation in Crete is similar to the rest of Greece, where illegal dumping
and landfills are the predominant methods of practice (App.1b, Gidarakos et al., 2005).
Eight sanitary landfills exist in Crete: four in Heraklion, two in Rethymnon, two in Lassithi
and one in Chania. In addition Crete has around 125 illegal dump sites. The main types of
waste at the dump sites are building waste and agricultural waste. Due to the general
requirement by the EU to rehabilitate and close dumpsites in Greece, the rehabilitation and
closing of 95% of the sites in Crete have been planned. A few will be converted into sanitary
landfills, where needed. Burning is common practice in order to create more space.
Occasionally fires start by themselves due the build-up of thermal heat (App. 1b, App. 5b,
visits, 2006).
In line with the rest of Greece, the municipalities are responsible for the collection of MSW as
well as the separate collection of alternative fractions: ELV, oil residues etc. Some of the
collection is licensed to private companies. Most of the collection schemes have only been
started up recently. A sorting unit for packaging material has been established by the Hellenic
Recycling and Recovery Cooperation (HERRCo), the organisation responsible for recycling
packaging material in Greece. So far there are no plans for collection or treatment of C &D or
hazardous waste, apart from batteries.
4. 2. 3. Waste Management Actors in Crete
Chania, the western prefecture of Crete, was the first place to start up waste management
activities beyond landfills in 1993. Some of the municipalities of Chania formed a commonly
owned waste management organisation named DEDISA10. The waste organisation was
established to deal with the serious problems caused by illegal dumping in a gorge near the
city of Chania. After the failed attempt to get through to the politicians, the local
environmental movement wrote to the EU and the municipality of Chania was subsequently
fined by the EU court. DEDISA is responsible for the waste collection and the operation of a
landfill. For a number of years they have facilitated source sorting of paper. In 2005 a
10
abbreviation of the Greek name
43
recycling plant including a mechanical sorting unit and a composting factory were set up.
Furthermore, the source sorting was expanded to include green waste and packaging material
– the latter in cooperation with HERRCo. The waste management experiences of DEDISA
will be elaborated later on.
In 2001 ESDAK, a regional waste management agency was formed. The organisation
employs around 10 people, mostly engineers. The main role of ESDAK is to acts as a
technical advisor assisting the prefectures and municipalities of Crete designing and
implementing the regional waste management plan.
ESDAK is co-funded by its members, approx. 50 municipalities, though it mainly depends on
EU funds for the financing of studies and projects. The members of DEDISA are not likely to
be interested in becoming a part of ESDAK as they have implemented their own system
already (App.1b, 2b).
Finally, a number of private collection and recycling companies are operating in Crete. Of
special significance are the nationally approved recycling organisations that have recently set
up source separation systems in different parts of Greece. Electronic devices and bulky waste
are collected at people’s houses by the municipalities. ELV and batteries are collected by
private companies and tyres are gathered from the auto-mechanic repair shops. Used cooking
oil is used for soap production or refined for bio-diesel. Most collected recyclable materials
are shipped to Athens for further treatment, whereas the bulky waste is sent to landfill (App.
1b, 1d, 5b).
4. 2. 4. The Regional Waste Management Plan of Crete
Waste problems have been an issue in Crete for the past 20 years. However, despite much
debate and many proposals of various plans not much has happened until recently.
According to ESDAK, the regional plan entails the following components:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
A more rational plan of landfill service providing a more practical distribution of
landfills for the municipalities.
Rehabilitation and/or expansion of the sanitary landfills
Construction of two transfer stations
The establishment of a sorting plant for packaging waste (conducted by HERRCo)
Establishment of a pre-treatment plant at one of the transfer stations, meant to reduce
the waste volume by applying thermal heat technology.
Establishment of 3 treatment plants for agricultural waste in Chania, Messara and
Ierapetra.
Finally, a central waste treatment plant which is to include waste-to-energy
technology.
44
Regarding the financing of the plan, in 2006 ESDAK was granted 32 mio. Euro from the
Cohesion Fund for: landfill rehabilitations/expansions, transfer stations and a pre-treatment
plant.
Rehabilitation of five landfills has now been initiated. Furthermore, about 95% of the illegal
landfills in Crete are to be rehabilitated or closed down in the near future (App. 5b, 1b).
The pre-treatment plant is estimated to reduce the water content of the waste with approx.
25% and consequently the weight will be reduced accordingly. In addition, the waste will be
bailed before landfill. Apart from abiding by the EU law regarding deposit, the purpose of the
pre-treatment plant is also to take off some of the pressure from the overfilled landfills of
Heraklion. The plant is supposed to be built at one of the transfer stations, however a location
for these have not been found yet (App. 1d). People have already begun marching with black
flags, indicating a rebellion against the establishment of the pre-treatment plant (App. 5b, 2f).
4. 2. 4. 1. The Central Waste-to-energy Treatment Plant
The waste-to-energy-plant was at first meant to be situated at the dump site near the village of
Varvara, intended for rehabilitation into a proper landfill. Due to strong local resistance,
however, another location had to be found. The EU gave ESDAK until the end of 2006 to
implement the plan otherwise the grant would have to be returned. ESDAK is still looking for
locations for the pre-treatment plant as well as the waste-to-energy plant (App.1b).
The waste-to-energy plant is to be run by a public-private organisation owned by ESDAK,
possibly with the municipalities and private partners in charge of the day-to day operation.
However, the structure of the organisation has not been agreed upon yet and the plan does not
specify what type of treatment technology is to be used. Although all parties agree that the
plant should engage in waste-to-energy production and should be located near the capital of
Heraklion, the most densely populated area of Crete. At one point there were plans about
building an incineration plant. Yet, so far this has been stalled mainly because of a new law
prescribing specific procedures regarding the establishment of waste management facilities
(App.1d, 5b).
At present a study is being conducted regarding an appropriate plant location based on
logistical and economic criteria. Olga Christou, an engineer at ESDAK, estimates that it might
take several years before the waste-to-energy plant will be finished (App. 1d, 5b).
4. 2. 5. The Estimated Waste Flow of Crete
The general picture of the waste flow in Crete is characterized by two tendencies: First of all
waste quantities are increasing. Secondly, a shift in waste composition has taken place due to
45
increased urbanisation and economic growth (Gidarakos et al.2005, Koufodimos and
Samaras, 2001, Filis et al., 1996, OANAK, 2004).
4. 2. 5. 1. Waste Quantities
Due to illegal dumping and the lack of weighing bridges at most landfills, the estimation of
waste quantities are based on previous studies of MSW generated in kg per resident per day in
Greece. A study of the local waste flow in Crete proposes the following key figures:
•
•
•
•
For communities with a population less than 10.000 residents:0,8 kg/resident/day.
For communities with a population more than 10.000 residents:1 kg/resident/day.
For the municipalities of Rhetymnon, Iearpetra, and Agios Nikolaos (larger
municipalities) 1 kg per day
For the municipality of Heraklion (the capital) 1, 2 kg/resident/day.The mean
produced quantity of MSW per tourist per day: 1, 2 kg (Gidarakos et al.:4, 2005)
The following table shows the estimated waste quantities distributed on prefectures.
Table 7: (Gidarakos et al.: 4, 2005)
Prefecture
Population
MSW
MSW
Tourist
Tourist MSW
Total
Total
Kg/d
ton/y
MSW Kg/d
ton/y
MSW
MSW
kg/d
ton/y
Rethymnon
81.976
71.378
26.053
24.113
5.064
105.040
34.228
Heraklion
292.489
289.522
105.676
52.936
11.117
376.704
128.471
Lassithi
57.290
66.301
24.200
16.670
3.501
75.499
30.471
Total
431.755
427.201
155.928
93.719
19.681
557.243
193.170
Chania excl.
The graph above shows, a gradual growth in waste quantities taking place during the tourism
season, which peaks in August.
46
Figure 5: The seasonal variation of waste quantities in Crete
(Gidarakos et al.:7, 2005)
4. 2. 5. 2. Waste Composition
The most striking change in the waste composition is that the fraction of packaging waste
(especially plastic and paper) is growing, while organic waste is declining, yet it still remains
the predominant fraction. Although the data is not substantial for too heavy generalisations it
is likely that such a tendency would occur, considering the shift to a modern lifestyle. E.g. the
increased consumption of more densely packaged food compared to previous consumption of
home-grown food. Furthermore, studies of waste composition in Greece seem to show that
consumption patterns in urban areas differ from those of rural areas by having a substantially
higher percentage of packaging waste (Gidarakos et al.: 7, 2005, Koufodimos, George and
Samaras, Zissis, 2002:10).
The most recent study, conducted by Gidarakos et. al (2005), indicates that the increase of
packaging waste appears to be even more pronounced in Crete than on the mainland. It seems
reasonable to assume that the main explanation for this is Crete’s status as one of the largest
tourist resorts of Greece. Thus case studies in Greece and Southern Europe indicate that
tourists not only produce more waste but also waste of a certain type involving more
packaging material. Similar waste patterns are found near big cities. Furthermore, tourism is
known to influence the local population towards a more ‘modern life style’ (Koufodimos,
George and Samaras, Zissis, 2002, Magrinho et al, 2006:1484, Berkun, 2005:850).
The diagram below shows the estimated annual waste composition (wet weight), where
organic, plastic and paper account for 76%. The inert fraction is very low because
construction and demolition waste is usually dumped and not disposed of in the landfills
(Gidarakos et al:6f, 2005).
47
Figure 6: Annual Waste Composition of Crete
(Gidarakos et al, 2005:674)
The waste flow study of the three prefectures identifies various seasonal trends, some of
which seem to be linked to tourism. E.g. in touristy areas, glass represents approx. 6,5 % of
the waste in summertime and only around 4% in wintertime (Gidarakos et al.:2005:675ff).
The same goes for aluminium, which is registered around 2% in the summer and autumn,
while only 1% in wintertime (Gidarakos et al.:2005:675). The high amounts of plastic in
autumn can be explained by what is termed as the ‘green effect’ derived from the green
houses and their substantial use of plastic material.
Figure 7: The seasonal variation of the waste composition
(
(Gidarakos et al. 2005: 675)
48
Agricultural production accounts for most of the production activities in Crete. Organic
agricultural waste includes waste from green house production of vegetables and waste
products from olive and wine production. Most of it is either burned or dumped (app. 5b, 2d).
Plastic from the green houses is known to create a significant rise in plastic waste during the
winter season. The table below shows the total production of 193.170 ton MSW t/y
distributed on fractions.
Table 8: Waste Composition and quantities (the decimals have been rounded off)
Fractions
Organic
Plastic
Paper
Glass
Metal11
%
39
17
19
5
5
t/y
75.626
32.549
37.166
10.296
9.562
Misc.12
14
26.967
However, the figures above are not up-dated. Regarding the population of Crete, the most
recent figures available are from 2001, whereas the figures dealing with the inflow of tourists
are from the year 2002. Since then both the population and the inflow of tourists have
increased. Moreover, according to the waste management organisations in Chania, there are
indications that the waste quantities generated per capita are even larger than estimated by the
latest study, for the region of Chania. An unofficial estimate is that the waste generation per
capita is above one 1 kg per capita for the region of Chania (App.2f).
Furthermore, the experience of DEDISA indicates that the packaging fraction (mainly paper
and plastic) is much larger than assumed by the latest study, whereas the organic fraction has
declined to around 35%. Since the latest study found on MSW composition in Greece is from
2002, this would not be a useful source of comparison to these trends. However, a declining
organic fraction combined with an increase in packaging materials appears to a general
pattern in Southern Europe (Berkun et al., 2005:850, Margrinho et al.2002:, Koufodimos,
George et al. 2002:6ff). As, the above-mentioned trends are likely to be similar in other parts
of Crete a new study will be conducted to follow up on the latest development in the waste
quantities. In this report the figures above will therefore be viewed as ‘the minimum waste
generation scenario’. Moreover, it will be taken into account that the organic fraction is likely
to be smaller than assumed by the latest study of waste composition in Crete.
11
12
Metal includes: alu: 1% + other types of metal:4%.
Miscellaneous includes: Misc.6% + 3% inert + 5% Leather/Textile/Rubber/Wood = 14%
49
Chapter 5: Tourism and Waste
The following section characterises the development of tourism in Crete as a background for
understanding the link between tourism and the waste issues of the island. Furthermore, the
incentives of the tour operators and the hotels are examined as a potential driver of
environmental awareness and improved waste management.
As in most OECD countries, the service sector in Greece contributes with the main part of the
commercial waste production (around 69, 5%) (OECD, 2005). In Crete, the tertiary sector
generates 78% of the regional ‘GDP’ and represents around 50% of the employment (REAC,
2006). Tourism is one of the main service industries in Greece, adding directly and indirectly
to waste generation in terms of economic growth as well as adding to the population during
the tourist season. The Greek government predicts a yearly 3,8% economical growth of the
national tourism sector (Greek Tourism Report, 2006).
Although the seasonal amount of waste generated from tourists in Crete only represents
between 14-25%13 (cf. app. 1.1 ), it can be assumed that the economic importance of the
industry could provide incentives for ensuring the natural resources of the tourism destination.
5. 1. The Tourism Development in Crete
Tourism development in Crete started in the 60ties and 70ties resulting in a transition from an
agricultural economy to a tourism-based economy. Crete has experienced one of the fastest
tourism growth rates in Greece. Over a period of some thirty years (1971- 2000) the number
of arrivals increased from around 15.000 to almost 2.5 mill. tourists on an annual basis
(Andriotis, 2003: 25). The latest figures point towards between 3-3.4 mio. tourists annually
(REAC 2006, App. 4d).
To a large extent, the tourism market in Crete is dominated by European Tour Operators.
Likewise the source markets are mainly European. In the year 2000, the most frequent
nationalities in Crete were registered as northern Europeans with a distribution of: 29%
Germans, 18% Scandinavians, and 17 % British tourists. The national tourists account for
only approx. 6% (Koutoulas, 2006:1f, Andriotis, 2003:28f).
The tourist season stretches from April to October, the peak season being July and August.
Crete is considered a family destination with around 42% being families with children, 38%
of the arrivals couples and 20% of the tourists are singles (Andriotis, 2003: 28f).
13
Depending on the annual inflow of tourists- estimated to be between 2.5 – 3 mill. tourist
50
5. 1. 1. Tourism Policies
Generally in Greece, various policies have been formulated in order to deal with the problems
resulting from uncontrolled tourism development. A law was passed in 1986 supporting the
upgrading of the Greek Tourism product by only allowing construction of high-class hotels in
areas with a high concentration of accommodation. In some cases, areas have been declared
as ‘Saturated Tourist Areas’ and no construction of accommodation establishments are
allowed (Andriotis, 2001: 299f).
Since the late 70ties, tourism development and the general development of the Cretan society
was highly prioritised by the Greek government and the island also had a number of
development projects co-funded by the EU (Andriotis, 2001:30f).The distribution of funds
reflected the degree of urban development with Heraklion prefecture receiving the most funds
followed by the prefectures of Chania, Rethymnon and Lassithi. The biggest investment areas
being infrastructure, urban development and environment 14(Andriotis, 2001:30ff).
Yet, these measures, along with the general tourism policy in Crete, have focused exclusively
on creating tourism growth without considering the natural and cultural resources or the needs
of the local community, resulting in negative effects on the quality of tourist services and the
life-quality of the host community (Andriotis, 2001:309).
To deal with these problems the regional tourism policy has over the last decade incorporated
the following objectives in accordance with the overall national development plan for Crete
(Anagnostopoulou et al., 1996 and Region of Crete, 1995b; 1998 in Andriotis, 2001):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Maximisation of tourism’s contribution to the economy
Conservation of environmental and cultural resources
Upgrading and diversifying the tourist product and
Better seasonal and geographical distribution of tourism activity.
Attraction of the upmarket clientele by targeting the high spending segments of
affluent markets
Improvement and provision of infra- and superstructure
Promotion of alternative forms of tourism
Promotion of new destinations away from the traditional coastal resorts
Strengthen the island’s identity by promoting cultural, historical and traditional values
Raising of awareness for sustainable living patterns
Co-ordination of all bodies involved in tourism.
Yet, the efficiency of the tourism policies, according to Andriotis (2001), suffers from the
deficits of the public system inhibiting the efficiency of the regional tourism policies and
resulting in the inappropriate use of resources. The main barriers have been identified to be:
14
Not further defined probably refers to the development of e.g. water supply and sewage systems
51
•
The lack of decision making autonomy of the islands authorities, impeding the
development of an integrated regional policy
•
The extremely complex and fragmented administrative system with varying degrees of
tourism responsibility and the lack of systematic collaboration and coordination
between public sector bodies and a large number of staff without the necessary skills.
•
Very limited incorporation of the community in the development and planning process
including the private tourism sector which is further discouraged by the public sector’s
complexity, bureaucracy and lack of cooperative mechanisms.
A continuous focus on large scale luxury resorts still contributes to mass tourism and
does not support diversification and support for small scale traditional or eco-tourism
establishments.
(Anagnostopoulou et al., 1996:32 in Andriotis, 2001:305ff, Andriotis, 2001:210,307f).
•
5. 1. 2. The Impact of Tourism
Despite the intensive investments made by the Greek government in Crete’s tourism industry
and infrastructure since the late 70ties, the planning measures to deal with the social and
environmental implications of tourism expansion, have not been addressed sufficiently
(Andriotis 2001 and 2005).
Local studies indicate that a number of tourist destinations in Crete (mainly on the north
coast) have reached the stages of saturation and in some cases perhaps even decline (Buhalis,
2000:106, Andriotis, 2003:23). In any case, uncontrolled building activities, overexploitation of the water resources, increased desertification and uncontrolled waste
generation and dumping are symptoms which undoubtedly are being enforced by tourism.
5. 2. Incentives for supporting ISWM within the Tourism industry
Since the public system has so far not been able to handle waste management satisfactory, it
has been found relevant to look into the interests of central stakeholders of the tourism
industry: the hotels and the tour operators as central players in the Cretan society with the
potential to provide more leverage for the authorities and the establishment of an improved
waste management system.
52
5. 2. 1. The Accommodation Industry in Crete
Accommodation is one of the cornerstones of the tourism industry, also in Crete, and provides
a great number and variety of accommodation establishments ranging from 5 star luxury hotel
chains to camping sites and 2 piece holiday apartments with self-catering. Crete has more
than 3000 accommodation establishments with the capacity of accommodating half a million
guests (www.statistics.gr, 2004-2005, REAC, 2006).
The 4 star hotels and the 2 star apartments are the most typical units when looking at
distribution of bed capacity. Even though the statistical material does not reveal any direct
numbers on the distribution of hotels according to size/bed capacity, an estimation can still be
made, which shows a certain coherence between class and size (c.f. App. A). Regarding
location, the highest concentration of hotels is found in the prefecture of Heraklion followed
by Chania, Rethymno and last Lassithi. Where the biggest concentration of large and/or
luxury hotels are located in Heraklion, Chania has the biggest number of smaller hotels (c.f.
App. A).
5. 2. 2. Green Incentives in the Accommodation Industry
As mentioned above, the cooperation and coordination between the tourism industry and the
authorities in Crete is limited and consequently the supportive role of the hotels in terms of
environment and waste is unexploited.
Apart from a few visible frontrunners within environmental management among the big
luxury hotel chains, not much is known about the opinion of hotel owners and managers in
Greece regarding green hotel management. The enforcement of environmental legislation or
encouragement of voluntary initiatives does not appear to be within the resources of the
authorities alone, therefore incentives must be found elsewhere. The incentives that might
exist for hotels regarding supporting local waste management could include e.g. an economic
incentive in the form of e.g. savings from waste reducing measures. Image is another
economy-related incentive, as tourists are not likely to approve of the presence of dumpsites
in their holiday paradise. Finally, there is the influence of the environmental supplier policies
of the tour operators, which may also affect the hotels. These factors will be looked into in the
analysis.
5. 2. 3. The Green Incentives of the Tour Operators
As mentioned, it appears that some members of the tourism industry, especially the tour
operators, since the 80ties and 90ties have begun to realise the importance of a natural and
litter free holiday environment to their long term business sustainability (WWF, 2000). The
green Supply Chain Management (SCM) initiatives of the tour operators towards their hotel
53
suppliers can be seen as an example of this development. SCM in the tourist industry is
closely related to the concept of ‘Destination Management’. Destination management entails
the complex question of how companies in the upper part of the chain, mainly tour operators,
can influence other partner organisations across geographical and cultural ‘distances’ in order
to have an impact on circumstances important to their product and business - in this case the
quality and the ‘ethics’ of the holiday experience.
5. 2. 3. 1. The Chain Position of the Tour Operators
The tourism industry can be characterised as a mainly buyer-driven chain with especially the
big tour operators as holiday retailers acting as the structuring locus of power in the chain.
The tour operators themselves recognise their powerful position as the direct link to holiday
customers as well as to their destination suppliers covering a variety of local tourism
enterprises (WWF 2000:11, Agenda 21 for tourism). The European holiday market is to a
large extent characterised by a number of relatively big tour operators that own airlines, travel
agencies and in some cases also cruise enterprises and hotel chains. Of course there also exist
a large number of SME tour operators, however, in this case it has been found a more
interesting starting point to look at the larger tour operators, who seem to have the most
influence in Crete and also can be expected to have more bargaining power towards their
hotel suppliers.
The following section will look into what the big tour operators are doing in order to promote
environmentally sound hotel management including proper waste measures towards their
accommodation suppliers.
5. 2. 4. The Green Supply Chain Systems of the Tour Operators
Three relative large tour operators: Thomas Cook (UK), TUI (Germany) and Kuoni
(Switzerland) where asked about the content and form of their supply chain management
systems in terms of greening their accommodation suppliers. Furthermore, they where asked
about the role they had towards their hotel suppliers and their impression of the general
environmental trends among holidays customers and hotels.
5. 2. 4. 1. Monitoring and Tracking Systems
All three tour operators have more or less the same type of inquiries with a few differences in
the stage of implementation and the ‘design’ of the supplier tools used. The supplier
checklists are in all three cases sent out annually, covering the issues of water, energy, and
waste. However, regional patterns are reflected in the monitoring. E.g. the German–speaking
tour operators put more focus on the environment, while Thomas Cook has until recently
mainly focused health and safety due to its high priority for British customers. Furthermore,
TUI and Kuoni have been working with their hotel suppliers on non-economical issues for a
number of years, while Thomas Cook started up recently. The set-up of the systems shows
that the three tour operators are at different stages in terms of tracking the progress of their
54
suppliers. At TUI, the data has been part of a systematic tracking system regarding energy and
water consumption for more than a decade. At Kuoni, they had collected data for a number of
years but have not yet developed systematic track keeping to the same degree. In the case of
Thomas Cook (UK), they have just initiated the second monitoring round and are still
gathering a picture of the present state of affairs at the hotels. Thomas Cook on the other hand
seems to have developed a broader sustainability agenda from the beginning where Kuoni and
TUI has more narrowly been focused on the environment.
5. 2. 4. 2. Supportive Measures
In the case of Kuoni, a quarterly newsletter including good advice and accessible tips on
different environmental topics are being sent out to the hotels. They have also organised
workshops on environmental issues for hotels at a few selected destinations. However, the
latter turned out to be too resource consuming and the environmental manager of Kuoni
suggested that the federal level such as national or regional hotel associations would be more
realistic forums for such activities (App.21).
Thomas Cook have held training sessions for their travel agent staff and are producing a video
on responsible tourism principles to be used for teaching at destinations teaching hotels and
customers (App. 22).
Both TUI and TC have developed handbooks for their hotel partners. As part of the
Federation of Tour Operators (FTO) in the UK, TC has taking part in FTO’s development of a
common Supplier Code of Conduct or Supplier Handbook as they prefer to call it, to give it a
more informal character. In the development process outside feedback has been sought from
NGOs, hotels and other tour operators. Apart from the on-line self-check list, the hotel
supplier site will also give access to updated information and tools among other things
including environmental issues. TUI has developed and distributed its own environmental
handbook for hotels (App. 21, 23).
Environmental audits can also be seen as a supportive measure in the sense that the auditors
can provide the hotel with good advice and incentives to change inappropriate behaviour also
in cases of no formal EMS. The tour operators all performed occasional audits, mostly in the
form of spot checking audits as a response to positive or negative feedback from travel agents.
Both the monitoring and the audits are used as grounds for giving awards and recognition.
Thus all three are using positive marketing exposure as a motivating factor by recognising the
efforts of their hotel partners with green logos and awards.
The managers from the three tour operators agree that their role is to ‘sensibilise’ their hotel
partners towards environmental issues. However, in the case of TUI filling out the checklist is
required in the supplier contract.
55
5. 2. 4. 3. Trends at the Hotel Suppliers
As Thomas Cook (UK) has only started the monitoring recently, the feedback on trends
spotted from the annual monitoring mainly comes from TUI and Kuoni. Both Kuoni and TUI
report an increase in participation in their environmental programmes and in the feedback on
the questionnaires. The environmental manager of Kuoni notes that especially energy and
water saving practices were spreading. The distribution of these trends regarding size and
regions has however not been registered. As data on waste is not monitored the managers
interviewed did not have an impression of trends regarding waste (App. 21, 22, 23).
Despite the increased attention given to the hotels undertaking environmental actions, neither
of the Tour Operators has experienced any clear demand for green holidays or hotels, but so
far no track keeping systems of the nature of customer inquiries have been developed.
5. 3. Summary
The tourism industry represents between 10-25% of the MSW generation in Crete, but more
importantly it contributes enormously to the local economy.
Crete has experienced a rapid growth in tourism development from the beginning of the
60ties, resulting in a significant increase of living standards. However, the price has been
environmental as well as cultural degradation. So far national, as well as regional tourism
policies have not been able to remedy this development, due the inefficiency and lack of
cooperative mechanisms in the public sector.
Therefore incentives within the tourism industry have been considered as an important source
of potential community support for the changes required in the waste management system.
An intact environment is by some of the central players of the tourism industry recognised as
a precondition for the long-term business sustainability of the industry. A number of
European tour operators have therefore developed green supply chain systems for their hotel
suppliers with the aim of facilitating environmental awareness at the destinations. These
involve, among other things: monitoring questionnaires, distribution of information on green
hotel management and award and recognition systems (cf. an overview of the tour operators
green supply chain systems app. C).
In the analysis the supportive role of the tour operators and the hotels as well as their
community influence will be discussed in relation to local waste management options.
56
Chapter 6: Theoretical Framework
In the following section the aim is to develop a conceptual frame that will serve as an
appropriate tool for examining the issue of waste management as proposed in the problem
formulation.
The first part of the chapter deals with waste management theories as a background for the
second part, where the concept of Integrated Solid Waste Management Planning is developed.
Finally, the definition of ISWM is made ‘operational’ in relation to the case in the analysis
strategy.
6. 1. An Integrated Approach to Solid Waste Management
The definition used earlier defined solid waste management as:
“The purposeful systematic control of the generation, storage, collection, transport
segregation, processing, recycling, recovery, and disposal of solid wastes” (ISWA, 1992).
The term ‘Integrated Waste Management’ is often used, but is rarely defined more
specifically. The word integrated vaguely indicates some kind of holistic approach. White et
al. have defined it loosely as an approach taking an overall perspective on waste by
incorporating environmental as well as economical, and social factors (White et al, 2001).
This definition is very similar to the rubber concept of ‘sustainable development’. However,
when applied to a specific case it makes sense to discuss whether various waste management
options are environmentally and economically feasible as well as socially legitimate. The
study therefore prescribes a contextual approach, stressing the need for including case specific
criteria in order to find relevant, local solutions. The environmental, economic and social
parameters will be elaborated in the analysis strategy.
6. 1. 2. An Integrated Waste Management System
On a more concrete level waste management is practised in the context of a specific waste
management system be it on a municipal, regional, or national level.
A very important point regarding an integrated waste management system is seeing waste
management as a whole. Thus activities such as sorting, collection, disposal, and treatment
systems should be designed as interrelated parts of the system. If the system is not working as
an integrated whole this will be reflected in the overall efficiency. This condition is referred to
as ‘system coherency’.
One of the most important preconditions of an integrated waste management system is waste
separation. Ensuring the treatment of waste streams according to their physical and chemical
characteristics requires purely sorted fractions both in terms of exploiting the resource
57
potential and in terms of reducing the potential negative environmental damages. Further
treatment, especially recycling and recovery, thus depends on the degree of purity of the
sorted fractions (White et al. 2001:15ff, 193). Furthermore, different waste treatment
technologies set different demands for the sorting system. E.g. bio-gasification technology
involves different specific requirements for the system in the form of a sufficiently pure
organic fraction ensuring optimum operation and energy efficiency thus requires a wellfunctioning collection and sorting system.
Another aspect related to system coherency, is the flexibility of the system. A certain degree
of system flexibility is necessary in order to adjust to local conditions such as changes in
demographic features, market prices, legal requirements, or consumption patterns (White et
al. 2001:19). E.g. to avoid deposit or ensure proper treatment of fractions which are not in
demand, system flexibility is required in order to adapt to changes in the market for secondary
materials.
The concept of integrated waste management, presented above, can be used as a starting point
but is very general and does not clarify all the possible perspectives applicable to the issue of
waste. The study therefore assumes that a definition must be viewed within the context of one
or several specified understandings of waste, deciding which practical measures are given
priority, making the arguments behind different technological options more transparent.
6. 2. Theoretical Perspectives on Waste Management
The following section will present a brief overview of some of the prevailing theoretical
perspectives on waste as a background for the integrated perspective applied in this study. I
here distinguish between two overall approaches termed: a treatment-oriented approach and a
preventive approach (Kjær, 2006). The aim is to select which aspects and theories within
these two approaches are relevant to include in the conceptual framework of the study.
6. 2. 1. A Treatment-oriented Approach
As the term implies, a treatment-oriented approach has its main focus on which waste
treatment methods or technologies are relevant to apply. ‘Treatment’ in this study mainly
refers to technologies dealing with the waste phase, when a certain material or product has
been estimated to be of no further use in the material cycle. It could therefore be argued that
even though this stage of the material cycle is important and necessary to address, it does not
take the resource saving potential of the whole material cycle into consideration.
One of the most significant examples of a treatment-orientation is the Waste Hierarchy
established by the European Commission as one of the main guiding principles of waste
management in the EU (Kjær, 2006).
58
As outlined in the waste hierarchy, waste prevention is a top priority. However, in practice it
seems that not much attention has been given to the issue of waste prevention (Danish EPA,
2000:9, EC, 2005c:17f). As mentioned above, a recent working report from the European
Commission states that the waste prevention potential is clearly underexploited (EC,
2005c:17f).This tendency to neglect prevention is similarly reflected in the lack of
specification in EU waste policies and reports. E.g. in the EU commission’s status reports on
the implementation of the EU waste legislation the topic is hardly mentioned (EC, 2000, EC,
2003). When assessing the status of waste management in the EU, the landfill directive and its
goal of diverting specific waste streams away from the landfill appears to be the main focus
compared to the overall aim of reducing the waste flow. In a report from the EU research
institution on waste management, only two out of 10 best case practices are related to waste
prevention (EUWTC, 2002).
Thus there appears to be more focus on the lower levels of the hierarchy. Treating waste
materials at the end of the material cycle is what the term waste management generally refers
to. However, when it is isolated and not integrated as part of a wider resource saving strategy,
it can be argued that it is reduced to an end-of-pipe approach.
6. 2. 2. A Preventive Waste Management Approach
As opposed to a reactive approach, characterised by treating or reducing the ‘symptoms’ of
the problem rather than its cause, a preventive approach seeks to prevent waste generation at
the source. The preventive perspective is naturally linked to the material cycle and how the
material flow can be optimised in order to save resources and prevent unnecessary waste
emissions. A preventive approach does not involve any further criteria than this and will
therefore be exemplified below through various theories as alternatives to an exclusive
treatment orientation.
6. 2. 2. 1. Life Cycle Analysis and Material Flow Account
Two methods representing a potentially preventive approach are Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)
and Material Flow Account (MFA). Both methods view waste issues as material flows,
usually starting from the extraction and transport of raw materials to the production processes,
consumption, and treatment, or final disposal. The important thing from this viewpoint is
therefore to control the different stages of the material flows in a way that avoids causing
damage to the environment (Christensen et al., 2002:18f). However, there is a tendency for
these methods to stress different parts of the material cycle. Whereas the LCA method puts
more focus on the output of the cycle, MFA more often focuses the input side, thereby
emphasising how the sources of input are related to the generation of waste. It can therefore
be argued that LCA applies what could be termed a waste reduction orientation with the aim
of minimising the waste emissions along the material flow whereas the MFA perspective can
be said to be more oriented towards preventing waste generation at the source (Christensen et
59
al. 2002:18f). Depending on the purpose of the study the methods can be applied to specific
substances or bulk material flows on different geographical scales; local, regional, or national.
6. 2. 2. 2. Supply Chain Management (SCM)
The concept of Supply Chain Management was originally developed around solving logistic
issues in especially manufacturing industries. Lately its scope has been expanded to include a
number of subjects. Among others cost efficiency, improved product quality, and in some
cases the enforcement of CSR or environmental product policies towards suppliers (PriceWaterhouse Coopers, 2004).
A central concept in Supply Chain Management theory is the notion of ‘Global Value
Chains’, implying that the amount of value added at the different tiers of the chain reflects the
power relations between the companies in the chain. According to this theory the extent to
which it is possible to reduce the negative environmental impacts, within the chain, depends a
lot on industry specific drivers and barriers. First of all, it depends on the locus of power in
the supply chain and whether the key actors have an incentive to initiate green chain
initiatives. Furthermore, the structure of the chain is an important factor (Gereffi and
Memdovic, 2003:4ff). Some industries have very complex chains with many outsourced
functions making it difficult to analyse and implement environmental measures, even if the
incentive is there. The tourism industry e.g. is a very fragmented industry and also the bigger
players such as the large tour operators have very extensive networks of accommodation and
transportation suppliers, making green SCM a complicated matter. In theory, however, supply
chain cooperation has the scope for facilitating waste prevention.
6. 2. 2. 3. Cleaner Production (CP)
The concept of ‘Cleaner Production’ was developed by the US. Environmental Protection
Agency as a tool for reducing the negative environmental effects of industrial production.
Simultaneously, it was intended to help reduce the environmental protection costs that had
been growing due to the increased requirements (EPA, 1988). The Cleaner Production15
concept can, in relation to the hotel industry, be boiled down to the following three steps:
1. Waste Reduction or Avoidance
2. Internal reuse or recycling within the waste producing unit
3. External recycling e.g. in the form of energy recovery.
The CP model can be seen as an equivalent to the Waste Hierarchy. Only the focus has been
shifted to the industrial unit, thereby moving closer to the source of waste generation.
15
The later most widely used definition has been coined by UNEP: “The continuous application of an integrated
preventive environmental strategy to processes, products and services to increase eco-efficiency and reduce
risks to humans and the environment”(UNEP, 1994 in Van Berke, 2000).
60
The first step termed ‘waste reduction’, does not only prevent pollution, but also saves
valuable raw material by reducing the amount of input. The second step refers to materials
that can either be reused directly or be recycled in a different form after more elaborate
treatment, though still within the same production unit. The third step involves materials no
longer serving a purpose but having the potential to be reused or recycled externally by a
different production unit.
The CP approach is relevant when looking at the preventive potential of a single organisation.
Although the external dimension can also be seen as relates to concepts such as ‘eco- clusters’
or ‘industrial ecology’ in which resource-optimisation takes place through material exchange
between industrial units, usually situated at the same location (Van Berkel, 2000).
What the presented approaches have in common is the possibility of waste prevention at
source. The difference is that they relate to different levels of application. However, as the
table below shows the approaches can be complimentary and/or overlapping.
Level of Application
Micro level (Company)
Meso level (Regional or industry level)
Macro level ( National)
Preventive Approach
CP
SCM, MFA/LCA,
MFA/LCA
E.g. a Cleaner Production approach could be used as a methodology applied by individual
companies involved in a Supply Chain Management initiative or in a regional Material Flow
Account project with the aim of industrial symbiosis.
In the following I will discuss which aspects of the presented approaches are relevant to
integrate with the normative concept of Integrated Waste Management while also being
relevant to the research question and case at hand.
6. 3. Development of a Theoretical Framework
6. 3. 1. Theory and Case
A treatment and preventive approach to waste management are not seen as mutually exclusive
but rather as complimentary. However, the treatment approach will be more predominant and
by focusing on the MSW flow the study will mainly deal with the waste phase of the material
cycle. This is due to the fact that most waste prevention takes place in the production process,
the industrial activities in Crete being limited.
61
Like the rest of Greece, Crete is facing the accumulated waste issues as a result of 20 years of
more or less uncontrolled deposit and illegal dumping. At least in parts, this situation can be
said to reflect the treatment approach of the authorities. Similar to most EU countries, this
approach has primarily resulted in a deposit strategy. It therefore seems relevant with a basic
discussion of what treatment options are relevant from an environmental and technical as well
as a social, and economic perspective in order to ease the strain on the overfilled landfills and
the local environment.
Besides discussing treatment options, exploring the preventive approach seems highly
relevant as a supplement to the waste management practices so far carried out in Crete. Since
industrial production is limited and imported goods are difficult for the authorities to control,
I have chosen to look into the MSW flows of the hotels as a central part of the tourism
industry in Crete. The waste reduction possibilities of the hotels will be based on the
principles of Cleaner Production. These will be adapted to suit the hotel service product in the
analysis strategy. In addition, the study also looks into the supply chain relations between the
tour operators and the hotels, their accommodation suppliers. As more and more European
tour operators have developed environmental policies it is interesting to examine how these
policies address waste issues and how they are presented to the hotels. Due to the nature of
the tourist-product, being a holiday experience, the material flow is not directly in focus as it
would be between e.g. a mobile phone manufacturer and a supplier of semi-processed
components. In this case, the contribution of the chain perspective is to highlight the more
indirect influence of the tour operators as trendsetters and facilitators of environmental
awareness at the hotels.
Before going on to the more specific analysis strategy it is relevant to round up the discussion
of what criteria should guide the design of an integrated waste management system with the
concept of Eco-efficiency.
6. 3. 2. Eco-efficiency as an Ideal for Integrated Waste Management Planning
The concept of eco-efficiency is introduced because it adds a new dimension to a treatment as
well as a prevention-orientation.
Regarding prevention, eco-efficiency not only focuses on waste reduction at source, it also
emphasises resource optimisation in the form of increased market and consumer value. The
World Council for Sustainable Development defines eco-efficiency more specifically as:
“The delivery of competitively priced goods and services that satisfy human needs and bring
quality of life, while progressively reducing the ecological impact and resource intensity
62
through out the life cycle to a level at least in line with the earth’s estimated carrying
capacity (www.wbcsd.ch16).
Naturally, this definition still leaves some space for interpretation regarding what the
estimated carrying capacity of the earth actually is. The UN has suggested a vision for
sustainability based on the concept of eco-efficiency named Factor 10. By reducing the
consumption of raw materials with 90%, factor 10 aims at leaving the future generations with
the same or even increased amount of resources compared to the present supply (Christensen
et al. 2002:15). As mentioned above, the influence on production and the input of raw
material is limited in Crete. Instead the prevention potential rather lies in waste preventive
purchasing policies and waste reduction measures.
In terms of treatment, the EU Waste Hierarchy represents the official guidelines for waste
management in Greece. It was argued above that in practice the waste hierarchy has mainly
represented a reactive approach. Furthermore, it can give the impression of a fixed order of
priority not necessarily considering how the local conditions affect treatment feasibility. As
various local studies point out, the hierarchy should be seen as a guideline that does not
provide specific assessments of local needs and conditions (Gidarakos et. Al, 2005:2, Filis E.
et al. 2002). It is therefore important to consider how the hierarchy can be applied to the local
waste management system in Crete. This will be further looked into in the following section
on the analysis strategy. First however, it is relevant to examine how the principles of the
waste hierarchy can be viewed from an eco-efficiency point of view.
From an eco-efficient perspective, the deposit of waste in a landfill17 represents a waste of
resources. Therefore the remaining parts of the hierarchy concerning recycling and resource
recovery should be exploited and given priority where possible. The following model presents
a revised hierarchy seeking to elaborate the concept of eco-efficient waste management on a
practical level. CP principles has been suggested as one possible, specific measure for
attainment of waste prevention. The category of recovery has been divided in specific and
general recovery. The distinction indicates that with a higher degree of sorting, a purely
recovered material maintains specific properties, thus being applicable for more specific uses.
As opposed to this, general recovery to a lesser degree depends on the sorting quality and the
material properties. The elaborated hierarchy is seen as a background for discussing relevant
waste treatment options in Crete.
16
http://www.wbcsd.ch/templates/TemplateWBCSD5/layout.asp?type=p&MenuId=MTE1MQ&doOpen=1&Click
Menu=LeftMenu
17
Landfills assumed to be without landfill gas exploitation.
63
Figure. 8: The elaborated waste hierarchy
1. Waste prevention
Through promotion of CP principles adapted to suit relevant industries
applied through out the material cycle.
2
Reuse: Direct use of the waste product for its original intended purpose
3.
Recycling: use of waste material for its original intended purpose after treatment
Focus of an eco-efficient
approach
4.
Specific recovery: use of the waste material for substitution in another product e.g. *
Requiring some degree of fraction purity.
5.
General recovery: e.g. Incineration with energy recovery or the use of materials
not fit for recycling or energy recovery for road construction filling).
6.
Waste disposal in landfill
(Source: adapted from The Environmental Protection Agency of Copenhagen, 2000-2004:15.)
With an eco-efficiency approach to the waste hierarchy in mind as the environmental guiding
principle, I will move on to another central concept.
6. 3. 3. Stakeholder Participation
A final aspect found important to add to the concept of ISWM is stakeholder participation.
The UN summits on sustainability and development held in Rio (1992) and later in
Johannesburg (2000) emphasised partnerships across national borders, sectors, policy areas
and civil organisations as an essential precondition for addressing the global environmental
challenges (Witte, 2002). Similarly, this study assumes that in order to find viable waste
management solutions, it is crucial for the authorities to involve the local stakeholders.
As tourism plays a very important role in Crete, it seems relevant to look for community
support for an integrated waste management system within the stakeholders of the tourism
industry.
6. 3. 4. Summary of the ISWM concept
The different dimensions of the Integrated Solid Waste Management concept developed are
illustrated by the model below.
64
Figure 9: The ISWM concept (own model)
Sustainability
dimensions:
Environmental
economic &
social dimension
Eco-efficiency
As a green
ideal for
treatment &
Prevention
System
Coherency
ISWM
Stakeholder
(Destination)
Perspective
Contextual
Apptoach
The dimensions of ISWM are linked together to illustrate their interconnectedness. As the
purpose is to give an overview of the concept and its components, summarised below, these
overlaps will not be addressed in detail.
A contextual or case specific approach involves taking the local waste management
situation into account when discussing relevant technological options and the role of
the tourism industry.
The principle of ‘system coherency’ concerns how different technical options affect
the flexibility and coherency of the system again determining the overall efficiency of
dealing with the MSW flow.
The ‘sustainability dimensions’ of integrated waste management involves taking
environmental, economic as well as social factors into consideration when looking at
waste management solutions. Also technical viability will be taken into account, being
directly linked to the general treatment feasibility and environmental performance.
o The environmental dimension is based on the concept of eco-efficiency seen as an
ideal approach focusing on optimising resources and preventing waste at the
source by including as many of the phases of the material cycle as possible.
o The social dimension refers to the importance of including the interests of the
relevant stakeholders in the community.
65
6. 3. 5. The Integrated Solid Waste Management Planning Circle
In order to place the concept of Integrated Solid Waste Management within a planning
context, I have found it relevant to develop a second model based on what could be termed as
‘the planning circle’ and the concept of Sustainability Impact Assessment, (SIA). These
concepts have been found useful for creating a progressive framework of analysis based on an
ISWM approach.
The ‘planning circle’ also known from quality and environmental management as the ‘Plan,
Do, Check, Act’ concept, contributes with a progressive element, stressing waste management
planning as a continuous and iterative process throughout the various phases of mapping,
implementing, evaluating etc. As mentioned above, stakeholder participation is seen as crucial
to the implementation of a plan. Tools such as Environmental Impact Assessment and
Strategic Environmental Assessment both contain this element in the form of a mandatory
public hearing process. The concept of SIA distinguishes itself from these tools as it
incorporates economic and social parameters on an equal basis with environmental concerns.
Secondly, it stresses the participation of relevant stakeholders already in the strategic stages of
the planning process as opposed to SEA, which only addresses the public during the hearing
phase. The SIA model, like SEA, is used on programmes and plans, but has no restrictions as
to the level of application (Arbter, 2003:1f). Experience from other planning processes, shows
that when interests tied to economical and social factors are integrated and negotiated from
the beginning, the rate of implementation is increased. Furthermore, it appears as an
advantage to address the specific stakeholder at an early stage making it more likely for the
stakeholders to assume ownership thus forming and supporting rather than opposing the
implementation process (Arbter, 2003:2f). The ideal planning circle has been adapted to the
study’s concept of ISWM (adapted from EU WTC, 2003 and the SIA concept).
Figure 10:ISWM Planning Circle (own model)
1. Vision: based
on ISWM and
stakeholder
dialoque
6. Evaluation
& continuous
Improvement
including
stakeholder
dialoque
2. Status: Mapping
of current waste
situation & future
scenarios
ISWM
Planning
Circle
3. Identifying &
analysing ISWM
options based on
the vision/mapping
4. Choosing of ISWM
options including
stakeholder dialoque
5. Implementation
66
The term ‘vision’, refers to the preliminary discussion phase of where the overall purpose of
the plan is defined. The aim is to attain some degree of understanding and formulation of
common goals. The second step, the mapping of the local waste management situation, is also
seen as very important in order to create locally relevant solutions. The local waste
management situation includes factors such as: the legislative framework and plans, the role
of the responsible authorities, and other involved organisations. It also includes the specific
current practices regarding: collection, treatment, disposal, and finally the opinion and
involvement of the public (EUWTC, 2003).
The planning circle has been used as the structuring principle in the research design and
presentation of the empirical findings. This report will mainly focus on different aspects of
step two and three. While the empirical findings correspond with the mapping stage, the
analysis will focus on identifying integrated waste management solutions in terms of
technological treatment options on a regional scale and the supportive role of the tourism
industry.
6. 4. Analytical Strategy
The purpose of the analytical strategy is to elaborate on the structure of the analysis, how it
contributes to answering the problem formulation based on the concept of ISWM.
The analysis is divided into two parts corresponding to the first and the second part of the
problem formulation. The first part of the analysis addresses the viable waste technology
options on a regional level. The second looks into the supportive role of the tourism industry.
6. 4. 1. Waste Treatment Technology Options
The analysis of relevant waste technology options is based on the different dimensions of the
developed concept of ISWM.
First of all the viability of different technology options depend on a number of contextual
factors such as the waste flow of Crete and the framework of the regional waste management
plan. These factors are also broadly referred to as the local waste management situation. The
technology review will be based on:
•
•
•
The regional waste flow (quantity, quality and seasonal variation)
The local experiences with various waste technologies such as source-sorting,
mechanical sorting, and composting
Literature studies and cases.
67
In addition, it has been found relevant to look into not only the present but also the future
waste flow of Crete to ensure that the reviewed options can cover the future capacity need.
This projection will look ahead towards the development of the waste flow until 2020. These
data originate from a study made by the local authorities and are based on the following key
figures:
Population growth rate including inflow of tourists
Economic growth
Estimated development in waste flow (quantity and quality) over the last 5 years based
on projections of local studies, and the estimated production of waste/capita/day.
(EUWTC, 2003, OANAK 2004).
•
•
•
6. 4. 1. 1. The Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Waste Management System
In order to take system coherency and flexibility into account, it is seen as relevant to divide
the waste management system into three sub-systems: a primary, a secondary, and a tertiary
system in order to analyse the coherency and flexibility of the system in terms of how the
different types of activities interact (Kjær, 2006b).
The three systems are illustrated in the model below. To a certain extent it reflects the
situation in Crete, even though parts of the basic system such as sorting at source and
recycling of packaging material has only been established in some parts of the island. The
dotted lines indicate that energy recovery from waste has not been established yet.
Figure 11: Model of the Primary, Secondary and Tertiary systems
Tertiary System
Metal
Paper
Glas
Plastic
Secondary system
Recycling
Industries
Primary system
HouseHolds
Service
& Trade
Collection &
Transport
Primary
Treatment
Final
Deposit
Energy recovery
e.g. incineration
(Adapted from Kjær 2006b)
68
The primary system (marked with yellow) is seen as the ground pillar of the system ensuring
that society can get rid of its waste streams in an accessible way. The basic system consists
of:
• Sorting at source for households, industry, service & trade sectors,
• Collection and transport to waste treatment facilities
• Primary treatment (e.g. sorting or downsizing depending on the destination of the
waste)
• Waste treatment and landfill facility
The secondary system (marked with turquoise): Here the resource potential of waste
becomes more visible. The treatment options in this system consist of material recycling
and/or energy recovery.
The tertiary system (marked with green): refers to the recycling and recovery industry taking
care of the materials sorted out for these purposes.
The three systems can be seen as a conversion of the Waste Hierarchy to the more specific
level of the waste management system.
Finally, the overall assessment of different technology options will take environmental as well
as social, and economic parameters into account. The main focus, however, will be on
environmental and technical aspects, although the significance of social and economic criteria
will also be considered. The environmental performance to a large extent depends on the
technical design, however, it is recognised that the technology set-up also plays a crucial role
in terms of economic feasibility.
Environmental parameters will be based on the elaborated waste hierarchy presented in the
theoretical framework with eco-efficiency as the ideal, including the decline of the of waste
quantities going to landfill, while optimising the resource potential of the waste including
substitution of fossil fuels. Finally, the emissions of different waste treatment techniques will
also be taken into consideration.
Social parameters include political, organisational, and civil factors influencing waste
management options and practices. The focus will be on the framework provided by the
regional waste management plan and the social acceptability of different technology options.
Regarding social acceptability international, national, and local experiences with public
participation will be included.
Economic parameters will be based on an overall estimation of the level of capital and
operational costs related to factors such as pre-treatment requirements, energy efficiency and
technology reliability. However, there are too many unknown factors, such as energy prices,
to make comparisons of more specific costs.
69
Recognising that the three parameters are not necessarily compatible, the approach of this
thesis will be to weigh the feasibility of different waste technology options in relation to the
case situation. E.g. even if a planned waste treatment plant appears as economically and
environmentally feasible, its establishment may be obstructed without sufficient support from
the community.
6. 4. 2. The Supportive Role of the Tourism Industry
The second part of the analysis looks into the question of how the tourist industry can support
local waste management. The hotels and some of the big tour operators have been chosen as
influential representatives of the industry. The analysis will examine the Cleaner Production
possibilities of the hotels focusing waste. The table below gives examples of various waste
practices at hotels corresponding with the different levels of Cleaner Production. The model
will be used for assessing the potential of applying the CP principles at the hotels.
Table 13: Examples of CP Waste Initiatives for Hotels18
CP principles/priorities
1. Reduction/avoidance
2. Internal reuse & recycling
3. External recycling
Hotel level
- Reduction of packaging waste
e.g. bulk purchase
- Improved waste quality through
a ‘green purchasing policy’.
- Refillable Ink cartridges
- Green waste for compost soil
- Reuse of transport packaging
- Reuse of office paper for notes
- Returnable bottles & cans
-Sorting for recycling: e.g. plastic,
paper, glass and metal
The role of the hotels was examined on different levels: first of all, what can the hotels do and
secondly, what are the hotels willing to do and finally, how can they be encouraged from
outside by the authorities and the tour operators in particular.
Seen from a preventive point of view, the waste practices of the hotels are interesting
regarding how much of the waste streams can be dealt with internally and which part of the
waste flow has the potential to be reused or recycled externally. Making a profile of the waste
flow of the hotels also becomes relevant in the discussion of which technical options are
feasible. The support of the hotels depends equally on the quantity and quality of waste
18
Adapted to the CP levels from The UN Tourism Waste Guidelines, UNEP, 2003.
70
materials present as well as the willingness and resources (time, money, awareness) of the
hotel management.
In order to establish a picture of the environmental awareness and potential willingness to
support the local waste management system, the hotel informants have been interviewed on
local waste issues, including opinions on whether waste is a problem, which waste measures
are realistic for the hotels and what the municipality’s responsibility areas should include.
Based on these considerations, an analysis is conducted regarding the potential supportive
role of the tourism industry. More specifically, the drivers and barriers will be examines in
terms of what supports and opposes ISWM on the level of the hotels and the tour operators.
71
Section III: Empirical Findings and Analyses
Chapter 7: Waste Management Options in Crete – Empirical Findings
In the following chapter the current components of the waste management system in Crete are
presented. As the most diverse and long term experiences with waste management are found
in the prefecture of Chania, these are used as the main reference point to local experiences
regarding sorting at source, mechanical sorting, and composting.
7. 1. Sorting options
7. 1. 1. Sorting at Source
Waste separation or sorting has two purposes, one is to sort out hazardous material, the other
is to increase the material recovery as well as improve the treatment of the remaining fraction.
It is generally recognised that sorting at source provides the most efficient sorting result
(Christensen, 1998:53f). Bins for source separation can be set up at each individual house or
apartment building or a certain number can be distributed in the streets to be shared by a
whole area. Recycling stations can work as complimentary to such solutions and often receive
an expanded number of fractions such as hazardous or bulky waste. As former experience
show the more accessible and the closer to residential areas, the higher the sorting rate. Thus
combinations of the above mentioned sorting possibilities are expected to give the best results
(Filis E. et al. 1997, Christensen, 1998: 55ff).
In Crete so far, there has not been much experience with sorting at source. Attempts have
been made by some municipalities to set up containers for separating waste but partly due to
low response from the population, partly due to not having planned how to handle the
fractions, the separation activities died out (App. 3b, 5b). The exception has been a sorting at
source system for paper organised by DEDISA since 1996. Recently the packaging sorting
programme of HERRCo has been set up and is gradually being expanded to more and more
municipalities.
7. 2. Collection Schemes
Generally, there are two main types of collection schemes: ‘collect’ and ‘bring’ schemes. As
opposed to collect schemes, bring schemes entail people bringing their waste to recycling
stations or waste bins set up in public places. Refuse waste is most often collected from
people’s homes, whereas ‘bring schemes’ mainly concern fractions for sorting (Christensen,
1998:53ff). A variation is what could be termed as ‘call schemes’ where citizens contact the
72
responsible authorities or companies when they have waste to deliver such as bulky waste or
white goods that are not generated on a day to day basis.
As mentioned above, the municipalities are responsible for the waste collection. ‘Curb side
collection’ of refuse represents the main collection activity in Crete followed by the separate
collection of packaging material, which is increasing as the programme is spreading. In
Hersonissos one example of a small ‘bring station’ for glass, paper and metal has been set up
near a village.
The curb side collection of refuse includes not only households but also MSW from small
industries and service and trade enterprises companies such as offices and supermarkets.
Tourism enterprises such as hotels, restaurants and travel agencies are also a central source of
MSW. Finally, the municipalities are responsible for setting up call schemes for the collection
of specific items not allowed in sanitary landfills such as tyres, white goods etc.
7. 2. 1. Collection and Sorting at Source in Chania
The municipalities who are not shareholders in DEDISA are responsible for their own
transportation of waste. DEDISA has around 100 people working with collection serving the
eight owner-municipalities and most of the other municipalities of Chania. As one of the
central issues with collection is how to attain a feasible transport economy, DEDISA is
investigating the possibilities for rationalisation of the transportation routes.
7. 3. Mechanical Sorting
Mechanical sorting serves two purposes: to improve the sorting for material recovery or to
prepare the waste stream for further treatment.
Various types of technology are used in the mechanical sorting process. The technologies
make use of sorting criteria such as size, weight, the speed of falling, elasticity and form. A
mechanical sorting process often utilises combinations of criteria in order to sort out the
relevant materials (Christensen, 1998:149f).
Today, manual sorting is mainly used for ‘negative sorting’ meaning out sorting the side
streams so that the main type of material remains. Considering the limitations of speed related
to manual work, this is the most efficient way to utilise the manual sorting method. Manual
separation is considered as a wearing, monotonous work, but it is difficult to avoid when
upgrading the purity of a fraction e.g. when sorting paper into sub-fractions such as cardboard
and carton (Christensen, 1998:149f).
73
7. 3. 1. The Sorting Plant for Packaging Material at Alikarnassos
The sorting plant of HERRCo in Crete is located on the north coast in Alikarnassos near
Heraklion and has been in operation since November 2006. The plant serves two
municipalities Alikarnassos and the Heraklion, the biggest municipality of Crete. The plant is
dimensioned to cover all the municipalities of the Heraklion and Lassithi prefecture, while the
sorting plant of DEDISA will cover the prefecture of Chania and Rethymnon. So far, most
municipalities in Chania have been included in the packaging recycling programme. In
Rethymnon 2-3 municipality have joined (App.6d).
7. 3. 1. 1. Facts about the Sorting Plant of HERRCo
The plant has a max. capacity of 30-40 ton per day (1 shift of 8 hours) and covers a
population of 138.202 residents (the municipalities of Heraklion & Alikarnassos). So far 1657
tons of packaging waste has been collected. Around 17 people are employed at the plant. So
far it is too early to estimate the operational costs (App.6d).
Figure 12: The Flow of the Sorting Plant (app. 6d)
Input
Collected waste
material
Process
Manual removal of
Bulky waste
Output
Bulky waste for
landfill
The waste is sorted by size
in a drum with 3 holes.
Too big and too
small items for
landfill
Manual sorting of the
main & sub fractions.
Recyclable
fractions sent to
bailing
Sorting of Iron with
electro-magnet
Paper is dropped into the
cell for paper material.
Iron sent to bailing
Paper sent to baling
The plant sorts 4 main fractions of packaging material: paper, plastic, metal, and glass. Paper
is sorted into paper and cardboard. Plastic is sorted in PE, PE (film), PP/PS and PET. Metal is
sorted in iron and aluminium. After sorting, the fractions are bailed and shipped to recycling
industries in Athens. Waste that does not fit within the sorted fractions because of size or type
is deposited in landfill (App. 6d).
The collected quantities and average composition of the recycling materials can be seen in the
table below. The recycling rate is around 76% (February 07) and the residual fraction, mainly
74
consisting of clothes and organics, has been dropping 1-2% per month. The factory thus
follows the trend of growing recycling rates of HERRCo’s sorting projects.
Table 9: Average Composition of the Recyclable Materials (Nov 06-Feb.07), HERRCo.
Fractions
Kg
%
Card board
Tetrapak
364.724
7.434
Plastic
Glass
184.226
10.954
16,5%
0,9%
3.566
47.079
0,3%
4%
Aluminium
Iron
Paper
Other recyclablesa
Total
31%
0,6%
549.543
47%
(4778 excl.) 0,4%
1.167.525
100%
Table 10:The total quantities recycled by HERRCo in Greece: (HERRCo, 2007)
Year
Recycled Material, ton (paper excl.)
Recycled paper (ton)
In all
2004
5.505
4.781
10.286
2005
63.551
8.810
72.361
2006
266.623
19.660
286.283
HERRCo has so far started up 11 sorting plants for packaging material in Greece. In the case
of the sorting plant in Chania, HERRCo has supplied equipment consisting of: trucks, bins,
recyclable bags, and information material.
Table 11: of the development of HERRCos sorting activities (HERRCo, 2007)
Year
Population
2004
428.827
2005
2.514.638
2006
4.297.977
No. of municipalities
No. of plants
102
3
211
9
337
12
Total no. of employees
78
171
510
7. 3. 1. 2. Sorting Issues
Regarding the sorting flow, no major issues are encountered in the flow, according to the
chief engineer. Bigger metal items are taken out in the first removal of bulky waste and the
remaining metal fraction mainly consists of cans which do not cause any serious problems to
the drums (App. 6d).
75
According to the plant engineer, there are no major work environment issues either, since not
very much organic material enters the waste stream. Organic residues are sent to landfill the
day of arrival, so smell and hygienic issues are very limited. The workers so far do not feel
the need to wear masks or gloves, however as mentioned, the study will not look further into
work environment issues.
The plant engineer mentioned that there is a certain turnover in the work force, but more
likely this is due to personal preferences, since some are able to cope with this type of job,
whereas others are not. A frequent employee turnover could be expected to affect the sorting
quality, but so far the recycling rate appears to be improving (App. 6d).
7. 3. 1. 3. The Recycling Campaign
Campaigns informing about the new sorting and recycling system have been conducted and
sponsored by HERRCo. The so-called door-to door method is employed in order to involve
the population efficiently. The citizens are provided with an information folder and a
washable plastic bag for the recyclable packaging waste. All they are required to do is to fill
their packaging waste into the recyclable bag and empty it into the blue containers set up next
to the standard waste containers. In addition, the programme is being advertised on busses and
in the local media: TV, radio, and newspapers. Finally, one day a week the plant engineer
gives tours to school classes at the plant. So far there are no plans to involve the participating
municipalities in the information work.
According to the plant engineer, the first indications of the residents’ sorting skills are
positive. However, as it can be expected, people are making mistakes. E.g. people sort
materials that are not packaging, mainly organics and textiles, or throw the recyclable bags
into the blue containers as well. In one case somebody, for unknown reasons, even rolled off
with the blue container (App.4d, 2d). Furthermore, people rarely wash the packaging waste
and not surprisingly there are many improvements to be made. It has thus been acknowledged
that a follow-up campaign is required (App.6d, 4d, 2d).
7. 3. 2. The Recycling Plant of DEDISA
The recycling plant started operating in May 2005. It receives around 80.000 ton of MSW a
year (green waste and packaging waste included). The plant consists of two main facilities: a
sorting plant and a composting plant both situated in the same location next to the landfill of
DEDISA. The waste treatment facilities of DEDISA has 80 employees, 17 working with
sorting packaging and 10 others working with the sorting of the mixed waste and the
composting plant. At the mechanical sorting plant there is a 6 ½ hour shift a day (App. 2b,
2d).
76
The yearly budget for the recycling plant is approx. 6.5 mio. Euro. The annual operation costs
of the various components of the recycling plant are only possible to determine in terms of
cost per ton of treated/recycled waste which includes: collection, sorting, composting, baling
of the recyclables and landfill. The treatment cost per ton of waste is 34 Euro. However, the
collection of mixed waste represents the biggest expenditure. Regarding the composting plant,
energy and water supply are the biggest expenses, whereas at the sorting plant wages
represent the main expenditure (App. 2b, 2f).
After Athens, DEDISA has the most expensive treatment costs in Greece. Since landfill is the
main type of waste management used the average cost per treated ton of waste is much lower
around 16 Euro per ton. In two Greek municipalities that have been established transfer
stations the costs are around 28 Euro (App. 2f).
.
7. 3. 2. 1. The Mechanical Sorting Plant
The flow of the mechanical sorting plant is shown in the diagrams below. The diagram is a
simplified illustration of the sorting flow and does not include the green waste fraction (c.f.
app. D for the full model).
Figure 13: Diagram of the Sorting Flow
Input
Output
Process
Weighing bridge
Mixed waste
Bulky waste and hazardous
waste are removed manually
The waste is sorted by
size through 2 grates
with 2 sets of holes
Packaging
Waste
Out-sorted waste
sent to landfill.
Manual sorting phase:
2 lines
Sorting of
Composting fraction
Sorting of packaging
waste:Paper & plastic
Metal removed
magnetically
The package material
is bailed for shipping
Compost
fraction
Bailed recyclable
packaging material
77
•
After the mixed waste has been weighed, the unwanted waste bulky waste and
hazardous waste (e.g. hospital waste) is removed manually. While bulky waste is sent
to landfill, hospital waste is sent to Athens.
•
The mixed waste is then sorted mechanically by size, passing through two grates with
different sizes of holes. The first grate has holes ≥ and ≤ 250 mm. whereas the waste
stream ≤ 250mm continues, the waste stream ≥ larger than 250mm is sent to manual
removing of bulky items, cardboard and film are sorted out for recycling and the rest
is sent to landfill.
•
In the second grate the waste stream ≤ than 70mm is sent to composting after passing
through a magnet removing metal. The waste ≥ 70mm enters the hand-sorting area.
•
The main manual sorting phase has two lines. In the first line the mixed waste ≥ 70mm
is sorted for composting and the residual fraction is sent to landfill. In the second line
the packaging material enters and is ‘handpicked’ for recycling in sub-fractions.
Plastic is sorted in 4 sub-fractions: PET, PE, PP, and P-film. Paper is sorted in two
fractions: half white and half brown paper. The so-called ‘Tetrapak’ fraction contains
packaging made from mixed materials including cardboard, plastic and aluminium and
is sold back to Tetrapak. The residual fraction of packaging not fit for recycling is sent
to landfill.
•
•
Finally, the metal is removed from both lines. Iron is removed with a magnet while
aluminium is removed with an electromagnetic separator. Which sub-fractions are
sorted depends on the waste composition of each batch.
As for the green waste (park and garden waste) it is shredded and sent directly to composting.
Glass is being collected separately and is planned to be shipped directly to a glass
sorting/recycling centre on the main land. The standards set by the glass recycling companies
are high requiring bottles without neck and sorting by colour. Therefore it will not be feasible
for DEDISA to establish a new sorting line for glass (app. 2, b, 2f).
7. 3. 2. 2. Recycling Rates
Of the mixed waste between 10-35% of the materials are recycled. Apart from organics,
representing the biggest recovered fraction, some metal and cardboard are also retrieved.
Around 70% of the mixed waste received by DEDISA goes to landfill (App. 2f).
According to DEDISA as much as 85% of the collected packaging material is recycled, which
is a high rate compared to the first pilot packaging recovery project in Greece, where the
recycling rate was:30% (Filis E. et al, 1997, App. 2f).
As for the quantities the following development has been registered for the main fractions:
78
From 2005-2006 the recycled quantities were almost doubled. However, it is difficult to say,
what is the result of improved sorting and what is the result of the expansion of the
programme.
Table 12: Quantities of Sorted Packaging Waste, DEDISA
Fractions (t/y)
2005
2006
Paper/Cardboard/tetra pak 1.925 3443
Plastic
236
494
Glass
0,2
53
Metal
98
257
In all
2259,2 4247
7. 3. 2. 3. Sorting Issues
Glass has given problems in the sorting flow (cutting other recyclable materials) and also in
the composting plant, why it was practical to conduct separate collection. Metal does not give
problems to the same extent, since the big metallic items are sorted out in the beginning of the
flow. However, the remaining metal causes wear on the grates sorting the mixed waste by
size. Finally, liquids also give problems especially sticky, oily substances that ruin the quality
of the recyclable materials (App.2f).
7. 3. 3. The Composting Plant
Composting is a waste treatment technology that is generally acknowledged by the public. A
number of local studies have been conducted regarding pilot projects of composting
agricultural wastes and slurry. The studies conclude that the end-result is promising.
However, no pilot studies have been made concerning composting of MSW in Crete before
the set up of the composting plant of DEDISA. The composting plant has been in operation
since May 2005 (App. 2b, 2d).
The compost fraction from the mixed waste consists of approx. 40% paper, 20% plastic, and
40% organic material including the green waste (App. 2f).
7. 3. 3. 1. The Flow of the Composting Plant
First the organic material is treated in two bio reactors 4-6 weeks in a covered area. The
reactors are of the model: Sorain Cecchini (fourth generation) a horizontal reactor. Its
capacity is approx. 160 ton/day equivalent to supplying aeration for 2/3 of the rows. At
present the full capacity of the plant is not exploited. After the treatment period in the bioreactor the material is placed in open air windrows for further maturation. The rows are turned
by fork trucks and watered by pipes placed along the sides of the windrows. The frequency of
79
aeration and watering depends on the results of the test samples. So far a more effective
turning or watering system cannot be afforded.
The leachate from the bioreactor is recycled but for health reasons it is exchanged with tap
water every 2-3 weeks. The wastewater is treated in the waste water treatment plant of the
landfill. The cleansed wastewater is used for irrigation of the green areas around the treatment
facilities of DEDISA. The compost product is so far mainly used for landfill rehabilitation
and sold for 27, 17 Euro a ton (App. 2b, 2f).
7. 3. 3. 2. Barriers Encountered in the Composting Process
The biggest issues with the composting process, is lack of water, due to the insufficient water
supply network near the plant. The municipality of Akotiri, where the plant is situated, is
opposed to hosting the plant and is not interested in improving the water supply. The
composting plant requires min. 30 ton of water a day to work properly. The 30 tons of water
are therefore transported to the plant by truck three times a day and stored in tanks. However,
some of the water must be used for the cleaning of equipment and for hygiene purposes.
Regarding the bio-reactor the main issue is the energy demand of 3000 KWh per day, which
is the biggest expense of the compost operation (App. 2b). Lack of even and at times
sufficient irrigation and aeration make it difficult to control the composting process. Another
hindrance is that many among the staff are new and not yet knowledgeable about the
composting process.
MSW is generally, difficult to compost due to its varying composition. The first windrow
completed turned out not to be sufficiently matured. Later the composted product has shown
better results and is now being sold for landfill rehabilitation. It is estimated that some batches
will be suitable as fertiliser for flowers and non-eatable plants. However, due to the
unpredictable variations of MSW the use of each batch must be evaluated individually. There
are e.g. a number of materials which can be difficult to sort out completely, causing problems
in the reactor. Especially, huge amounts of straws from the ice coffee drinking audience are
clogging the filter of the reactor. Also, glass and in some cases metal, cause problems.
Finally, it is an issue that the plant cannot keep up with the demand for compost material. The
demand for compost is increasing due to the need for soil improver for the present landfill
rehabilitations going on in Crete. Apart from the lengthy composting process, the lack of
organic material also contributes to the short supply. This is partly due to the loss of organic
material in the sorting process and particularly because of the reduction of organic material
resulting from the change in lifestyles and consumption patterns (App. 2d, 2f).
According to Manolis Vardakis, the manager of the alternative collection systems,
composting is actually the least favourable solution. However, in his opinion, it is the only
one that is socially acceptable and therefore possible to implement.
80
7. 3. 3. 3. Campaign Experiences
DEDISA has applied the campaign ‘package’ sponsored by HERRCo including the “door-to
door method”, TV and radio spots etc. In addition, at their own expense, DEDISA
continuously organises information stands at various types of exhibitions as well as
presentations at schools and social associations. A central strategy, in this regard, has been
gradually to expand the focus from recycling of packaging to include the overall importance
of recycling and saving resources, thus putting the issue of waste into a larger perspective
(App.2f.).
According to Manolis Vardakis, the younger generations are much more open to the concept
of recycling and DEDISA has visited over 100 schools, kindergardens and summer camps
(App. 2f).
A survey study from the first package sorting project in Greece shows that the best results are
attained by combining a number of campaign tools (Filis, 1997:504f). However, when asked
to choose, the manager in charge of recycling campaigns at DEDISA, states that face-to-face
communication in his opinion is the most effective method.
Generally, Manolis Vardakis thinks there are indications of good response from the public
despite the fact that the expanded sorting programme is very new. People are gradually
making fewer sorting mistakes and more are starting to wash the food scrapes off the
packaging material. This can partly be explained by the extensive awareness campaigns of
DEDISA as well as the fact that the municipality of Chania was fined by the EU for illegal
dumping. According to DEDISA, this has created an extra incentive among the residents
towards progressive behaviour regarding waste (App. 2d, 2f).
A new approach was tried out in a municipality recently. The day when the sorting
programme was initiated, it was celebrated with a festival, where the local school was
involved demonstrating projects e.g. making theatre plays about recycling, dressed up in
packaging material etc. Furthermore, the recycling bags were distributed with a greeting from
the mayor. Since it was only done recently, the results have not shown yet, but Manolis
Vardakis is convinced that this type of approach is a good way to introduce the recycling
programme (App. 2f).
7. 3. 3. 4. The Future Plans of DEDISA
The two plants were not designed to treat waste from more than the eight municipalities (in
one shift) therefore technical adjustments will be made in order to increase the capacity as
well as enabling the sorting plant to receive more sorted fractions (App. 2b). As the collected
waste quantities have been increasing, it will not be feasible to maintain or increase the
recycling rate from the mixed waste fraction. The chosen solution is that DEDISA will soon
begin producing RDF19 pills, which they will pay the cement factories in Crete to receive.
19
Refuse Derived Fuel pills, most often referring to pills made from paper and plastic
81
According to Manolis Vardakis, this is not necessarily the best solution seen from an
environmental perspective, however necessary since landfill reduction is needed partly due to
EU requirements but also because a location for a new landfill is very difficult to find
(App.2f).
7. 4. Summary
Since 2005, a number of new waste management measures have been implemented in Crete.
Among other things a source sorting programme for packaging material involving the
establishment of a mechanical sorting plant and information campaigns conducted by the
nationally authorised recycling organisation, HERRCo. At present the plant serves two
municipalities, but is planned to cover three of the prefectures, Chania excluded. In Chania a
separate waste management system is being run by the inter-municipal waste management
organisation, DEDISA. The waste management system of DEDISA includes source sorting
programmes for glass, garden waste and packaging material. The sorted fractions and the
mixed waste are treated at a recycling plant, consisting of a mechanical sorting factory for
mixed waste and packaging material and a composting plant treating a fraction consisting of
putribles, plastic, and paper. As both the packaging sorting plant and the recycling plant have
been started up relatively recently, a number of starting issues have been encountered. In the
case of composting, however, the problems are more profound, involving lack of biomass and
high demands of water and energy. Composting was chosen because it was a socially
acceptable technology. However, it does not help much in terms of reducing MSW going to
landfill in Chania. The production of RDF pills for combustion in cement kilns has therefore
been chosen as a complimentary solution.
When considering the sorting programme has only been running for a short time, the recycled
amount of the collected material is quite high (70-85%). The main issue thus remains how to
increase the collected amount of recyclables. Regarding creating awareness around the new
sorting programme, DEDISA has chosen a different approach than the rest of Crete. Apart
from the campaign activities sponsored by HERRCo, the organisation has put a lot of effort
into a continuous communication in the form of events and information seminars at school,
exhibitions and different types of civil associations. This strategy so far seems to pay off,
although it is difficult at present to assess the development of the still expanding sorting
programmes. The table below summarises the status of the waste management activities in
Crete.
82
Table 13: Summarising table - Status and Scope of the Waste Management Practices.
Waste Management
Scope
Status
Specific Issues
All over Crete
- Many overfilled
-Public opposition and
-Rehab./ closing started/
distrust
Practices
Landfills and
dumpsites
planned.
Source Sorting
-Chania: most munici.
-More municipalities will
-Ok starting results, still
-Heraklion: 2 munici.
join over the next years
need for contin. Info.
-Rethymnon: 3 munici.
-Good response to the
extensive information
campaigns of DEDISA
Mechanical Sorting
- Alikarnassos:
-Recycling rates
Packaging Waste
gradually increasing
(HERRCo)
- Recent start
- Chania: Mixed waste
- Lack of capacity -RDF
-RDF not the best
and packaging
solution
environ. solution
(DEDISA)
- Some sorting issues
- Packaging going well
Composting
- Chania (DEDISA)
-Varying product results,
- Lack of organics
- Ok for landfill
-Expensive operation
rehabilitation
-High energy/water
- Potential fertiliser
consumption
- Some local opposition
83
Chapter 8: Analysis I Waste Treatment Technology Options
This part of the analysis will look into the feasibility of different waste technology options.
The main focus will lie on the discussion of a relevant waste-to-energy technology. Before
estimating the pros and cons of different waste treatment technologies, the current status of
the primary system will be examined as a background for understanding the required
coherency of an Integrated Waste Management System. The three systems are illustrated in
the model below in relation to the current waste management system (excl. Chania). The
present primary system in Crete includes the collection and transport of MSW from
households, the service sector, and other light industries. So far waste is landfilled directly,
although a pre-treatment system is planned. The primary treatment refers to two elements. 1.
The planned thermal waste-reducing plant, treating waste before landfill. 2. Other types of
treatment required for the waste to reach the secondary and tertiary system. Primary treatment
thus figures in the borderland between the primary and the secondary system. The dotted lines
indicate the possible options which have not been implemented or decided on yet
Figure 14: Diagram of the current Waste Management System
Tertiary System
Metal
Paper
Glas
Plastic
Secondary system
Recycling
Industries
Primary system
HouseHolds
Service
& Trade
Collection &
Transport
Primary
Treatment
Final
Deposit
Energy recovery
e.g. incineration
8.1. The Primary System
The primary system is seen as the basis of waste management, consisting of sorting,
collection, and landfill. In Crete collection and landfill have until recently been the main
waste strategy. Overfilled and mismanaged landfills have lead to public dissatisfaction with
the waste management authorities, making it even more difficult to find locations for the new
landfills needed in order to keep up with the generation of waste.
84
It is therefore relevant to look into diversion strategies within the second system. However,
since the efficiency of any waste treatment technology depends on the sorting quality, a wellfunctioning sorting system is part of the basic requirements for the further levels of the
Integrated Waste Management System.
To a large extent, good sorting results depend on the awareness and willingness of the citizens
to participate. The door-to-door method of HERRCo has so far proven to be an efficient
means of creating awareness through face-to-face communication combined with various
media advertisements. Yet, as source sorting is relatively new in Crete, it can be expected that
follow-up campaigns are necessary in order to upgrade the sorting quality. Experience in
DEDISA has shown that sorting mistakes can be reduced as a result of extensive and
continuous information activities.
The simplicity of the blue bin system is also an advantage, since most of the population have
not been involved in source sorting projects before.
Apart from curb side collection of refuse, alternative collection systems are being
implemented by the municipalities according to the EU landfill directive and apparently
people are using the corresponding ‘call schemes’ (App.2f, 5b). As collection of mixed waste
is very costly, rationalisation of logistics, likely to be improved by the use of the planned
transfer stations, will be an important factor to consider regarding the locations of the future
waste management facilities (2f).
Furthermore, the relevance of including ‘bring scheme’ options could be considered, as it is
generally recognised that a combination of sorting/collection options generates the best results
(Christensen, 1998:57).
The recycling rates of packaging material are increasing as the sorting programmes of
HERRCo and DEDISA are gradually expanding. However, since the recycling schemes have
been started up recently, the resource potential is far from exploited, particularly considering
the increasing generation of packaging waste.
8. 2. The Secondary System: Recovery Technology Options
In order to deal with the deposit issues, the regional waste management plan prescribes that a
waste-to-energy facility should play a central role. Based on the two main treatment options
considered for energy recovery: incineration and bio-gasification, three main fractions can be
defined:
85
•
A fraction for material recovery. Until now mainly a smaller percentage of the
packaging material including: Paper, plastic, glass, and metal.
•
A fraction suitable for energy recovery and/or composting. The content of this fraction
depends to a large extent upon the chosen technologies.
•
Finally, a fraction without any recovery potential for disposal. The size of this fraction
depends to a large extent on the choice of waste-to-energy technology.
8. 2. 1. Relevant Technology Options
The following section will examine two different waste technologies: incineration and biogasification. The main emphasis will be on incineration and bio-gasification technologies
since the regional waste management plant prescribes the use of waste-to-energy technology.
A number of combination technologies such as pyrolysis and gasification also exist. Both
refer to thermal processes with low oxygen levels leading to partial combustion and
development of gasses or fuels most often used for co-energy production on location (EC,
2006:52, 53ff, 56ff). Both processes have been applied to waste but on a smaller scale than
incineration and both require substantial pre-treatment of the waste fuel. Pyrolysis is mostly
used for specific waste fractions such as tyres and contaminated soil but rarely for MSW.
Gasification has shown potential for MSW treatment, but is still in the early development
stages regarding MSW treatment Both types involve very high investment and maintenance
costs (EC, 2006:52, 53ff, 56ff, EEA, 2001:18).
A number of successful pilot combination technology plants have been established, however
few of them have been up-scaled in size attaining a commercially, competitive status.
Furthermore, various studies conclude that more research is required and therefore a further
evaluation of these technologies will not be made (Kwant et al. 2004:11, IME, 2001:157).
Based on the requirements of a waste-to-energy technology, composting is not a relevant
recovery technology for the remaining three prefectures of Crete. Furthermore, the experience
so far shows that composting of MSW is not an optimal option due to expensive operation
costs and very high requirements for water and energy. Even with application of more
advanced composting technology, the feasibility of the operation would be very uncertain
both from an environmental and economical point of view (MBT review).
The technology reviews will contain an overall description of waste-to-energy technology
types, components, and processes. Furthermore, the estimated future size of the MSW
fractions along with the local energy demand will also be taken into consideration in order to
86
suggest a technology type and dimension that fits with the present and the future treatment
capacity needs.
Finally, the pros and cons of selected technologies will be examined based on the dimensions
of the ISWM concept.
8. 3. Incineration
Around 20-25 % of the MSW produced in the EU-15, is incinerated (EC, 2006:ii).Incineration
technologies have gone through rapid development in the last couple of years and a number of
specialised technologies for treating and extracting energy from different types of waste have
emerged. The typical incineration process can be described as a thermal process with surplus
of oxygen as opposed to thermal processes with deficit of oxygen such as pyrolysis or biogasification. Incineration either produces heat or Combined Heat and Power (CHP). CHP has
so far proven to be the most feasible and widely applied type of incineration. CHP plants
generally achieve higher energy efficiency rates, because they are able to use the high
pressure steam for electricity generation and the low pressure steam for heat recovery (IME,
2001:34, EC, 2006:281ff Christensen, 1998:170f).
There are three main types of incineration plants: Grate-fired, Rotary kilns, and Fluidised Bed
Combustion (FBC).
Table 14: Incineration Types
Incinerator types
Grate-fired
Rotary Kilns
Typical Capacity
6-100 t/h
0.5-6 t/h
MSW application
Untreated MSW
Pre-treated MSW
(Adapted from: IME, 2001:34, EC, 2006:34f, 44,70)
Fluidised Bed
3-25 t/h
Pre-treated MSW
Grate-fired power plants are the most common type of technology for MSW treatment. The
most used design is an incineration boiler producing steam for a steam turbine driving an
electricity generator (Christensen, 1998:170f).
Rotary kilns have mainly been used for industrial combustion in e.g. cement plants but are
also used for pre-treated MSW. Feeding rotary kilns with MSW seem to be mainly feasible in
industrial plants where the kiln serves several purposes. Fluidised Bed Combustion has also
mainly been used for industrial combustion, but over the last ten years it has also shown
promising results regarding incineration of MSW (IME, 2001:134). The focus therefore will
be on FBC and Grate-fired incineration, as the most proven combustion technologies in the
field of MSW incineration.
8. 3. 1. The Incineration Process
87
The diagram below displays a grate-fired incineration plant.
Figure 15:Diagram of Grate-fired Incineration Plant
(EC, 2006:30)
The waste is emptied into the reception silo, from where a travelling crane transports the
waste to the funnel of the oven. The oven consists of a boiler room and a grate, ending in a
slag deposit. The boiler is primarily supplied with air through the grate and secondly through
ventilation jets. Furthermore, the boiler room is equipped with oil or gas fuelled burners to
ensure the right temperature (Christensen, 1998:178ff).
To a large extent the incineration process depends on the design of the grate. The grate
transports, mixes, and levels the waste material. After drying on the grate the material is
heated until the ignition point. The combustion process is controlled through the oxygen
supply. The aeration zones in the grate serve as the primary air-supplying function, feeding
and controlling the process as well as cooling the grate. The need for cooling and supplying
oxygen however, does not always balance, therefore water is often used for cooling
(Christensen, 1998:179ff, 185).
To comply with the Incineration Directive (EC/2000/76) the plant must fulfil the prescribed
emission limit values. In addition the IPPC directive (96/61/EC) (Integrated Pollution
Prevention and Control prescribes that Best Available Technology is incorporated in order to
attain a pollution preventive plant design.
During the combustion process corrosive flue gasses are formed, requiring extensive gas
cleansing systems. According to the incineration directive the flue gas must be heated to a
min. of 850 C for at least 2 seconds and the gas must be treated for NOx, fly ash, HCl, HF,
SO2, dioxins and heavy metals before being fed to the chimney.
88
Incineration plants are required to fulfil the required limit values for all emissions including
waste water, in case of HCl, HF and SO2 being removed by wet processes (Danish Energy
Authority et al., 2005:31). Plant operation is a key factor when it comes to avoiding the
formation of furans and dioxins. E.g. it is crucial that the transfer heat surfaces are cleaned
regularly in order to prevent the dust surfaces that facilitate the furan and dioxin forming
processes (IME, 2001:35).
8. 3. 2. Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC)
Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) is a combustion technology developed in order to attain
less need for emission control.
The main difference between grate incineration systems and FBC is that the grate is
substituted with a sand bed for transportation of the waste during the incineration process.
Furthermore, the fluidised bed process involves that the solid fuels are carried upon upwardblowing jets of air, resulting in a turbulent mixing of gas and solids. The term ‘fluidised bed’
refers to the liquid, bubbling layer of burning particles, created in this process. The heat
energy from the combustion can be transferred to water pipes or other heat conveying
surfaces in the boiler room. Direct heat transfer increases efficiency because it allows lower
temperatures of combustion. Limestone or dolomite is used to precipitate the Sulphur emitted
in the form of SOx (EC, 2006: 267, 276, http://en.wikipedia.org/20 ).
The benefits of reduced temperatures, is that is leads to reduced emissions of SOx and
especially NOx (EC, 2006:267). For FBC plants fired on coal the downside is the
occasionally too low temperatures increase NOx and hydrocarbons. However, FBC plants can
use other fuels than coal and still exploit the benefits of the modified temperatures.
There are two main types of FCB plants: stationary and circulating fluidised beds. The main
difference is the speed of the gas and a few adjustments in the technical design (EC, 2006:49).
The Stationary Fluidised Bed is the standard type. The so-called Rotary Fluidised Bed is a
version of this category, where the fluidised bed rotates, thereby prolonging the residence
time in the furnace and thus resulting in a more full combustion. Rotary FBC has been using
MSW fuel for the last 10 years (EC, 2006:49).
The Circulating Fluidised Bed operates under higher gas speeds in the combustion chamber
causing part of the fuel and bed material to be removed, so the removed material has to be recirculated to the bed (EC, 2006:49).
20
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidized_bed_reactor
89
Figure 16: Rotary Fluidised Bed
Fluidised beds can operate with atmospheric or pressurised combustion. As opposed to
operation under atmospheric pressure, a pressurised combustion process produces high
pressure steam at temperatures that can drive a gas turbine in a highly efficient combined
cycle system. The later generations of the PFBC have further developed the ability to exploit
the combined cycle efficiency (http://en.wikipedia.org/).
8. 3. 3. An Integrated Waste Management System based on Incineration
In the following I will look into the consequences of an Integrated Waste Management
System based on incineration.
In order to determine how the waste flow is affected, I will look into how incineration will
influence the MSW flow in terms of the size of the combustible fraction and the fraction
going to landfill. Another central condition of waste-to-energy technology, which will be
examined, is the question of plant capacity. In order to attain feasible treatment efficiency the
capacity needs to correspond with the combustible waste quantities available as well as the
current energy system and consumption patterns.
8. 3. 3. 1. The Impact of Incineration on the Waste Flow and the System Coherency
In the incineration process glass and other inert material such as stones or sand melt into slag
that clogs the grate decreasing the combustion efficiency while increasing maintenance costs
(Christensen, 1998:169f). PVC contains phatalates, which increase dioxine emissions. The
remaining fraction most suitable for incineration consists of food scrapes, paper and plastic
and part of the miscellaneous materials including such as textile and wood.
Theoretically, it would be possible, though expensive, to sort out the problematic fractions.
For the same reason incineration of MSW is mostly performed without pre-treatment, which
is the scenario that will also be assumed here.
90
The table below indicates the approx. quantity and content of the fractions going to:
material recovery, energy recovery, and deposit based on incineration as the waste-to-energy
option. Since material recovery depends only on the efficiency of the source sorting
programme and the demand for recyclable materials, it is mainly the part going to deposit that
will be affected by the choice of waste-to-energy technology.
Table 15: Waste Quantities distributed on ‘treatment fractions’ (App, 1.1 and 1.3).
Fractions t/y (2003-04)
Estimated Quantity
Organics (39%)
75.626
Paper
(19%)
37.166
Plastic
(17%)
Glass
Metal
a
Material Recovery
0
Incineration
b
Deposit
75.626
0
11.475
25.691
0
32.549
2.311
30.238
0
(6%)
10.296
136
0
(10.060)
(5%)
9.562
636
0
(8.926)
LTRW
(5%)
10.122
0
10.122
Inert
(3%)
5.158
0
0
Misc.
(6%)
11.339
0
11.339
193.170
14.558
154.312
Estim. Quantity in all t/y
0
(5.158)
0
24.144
a: The material recovery quantities are based on the present recovery % of the HERRCo plant c.f. appendix 1.4.
b: The incineration fraction is based on the deduction of the amount of recovered material from the total
estimated fraction quantity.c. The % of been rounded off.
When the problematic fractions have been deducted the MSW fraction suitable for
incineration would be around 153.000 t/y and the amount of waste going to deposit would be
around 24.000 t/y. (App. 1.3). Despite the fact that these figures represent rough estimates,
they still indicate that a considerable part of the MSW stream can be incinerated and that the
amount of waste going to landfill would be minimised substantially.
As for the fraction going to deposit, the brackets around glass, metal, and inert materials
indicate that they will be disposed as slag, likely to be reduced in volume and weight.
Especially glass for deposit is likely to be overestimated due to take-back systems for a
number of glass bottled beverages.
Regarding the fraction of recovered materials, it is based on the first recovery rates from the
mechanical sorting plants in Alikarnassos applied to the future number of citizens that are to
be covered by the scheme (cf. appendix 1.4).
8. 3. 4. Plant Capacity
Capacity requirements for waste-to energy technology can generally be said to be affected by
two criteria: on the one hand the development of the waste quantities and on the other hand
the energy demand and the attainment of the optimum energy efficiency/design.
91
8. 3. 4. 1. The Development of Waste Quantities
As mentioned in the background chapter, it seems likely that the most recent study of the
waste flow in Crete is already outdated and that the generated waste quantities are actually
higher than assumed. Therefore the figures in the table below representing the waste quantity
projections, will be viewed as the minimum capacity required.
Table 16: The projected waste generation in Crete 2000-2020
Projected Waste Generation (ton/y) in
Crete until 2020 (excl. Chania & Sitia)
2000
2004
2010
2013
2020
215.533 193.170 222.751 230.949 253.377
Source: OANAK, 2004.
If maintaining the presently estimated MSW composition, the fraction for incineration would
be around 85%, having deducted the fractions of material recovery and of no calorific value.
According to the projections made for waste quantities, the size of the combustible fraction
would approx. be the following:
Table 17: The Future Development of the Combustible Fraction (app.1.4. )
Projected Waste Generation (ton/y) in Crete 2004
2010
2013
2020
(excl. Chania & Sitia)
193.170 222.751 230.949 253.377
The Size of the Combustible Fraction (ton/y) 165.450 190.293 197.807 217.017
However, there are some trends that can affect the combustible fraction. A declining factor is
the spreading of the packaging recycling programmes and the fact that the population can be
expected to become more familiar with sorting at source. On the other hand the packaging
fraction is expected to grow. So despite possible improvement of the sorting quality, the
residual, (combustible) fraction from the sorting of packaging material is also likely to grow.
A factor leading to increased waste generation, is the growing inflow of tourists combined
with increased consumption, although, the number of tourists has been known to fluctuate.
Yet, despite the predicted increase of the Greek tourism industry of around 3,8% a year, the
recent, national tourism strategy, targeting luxury tourism segments, entails richer but not
necessarily more tourists (Greek Tourism Report, 2006).
As it will most likely take at least another 5-10 years for the construction and particularly for
finding an appropriate plant location, a rough estimate of the relevant capacity would be
between 200.000 -250.000 t/y. The next question is how this capacity will fit the future
energy demand and energy efficiency criteria.
92
8. 3. 4. 2. Energy Efficiency and Demand
As mentioned above, CHP plants are recognised as the most efficient type of waste-to-energy
production. Optimising the overall energy efficiency involves optimising the whole plant
process, including process consumption and loss reduction (the difference between energy
input and output). Apart from optimising the technical operation, the energy efficiency
depends to a large extent on the energy demand. In particular, this is more an issue with heat
and less with regard to electricity (EC, 2006:281f). Typically, it is possible to attain an
electricity production of 20-25%, where the conventional electricity power stations are able to
achieve around 50% exploitation of the electricity potential. The total energy efficiency
therefore depends on the exploitation of the generation of heat which is sensitive to issues
such as:
•
•
•
Variability of demand (heat utilisation period e.g. summer/winter)
Location and nearby distribution networks/ receivers
Climate – Generally heat will be of greater value in colder climates (although there is
the option of using the heat for driving chilling units where there is a demand for
cooling/air condition) (EC, 2006: iii, 192, Christensen, 1998:193)
Heat can be distributed as heated water or steam. Heated water supply is most common with
district heating systems (DHS) and less so with cooling networks. Receivers of steam supply
could be relevant for nearby industries or bigger institutions. CHP Plants exporting steam as a
base load can achieve higher annual heat exploitation having less need to cool away heat
energy during low demand periods (EC, 2006:281f).
In Crete there are two potential markets for heating: air conditioning and olive oil factories
(550 units in all), the latter needing substantial amounts of heat for extracting the oil from the
kernels. Households are less relevant in this context, as there is no central district heating
system in Crete, the main sources for heating being: electrical heating, oil-fired central
heating and solar panels for supplying hot water (REAC, 2004, app. 4d ).
Finally, an important factor is energy demand and energy prices. Regarding energy demand,
the yearly energy consumption in Crete is around 2600 GWh of which 86% is generated from
oil-fired power stations, 10% from windmill energy and the remaining from photovoltaics.
The energy consumption peaks within an average of approx. 500 MWh per month during July
and August compared to 450 MWh in September and October. The lowest points are reached
in March, April, and May where consumption is around 350 MWh per month, which is most
likely due to warmer weather excluding the need for electric heating. The second low period
occurs in November where the demand is approx. 360 MWh (data from REAC from 2004 and
2005 app. D, app. 4d).
As for the future energy supply, there are no plans for increasing the windmill park. Recently,
however preliminary studies of the natural gas potential have been carried out. The western
93
and central part of Crete, are applying for a new power station, which will be oil-fired in the
beginning. Later on it is supposed to be fired on liquid natural gas. The plant is estimated to
produce 550 MWh based on oil/natural gas.
It is generally estimated that 1.25 to 1.5 MWh (including 0,4-0,7 MWh electricity) is
produced per ton of MSW, based on combined heat and power (EC, 2006:192ff). This
indicates a potential energy production from incineration of around 191.000 – 229.500 MWh
per Year, comprising 7-8% of the present annual energy demand (EC, 2006:192ff, 195).
Even if both the new power plant and a waste-to-energy plant will be built, oversupply is not
considered a problem by the Regional Energy Agency of Crete (REAC), as the energy
(mainly electricity) demand is growing by at least 4% a year, mainly due to changes in
lifestyle but also due to the increase of tourists (REAC, App.4d).
In order to attain the optimal energy efficiency, the main issue is thus to be able to exploit the
generated heat by finding a location close to a receiver network of e.g. olive oil factories
and/or to create a cooling network, which is mostly relevant close to a hotel area. However, in
the latter case it might pose a problem with an incineration plant too close to the tourist areas.
In any case, the main conditions for exploiting the heat energy, is the finding of an
‘appropriate’ location and the development of local distribution networks.
8. 3. 5. Pros and Cons of Incineration Technologies
In the following, the pros and cons of waste incineration will be examined based on
dimensions outlined in the concept of ISWM.
8. 3. 5. 1. Environmental and Technical Parameters
One of the main environmental advantages of incineration technology is that waste going to
landfill is minimised. Waste volume is reduced by around 90%, while the weight is reduced
by 75-80%. Secondly, the recovery of energy saves fossil fuels and reduces CO2 and CH4
emissions from bio-material in landfills (IME, 2001:109). Besides, the energy production
from a waste incineration plant produces less polluting air emissions than a coal fired or oilfired power station. Regarding technical operation, grate-fired incineration in particular has
been proven a feasible technology and is therefore also the most widely applied treatment
method for MSW (Christensen, 1998:193).
The disadvantage of grate-fired incineration is both from an environmental and economic
perspective the requirement for treating the formed flue gasses, slag, fly-ash and in some
cases also wastewater. Flue gas contains HCl, which becomes aggressive at temperatures
under 110 C and over 300 C. This limits the boiler and reduces the exploitation of the
94
electricity potential. The total energy efficiency therefore depends on the exploitation of the
generation of heat, which in this case depends on a location close to the receiving units.
The main environmental advantage of FBC compared to grate-incineration is that the
fluidised bed process, due to lower temperatures, produces a low amount of NOx, comparable
to grate systems with flue gas re-circulation and optimised process control (EEA, 2001:14).
On the negative side, the main disadvantage of FBC is the uncertainty related to the upscaling of the necessary pilot plant to a full size plant. Due to the lack of knowledge
concerning the heat and gas flows in the FBC process, the operational stability can be difficult
to predict. Another technical and economic disadvantage is that FBC is more sensitive to
bulky waste, usually requiring pre-treatment (downsizing). Regarding maintenance, the fluidlike behaviour of the fine particles results in wear of the boiler, increasing the need for repair
(EEA, 2001:12f).
Energy-wise, the turbulent mixing of the fluidised bed results in good blending of the waste,
which again leads to steady temperatures and a steady energy production less dependant on
the varying calorific value of MSW (EC, 2006:277). From an energy view point FBC is thus
more flexible than grate-incinerators, because they can burn waste with high moisture content
more efficiently. Grate-fired incineration, on the other hand has the advantage of very low
requirements for pre-treatment. Furthermore, a certain pressure must be kept in the boiler,
requiring additional energy (EEA, 2001:12f, Cliffe, Patumsawad, 2002:2339ff).
In terms of system coherency, incineration in general is quite flexible towards e.g. changes in
the demand for recyclable material (plastic or paper) or problems in the source sorting
programme. Thus fractions “dropping out” or not ready for the recycling scheme can be
handled without increasing the fraction sent to landfill.
8. 3. 5. 2. Economic Parameters
To a large extent, high energy efficiency and appropriate capacity determine the plant
feasibility. However, other operational factors are also of economic importance. Thus the
biggest expense related to MSW-fuelled power plants is often high temperatures leading to
corrosion and fouling of the heat-transfer surfaces in the boiler. Therefore it is important that
the design considers not only heat recovery but also durability (IME, 2001:34).
The establishment and operational costs of both grate-fired and FBC incinerators are quite
high. E.g. the capital costs for a grate-fired plant with a treatment capacity of 200.000
ton/year would roughly be around 90 mio. Euro (EEA, 2001:14).The main economic
advantage of grate-fired incinerators, as opposed to less proven technologies like FBC, is that
it is a waste-to-energy technology with a proven stable operation and good energy efficiency.
The disadvantage of grate-incineration is however, the cost associated with an extensive flue
gas cleaning system. Although, fluidised beds have less heat losses from flue gas formation
95
they generally consume more additional energy in order to sustain the pressure in the boiler
room and the operation costs end up being quite similar to grate-incineration.
8. 3. 5. 3. Social Parameters
From a social point of view, incineration plants rarely enjoy public support (IME 2001:168).
This is not least the case in Greece, where there is very strong public opposition against
incineration due to concerns about health and environmental problems and not least due to a
lack of faith in the authorities (Filis E. et al., 2001:1ff). Until now there has been strong
resistance from the local residents in Crete towards the establishment of all types of waste
treatment facilities. Public information and debate is therefore crucial when establishing a
waste-to-energy-plant such as incineration. This point will be discussed further, later on (App.
2f, 5d, 1b).
8. 4. Bio-gasification
Bio-gasification is a biological waste treatment technology based on anaerobe digestion of
organic material resulting in a fertilising product and biogas, which can be utilised for driving
a gas engine. The biogas is usually converted into heat and power in a CHP plant, either
located at the biogas plant or located externally, receiving the gas through a pipe system. The
gas product typically consists of 60-70% methane (CH4), 30-40% CO2 (on volume basis) and
1-2% Nitrogen, N2, 1000-3000 ppm Nitrogen sulfid (H2S) and 10-30 ppm NH3 (Christensen,
1998:409).
The relevant sources for organic material are: source sorted organic household waste and
organic material from industries and agricultural activities. The input of green waste from
gardens and parks should be limited though because too high levels of cellulose slow down
the digestion process (Danish Energy Authority, 2005:67).
8. 4. 1. The Anaerobe Digestion Process
Biogas from solid waste with a high content of dry matter is a relatively new waste treatment
form. There are a number of different process design options including:
•
•
•
•
•
Wet vs. dry digestion process
Batch wise vs. continuous digestion process
Single-step vs. multi-step digestion process
Thermophile vs. Mesophile digestion process
Separate digestion vs. co-digestion of different types of organic material
The three main methods are: separate digestion (dry method), separate digestion (wet
96
method) and co-digestion (wet method).
The biodegradable waste can be separated into a liquid and a fibre fraction prior to or after
digestion. The liquid fraction is directed to anaerobic filtering with a shorter retention time
compared to treating raw, solid biomass (EEA, 2001:11ff).
The ‘dry separate digestion’ process refers to the fact that it is a drier type of process, where
the biomass is mixed with water prior to digestion. The ‘wet separate digestion’ entails that
the waste is turned into a fluid pulp, whereas in the co-digestion process the shredded waste is
mixed with either sewage sludge or manure at a ratio of around 1:3–4. The end result of this
process is biogas and a liquid biomass, which is stored before being used as a liquid soil
fertiliser. Because separation is conducted after digestion the nutrients in the fibre fraction are
increased, making it more suitable as a soil conditioner for example (EEA:2001:11f).
Separate digestion in a ‘dry’ process tends to be the most commonly applied anaerobic
digestion technology for treating bio-degradable MSW, as bio gas-plants are often established
near large cities where liquid manure is generally not available (EEA:2001:11f).
Apart from the digestion itself, bio-gasification involves the following steps: pre-treatment
(post-sorting, downsizing, and pre-heating) followed by gas production in the digestion tanks
through stirring. The biomass is sterilised either before or after digestion depending on the
type of process. Finally, the generated gas is purified and utilised in a gas engine resulting in
the production of electricity, heat, and flue gas. The fertilizer product is stored depending on
the need for further composting prior to distribution (Christensen, 1998: 400-406). Multi-step
processes are preferred due to the higher degree of control of the different stages leading to
shorter reaction time and a higher yield of bio-gas.
Regarding the gasification phase, the use of ‘thermophile’ micro-organisms tolerant to higher
temperatures (40-55 C) as opposed to ‘mesophile’ bacteria is the preferred method due to a
number of advantages including: increasing gas production and destruction of pathogenic
organisms, while reducing the reactor time and production of biomass solids. However, the
disadvantages are the requirement for more process energy and increased toxicity of
ammonium at higher temperatures, inhibiting the fermenting process (Christensen,
1998:383ff).
Bio-gas production is required to fulfil a number of criteria in terms of emissions and likewise
the fertiliser product has to fulfil standards regarding hygiene, smell, and hazardous materials.
The bio-gasification of solid waste is a relatively new treatment method. A number of specific
issues have been encountered with especially the dry bio-gasification process including:
97
•
Issues with sufficient out-sorting of unwanted materials such as plastic bags,
stones and glass.
•
Pumping of the waste can be difficult and is only possible with special pumps
•
Stirring in the digestion tanks can be inhibited
The dry digestion process is also significantly more costly in terms of capital investment and
maintenance costs (EEA, 2001:13).
However, many of the problems associated with anaerobe digestion of solid waste can be
addressed by using the co-digestion method, where the solid waste is mixed with semi-fluid
waste such as slurry from manure. Thus mixing organic MSW with slurry solves many of the
technical issues including:
•
Pumping issues - the high water content in slurry works as a dissolvent to the dry
matter, which contains easily degradable materials.
•
The buffer quality of the slurry prevents sudden increases of PH value caused by
increased concentrations of fatty acids.
•
Slurry contains high amounts of nutrients, which are necessary for optimal bacterial
growth
•
Finally the mixture yields a much higher gas production, because the gas potential of
organic household waste is higher than that of slurry alone. (Christensen, 1998:415ff)
Since slurry from a big pig farm as well as waste water from cheese factories, rich in fat and
proteins is available, co-digestion could be an option in Crete. However, the more specific
amounts of semi-fluid wastes are not known at the time. The general ratio used, depending on
the process, can be between 70-80% manure (Danish Energy Authorities, 2004:67 REAC
app.4d).
8. 4. 2. An Integrated Waste Management System based on Bio-gasification
The following section will look into how the choice of bio-gasification affects the waste flow
and the waste management system coherency.
98
Table 18: Waste Quantities distributed on ‘treatment fractions’
Fractions t/y
Estimated Quantity
Material Recovery
Deposit
Organics (39%)
75.626
Paper
(19%)
37.166
11.475
Plastic
(17%)
32.549
2.311
0
30.238
Glass
(6%)
10.296
136
0
(10.060)
Metal
(5%)
9.562
636
0
(8.926)
LTRW
(5%)
26.966
0
0
26.966
Inert
(3%)
5.158
0
0
5.158
(6%)
11.339
0
0
11.339
Estim. Quantity in all t/y
193.170
14.558
b
Misc.
0
Bio-gas
75.626
0
25.691
0
75.626
92.687
As the table shows a considerable amount of waste will be landfilled using the waste-toenergy option of bio-gas. However, the fraction for landfill is likely to be overestimated due
to the take- back systems for a number of glass beverage bottles and due to waste scavengers
retrieving metal from the landfills for selling. Still, the fraction for deposit will be bigger
compared to incineration, even if the glass and metal fractions are reduced.
The MSW fraction for bio-gas of around 75.000 ton can also be expected to be slightly
overestimated. As mentioned above, the unofficial estimate of DEDISA was that the latest
waste composition study is already out-dated, indicating that the organic fraction is closer to
34-35%. Besides, it is likely that the organic fraction will become even lower in the future. As
seen elsewhere in Greece, urbanisation and economic growth result in an increased packaging
fraction (paper and plastic) and a decrease in the organic fraction.
8. 4. 2. 1. Plant Capacity
The organic fraction of the MSW flow is estimated to be around 39%. However, above
mentioned unofficial estimate is closer to 35%. Furthermore, as it is known from the
experience of DEDISA, some of the organics are lost with the packaging material. In any
case, it is likely that the organic fraction will decrease further following the trend in other
cities or touristy areas in Greece (Gidarakos, 2005:669).Therefore two scenarios have been
outlined based on an organic fraction of 39% and 35%, respectively.
Table 19: The Projected waste quantities available for bio-gas generation
2004
2010
2013
Projected Waste Generation (ton/y) in Crete
(excl. Chania & Sitia)
193.171 222.751 230.949
The Size of the bio-gas Fraction (ton/y) scenario 1 75.626
87.207 90.416
The Size of the bio-gas Fraction (ton/y) scenario 2 67.609
77.963 80.832
2020
253.377
99.197
88.681
According to the projection of the waste quantities in Crete, the bio-degradable fraction will
be somewhere between 88.000-99.000 in 2020. When adding 2/3 slurry this would approach
a capacity of between 250-300.000 ton/year according to the availability of semi-fluid waste
99
and the attainable distribution of heat. 200 ton of biomass is roughly equivalent to 1 MWh.
According to this maximum scenario, the annual energy production would be around 12001500 MWh (Danish Energy Authority, 2004:67).
8. 4. 2. 2. Environmental and Technical Parameters
The main environmental advantages of bio-gasification are that it is a CO2 neutral method for
waste reduction and fuel generation. Furthermore, methane emissions are relatively low
compared to composting or landfill.
The fertilizer value of the digested biomass is higher than the raw input materials and has the
advantage of recycling nutrients to the farmland. However, the product is less stabilised
containing fewer beneficial micro-organisms than compost. Unless passed through a
composting-phase, the product is mainly suited for the purpose of agricultural soil
improvement (The Danish Energy Authority, 2005:67, EEA, 2001:3).
From a technical view point, bio-gasification of solid waste is a relatively new method, with a
track record of approx. 10 years. Yet, to a large extent, the issues related to the dry digestion
process can be solved by mixing the biomass with slurry. This requires, however that
sufficient amounts of slurry are available. It is estimated by the manager of the Regional
Energy Agency of Crete, that sufficient sources of semi-fluid waste such as pig and chicken
manure, and waste water from cheese production exist, however the more specific quantities
are not known.
Bio-gasification sets certain demands to the integrated waste management system. Thus an
energy-efficient digestion process depends on a pure organic fraction, requiring a well
established sorting and pre-treatment system. In this respect, MSW is a more challenging
fraction than waste of a more homogenised type, such as e.g. agricultural waste or waste from
commercial kitchens. So far separate collection of organic waste is not a common practice in
Europe or in Greece. The purity of the organic fraction therefore depends mainly on the presorting process (EEA, 2001:5f,15).
8. 4. 2. 3. Economic Parameters
The expenses of the required pre-treatment system should also be considered, when
comparing with incineration technologies. The operation and feasibility of the pre-treatment
facility will be markedly improved if the sorting at source system is working satisfactory.
Since no gas combustion plant exists these costs should also be considered. Similar to
incineration, the most feasible energy production would be attained with CHP generation.
Again the exploitation of the heat generation would depend on the location and the local
distribution network.
The expenses related to dry bio-gasification is similar to the capital and operational costs of
grate-fired incineration. However, by applying a wet digestion process the expenses are
reduced by more than half (EEA, 2001:13).
100
8. 4. 2. 4. Social Parameters
In terms of public acceptability, bio-gasification is subjected to the same conditions as
incineration. However, bio-gasification has one small advantage – that it is NOT incineration
(IME, 2001:166). Furthermore, the plant design of a bio-gasification plant is less noticeable
than an incineration plant, still intensive information and negotiation with the public can be
expected, especially regarding the location. In general, biological treatment plants should be
located at a suitable distance from residential areas taking national requirements regarding
odour and noise emissions into account.
8. 5. Summary - Advantages and Disadvantages of the Waste-to-energy Technology Options
When looking at the reviewed technology options it is clear that there is no ideal solution
since all technology options are associated with pros and cons and but must be weighed
against the advantages and disadvantages of the alternative. The tables below summarise
these for the reviewed technologies.
Table 20: Summarising Table of the Environmental/technical Parameters
Technology
Enviromental/technical Parameter
Advant./Disadvant.
+
÷
Grate-incineration
- Highest deposit reduction
-Generation of fly ash, flue gas cleaning
- CO2 Neutral energy
products usually treated/deposited as
substituting fossil fuel
hazardous waste.
-High Energy efficiency
- Air Emissions: NOX, SOX
-System coherency: Flexible
- Possibly waste water
towards waste flow changes
FBC
- High landfill reduction
-Solid hazardous residues
- CO2 Neutral energy
substituting fossil fuel
- Some Air emissions
-High Energy efficiency
-Can burn waste of varying
- Possibly waste water
calorific value
- Relatively few air emissions
- Corrosion from fine particles developed
- Less corrosion due to lower
in the fluidised process
temp.
- Relatively flexible system
coherency: towards changes
in the fractions
Bio-gasfication (wet)
- CO2 Neutral production.
-Requires pre-treatment
- Few methane emissions.
-Less proven MSW technology
101
- Substituting fossil fuel.
large amount of MSW sent to landfill
- Landfill deposit reduction
-Some methane emissions
- Simple plant design.
-Fertiliser product limited to agricultural
- Storage possibility
purposes
accord. to energy demand
-Less flexible in terms of system
- Substitution of commercial
coherency
fertiliser
Table 21: Summarising table of the economic parameters
Technology
Economic Parameter
Advantag./Disadv.
+
÷
Grate-incineration
+ Grate fired (CHP)
÷ Big invest. & operational costs
proven feasible technology
÷ Flue gas cleaning expensive
+ Proven as a feasible on a
÷Additional costs of pre-treatment
pilot project level.
÷Uncertain feasibility/functionality when
High Energy efficiency (CHP)
up-scaled
FBC
÷ Less proven MSW technology
Bio-gasfication (wet)
+More simple plant design.
÷Requires pre-treatment
+Lower establishment costs
÷Less proven MSW technology
+Substitut. of commercial
÷ Relatively high operation cost
fertiliser
Use limited to agricultural fertiliser
Table 22: Summarising table of the social parameters
Technology
Social Parameter
Advantag./Disadv.
+
Grate-incineration
÷
÷ VERY strong public resistance
÷Need for public dialogue & info
Lack of public participation tradition
÷ Noise
FBC
+-Pilot project could provide
÷ Strong public resistance incl. siting
a BCP example to the public.
issues
÷ Need for public dialogue & info
÷ Lack of public participation tradition
÷ Noise
Bio-gasfication (wet)
+It is NOT incineration!
÷ Strong public resistance + siting
+ More low profile buildings
issues
and no high chimneys
÷ Smell/Noise
÷ Need for public dialogue & info
÷ Lack of public participation tradition
102
8. 6 Discussion of Waste Technology Options in Crete
8. 6. 1. Bio-gasification vs. Incineration.
As mentioned above, there is no ideal solution since all technology options naturally are
associated with advantages and disadvantages.
In terms of system coherency, the ideal scenario in the case of bio-gasification would involve
separate collection of the organics, thereby reducing the requirements for pre-treatment,
simultaneously creating the optimum conditions for the gas-generating digestion process.
Furthermore, it would imply the existence of a well-functioning recycling system in order to
reduce the amounts of waste going to landfill. However, according to this scenario the
requirement for transportation (and CO2 production) of the recyclable fractions would be
greater than in the case of incineration.
In the case of incineration, the ideal scenario would involve that the non-combustible
fractions including the hazardous waste, such as PVC and batteries, were sorted out. Also, it
would involve that recyclable fractions would gradually be taking out for recycling as the
sorting system is gradually improved. Especially, plastic cannot be categorised as a renewable
energy source.
In the following, which of these two scenarios is more realistic will be discussed in relation to
more specific parameters.
Seen from an environmental perspective, both types of waste-to-energy technologies reduce
deposited waste and generate CO2 neutral energy while replacing fossil fuels. Yet, there are
also environmental issues related to the waste treatment processes themselves. Regarding
incineration, air, water emissions and slag, most often required to be deposited as hazardous
waste. Compared to this, the environmental issues of the anaerobe digestion process are
relatively small. However, when looking at the overall environmental benefits from the end
result, the score looks different. Anaerobe digestion generates bio-gas for energy production
and a fertiliser product mainly suitable for agricultural purposes, but more than four times the
amount of waste is sent to landfill, compared to the deposited fraction in the case of
incineration. Accordingly, incineration also exploits more of the energy potential and so has a
greater effect regarding replacement of fossil fuels.
As for system coherency, incineration furthermore provides much greater system flexibility,
especially in terms of fluctuations in the demand for recyclable products or changes in
consumption patterns. If e.g. a new type of mixed packaging material is launched, for which
there is no specific recovery procedures it can be incinerated and its energy potential
103
exploited until a recovery market is developed. In the case of anaerobe digestion, the material
would be sent to landfill until a recycling solution had been found.
As to technical feasibility, anaerobe digestion requires an extensive pre-treatment phase
where especially the pre-sorting process is important. As source sorting has only recently
started, it is doubtful whether a mechanical sorting process can lead to a sufficiently pure
biomass-fraction.
From an economic perspective the capital investments and operation costs related to
incineration appear much higher than for bio-gasification technology. However, due to the
lower levels of energy production and the expenditures connected with the establishment and
operation of the pre-treatment and combustion plant, especially grate-incineration appears
more feasible from an overall perspective. Moreover, grate-incineration is a more proven
technology, why fewer technical adjustments can be expected. FBC pilot plants have also
shown stable operation and energy efficiency results. Besides, a pilot plant could have the
advantage of demonstrating feasibility and proper operation to the public, before up-scaling to
a full size plant. Yet, it is likely that the uncertainties connected with the up-scaling would be
too much of a risk both in terms of economy and in terms of the lack of public tolerance. A
failed waste management plant is the last thing the authorities need.
Concerning the social acceptability of a waste-to-energy plant, it will in any case not be an
easy task to follow through. Incineration in particular, is likely to be met with very fierce
resistance. As mentioned above, one of the biggest issues appears to be finding a plant site.
Since there is a strong opposition against selling or letting out land to any type of waste
management facility, it will be, if not impossible, at least very time consuming and expensive
to find a location that also fulfils the requirements of transport economy and at the same time
being at a certain distance from residential areas.
In general, the present planning procedure seems to be as follows: Political decisions are
made at the different levels of authority and converted into an official plan e.g. the
establishment of a new power station. The local residents in the area, where the plant is
planned to be built, march against the plant and file complaints at all levels of local authority.
In some cases, the authorities manage to get their plans carried out anyway. In other cases, the
plans are stopped. As it has been seen from various examples, local resistance can postpone
the improvement of the waste management system for years, even when it comes to the
establishment of a transfer station in one of the DEDISA member municipalities. It is
therefore relevant to discuss whether there are any alternatives to this procedure.
104
8. 6. 2. Awareness Raising and Prospects for Public Participation
There were different opinions among some of the informants regarding how waste
management could be improved in Crete. Furthermore, there were also differing opinions in
terms of what the actual barriers were. From the view point of the authorities, the public
opposition against their plans hinders them from taking care of the problems. This opposition
can partly be explained by the phenomena of NIMBY (Not In My Back Yard) and the lack of
understanding of the alternative options, resulting in a general NOPE (Not On Planet Earth)
approach towards establishment of any central waste management solution.
In the opinion of Nikolas Levantakis, the former leader of the environmental movement in
Crete, however, the main issue is the lack of political will to invest the required effort and
money to create long term solutions to the waste problems. This opinion appears to reflect a
common view point, namely that the authorities cannot be trusted when it comes to waste
management. So far the citizens have only experienced mismanaged landfills. As stated by
the environmentalist Levantakis, the politicians of Heraklion over the years have made
promises of new landfills to replace the overfilled ones and of composting technology
solutions, but so far most promises have stayed on the theoretical level or in the case of
composting it has never gone beyond university pilot projects. Therefore many citizens do not
have any faith in the ability of the authorities to manage central solutions such as incineration
or bio-gas plants. The relation between the citizens and the authorities in Crete can thus be
described as a vicious circle. The question is how to move on from there?
One informant pointed out that the citizens should be included earlier in the decision making
process (App.2d). Also researchers from other planning areas such as tourism, similarly point
out that the lack of public participation leads to unsatisfactory, short term solutions
(Andriotis, 2001:306).
In Austria, Strategical Impact Assessment (SEA), was recently applied to waste management
with a number of stakeholders being successfully involved already in the strategical planning
phase (Arbter, 2003). However, since the tradition for public participation so far has mainly
consisted in filing complaints against the authorities, it seems to be far to go before the stage
of round table discussions.
In DEDISA they handled the issue by acting to some extent according to public opinion and
established a composting plant, even though this was not considered the most feasible
solution from an environmental or an economic perspective.
105
8. 6. 3. Central vs. Decentral Waste Management Solutions
As mentioned, earlier, there have been plans about establishing an incineration plant in
Heraklion. Whereas the opinion in DEDISA is that it will not be possible to implement, the
manager of REAC is more optimistic, hoping that people will be able to see the necessity of
finding an alternative option to landfills (App. 2f, 4b, 4d). In the opinion of Nikolas
Levantakis, the only realistic solution for household waste in Crete is a decentral solution in
the form of well-functioning landfills and separate collection from specific sources such as
restaurants, offices, and industrial areas (one exists near Heraklion). Levantakis furthermore
thinks that a centralised plant will only be possible as a private initiative such as a bio-gas
plant driven by a farmer cooperative (App.8b).
However, central and decentral solutions need not necessarily exclude each other. Separate
collection from specific sources would compliment a central recycling and waste-to-energy
system. In any case, well-operated landfills will still be needed as a basic part of the primary
system.
Yet, it is understandable that people have doubts about how the authorities will run an
incineration plant. E.g. in the case of the power plant in Heraklion, the air emissions live up
to the limit values required, but the waste water from cooling has apparently not been
cleansed sufficiently and has caused serious pollution of the ocean near the plant (App.8b).
An immediate way of reconciliating and rebuilding the trust in the authorities is therefore not
obvious. However, as it has been seen in the case of Chania, outside intervention such as the
reprisals of the EU, responding to the complaints of the local environmentalists, actually can
kick-start a process leading to practical improvement of waste management. One could hope
that it could inspire similar initiatives in other parts of Crete and Greece.
In order to look for community support for the improvement of the waste management
system, the study will examine the tourism industry as an important stakeholder in the Cretan
community.
The tourism industry accounts for around 60% of the regional GDP and employs approx. 40%
of the population (REAC, 2006). The following chapter will look into the attitudes and
practices of the hotels in order to assess the supportive potential of this stakeholder group for
an Integrated Waste Management System in Crete.
106
Chapter 9: Waste Practices at Hotels - Empirical Findings
In this section the view points and waste profiles of 12 hotel cases varying in size and concept
will be presented. Five hotels have been selected as the most interesting cases, out of which
three were chosen as Best Case Practice examples. The individual case descriptions of the
remaining hotels can be found in appendices (App. 9-19).
Each of the following case presentation contains a ‘waste profile’, describing the waste
practices of the hotels, whether they undertake any activities that correspond to the levels of
the ‘CP waste model developed for hotels as well as an estimation of their waste composition.
Furthermore, a section deals with the influence of ‘stakeholders’ such as employees, guests,
and tour operators. Finally, the views of the hotels regarding their own responsibility vs. the
responsibility of the authorities are presented.
9. 1. Waste Profiles of the Large Hotels
Six large hotels (more than 250 beds) have been interviewed, spanning from 2 to 5 stars in
classification and covering hotels as well as hotel apartments.
Most of the large hotels in this study, including the three BCP’s chosen, belong to the luxury
segment (4 and 5 stars). First because most BCPs seemed to be found in this segment and
secondly they represent a growing segment reflecting that the tourism industry in Crete is
increasingly catering to luxury tourism. Yet two hotels classified as 2 and 3 star respectively
have also been included in order to discuss the significance of size and classification.
9. 1. 1. Royal Mare Village (App. 9)
Facts
Informants: Sofia Klotza, Quality and Development Depart. and the technical manager?
Bed capacity: Beds:914, rooms:435,
Classification: 5 Star
Chain Association: Owned by Aldemar Hotels
Employees: 350
Restaurants and resort area
Season: April-October. High season: July, august, Low season: April and October
Location: Hersonissos
The hotel has worked with environmental issues and waste since 1998 and the family who
owns the hotel are very engaged in environmental issues at the Aldemar Hotels.
107
At Aldemar Royal Village they started out by implementing ISO 14001, but in the end
developed their own Environmental Management System, which they felt was more in tune
with the practice of the hotel (cf. app. 9).
CP Waste Practices
1. Waste Reduction: The hotel also has a policy regarding reduction of packaging material
(mainly concerning food products): e.g. by purchase of products requiring less packaging, or
by buying in bulks. Returnable crates are used when possible for receiving products.
2. Internal Recycling: 1% of the organic fraction is used for compost
3. External Recycling: 6-7 fractions are sorted at the hotel: plastic, paper, glass, metal,
batteries, ink cartridges and cooking oil. Also a number of the glass bottles are collected by
the producers.
The waste from the kitchen is stored in a refrigerated storage, to avoid smell, and is collected
from the hotel once a day along with the bins for mixed waste. The sorted fractions are
collected approx. every second week and shipped to recycling companies in Athens. Only
concerning glass a collection fee is requested. The hotel also pays rent for the containers for
recyclables. From next season, the hotel has asked to be informed by the collector about the
development in the quantities of recyclable fractions (app. 9).
Estimated Waste Composition
Organic
Plastic
30-35%
5%
Glass
40%
Paper
15%
Metal
5%
With a lot of green areas at the resort and a number of restaurants, an organic fraction of
around 30% seems almost too low. The extremely high % of glass and very low % of plastic
can be explained by the fact that glass bottles are preferred in stead of plastic bottles.
Furthermore, many of the food products are wrapped in paper and card board rather than
plastic, due to a specific set of requirements for suppliers according to the hotel’s packaging
and waste policies. Metal is probably less than 5% when compared to the municipal average.
9. 1. 1. 2. Stakeholders
The staff is trained in the environmental policies and procedures as part of their basic training
and new employees are assisted by a supervisor who is familiar with all the policies and
procedures. As the only hotel, the guests are involved in the sorting at the hotel premises
(concerning paper). The guests also receive information regarding the environmental
procedures of the hotel. Both guests and staff can sign up for various environmental events
and activities such as: Clean up the beach activities, the World Environment Day, and the
Blue Flag Day.
According to Sofia Klotza, the old habits of the staff take time to change. However, the
employees are increasingly engaging in the environmental work, which shows due to the fact
108
that the bins for recyclable material are filled up more often and more people sign up for the
environmental events. Furthermore, it is the manager’s impression that they take their
acquired learning home to their own household. Sadly this is not the case for the guests and
very few mention environmental issues positive or negative in the guest questionnaire.
The hotel receives questionnaires from most of the big tour operators yearly also concerning
the environmental practices of the hotel and some also conduct audits. The Quality and
Development manager noted that the opinion of the tour operators is taken very seriously by
the hotels since they are a key customer, delivering approximately 70% of the guests.
Regarding the question about whether big hotels can influence and raise awareness around
issues such as waste in their local community, Sofia Klotza clearly states that it is not possible
for the hotel to act on its own. She believes that the municipality has to pave the way. The
municipality should be able to adapt to the needs of companies the size of Aldemar, since big
companies pay too much for waste collection and recycling. The municipality should make
efforts to create awareness and distribute bins and containers for separation both for the hotels
and the general public. The hotel is interested in working with the municipality regarding
sorting and recycling.
9. 1. 2. Lyttos Beach Hotel (App. 11)
Facts
Informant: Yannis Tsounakis, Technical Manager.
Bed Capacity: around 600
Classification: 4 Star
Chain Association: Robinson Club owned by the TUI Group
Employees: not known exactly.
Restaurants and resort area
Season: April-October, High season: July, August Low: October
Location: Hersonissos
Robinson Club Hotels are owned by the German Corporation TUI Group, and Robinson Club
hotels are situated all over the world – e.g. in the Caribbean’s, Mexico and Europe. The club
mainly has German guests.
The hotel has implemented 14001 in 2006 along with a number of other Robinson Club
hotels. The system covers water, energy and waste. The hotel manager is the overall ISO
responsible.
109
CP Waste Practices
1. Waste reduction/avoidance: The hotel has some procedures for reducing waste e.g.
bringing in fruits and vegetables in returnable crates, but these were not known in detail to the
informant.
2. Internal Recycling: Some of the organic waste is used as fertilizer in the organic garden.
3. External Recycling: The hotel sorts: paper, glass, plastic, cooking oil, metal, ink cartridges
and batteries by the staff.
Estimated Waste Composition
Organic
Plastic
60%
15%
Glass
15%
Paper
5-8%
Metal
3-4%
Although, the hotel has quite large, green areas, 60% of organic is probably a bit
overestimated, which can perhaps to some extent also account for the quite low proportion of
paper, compared to the rest of Hersonissos. As not so much is known about the waste
reduction or purchasing policies, it is difficult to say much about the low paper fraction. The
glass fraction is relatively high indicating the use of glass bottles. Plastic and metal are around
the normal average of the area of Hersonissos.
Waste is collected from the hotel every day, the separated fractions around every second
week. The hotel stores the waste in a cooling room to avoid smell. The manager has not noted
any particular reduction of the waste quantities (e.g. fewer containers.) as a result of the waste
procedures of the hotel.
9. 1. 2. 1. Stakeholders
The department chiefs are responsible for the training of their staff also regarding
environment and waste. In the beginning environmental events such as ‘World Environment
day’ and ‘Cleaning the Med’ day were mandatory, but not many employees showed up. Now
the hotel uses the ‘voluntary green team’ model and this seems to have raised the motivation
among the staff. Around 30-40 guests are taken on the environmental tour of the hotel every
week by the hotel manager. The guests who sign up for such activities are usually positive
towards the environmental efforts of the hotel.
As Lyttos Beach exclusively receives TUI guests, the hotel does not receive questionnaires
from other tour operators. The technical manager is required to send monthly reports about
the hotel’s energy and water consumption to the technical and the environmental department
of TUI. Concerning what the municipality could do to improve their service, the technical
manager suggests that the streets around the hotel and in the area in general should be cleaned
more often.
110
9. 1. 3. El Greco Hotel
Facts
Informant: Katarina Velokaki, Responsible for the Cultural and Environmental activities.
Location: Rethymnon, Arkadi municipality
Bed capacity: around 500
Classification: 4 Star
Chain Association: Grecotel
Employees: 140
Restaurant and resort
Season: April-October. High: July, August. Low: October
Location: Near Rethymnon
El Greco belongs to Grecotels, the biggest hotel chain in Greece, known for its environmental
efforts. All the hotels of the chain have an environmental committee consisting of the
technical manager and two other relevant managers.
El Greco has worked with environmental issues for a number of years and are required to live
up to the general set of environmental requirements for Grecotels. Other than that the hotel
has free hands regarding what environmental areas it wants to prioritise. The hotel is going to
be certified after ISO 14001 in the spring 2007.
CP Waste Practices
1. Waste Reduction: Grecotels has a deliberate product policy that aims at reducing the
amounts of plastic and aluminium: e.g. alu foil and tins are avoided where possible and
no alu cans are used. Bulk purchasing of products - reduction of single use packing (e.g.
breakfast, plastic food utensils etc).Fresh fruit and vegetables are bought in returnable
crates or sacks.
2. Internal Recycling: The garden waste is used for compost and some part of the food
scrapes for animal food.
3. External Recycling: The hotel has been sorting their waste for two years. They started
with ink cartridges and later went on to paper, cooking oil and batteries. From July 2006
they have also been sorting aluminium, plastic and glass. Returnable glass bottles are
used for water, beer and refreshments.
Estimated Waste Composition
Organic
60%
Plastic
10%
Glass
10%
Paper
15-20%
Metal
5%
The high fraction of paper, the informant explained, was because most of the products
received by the hotel were packaged in cartons, this partly explains the relatively low % of
plastic. Furthermore, as the numbers show, glass bottles seem to be used more frequently than
111
plastic bottles. Grecotels has made a deliberate product policy aiming at reducing the amounts
of plastic and aluminium where possible, e.g. aluminium foil and tins. Therefore the metal
fraction is probably even lower than 5 %.The waste is collected once a day, the sorted
fractions are collected approx. every 2 weeks.
9. 1. 3. 1. Stakeholders
Katarina Velokaki is responsible for organising cultural as well as environmental events for
the guests. In the guest questionnaire they sometimes get positive feedback, mainly from
guests who have participated in the environmental activities. The most common nationality
among the guests is Germans. The guests have also responded positive towards the hotel’s
policy for reducing plastic and aluminium which e.g. means that no plastic cocktail
accessories are used.
The hotel has together with its sister Hotel Marina Palace located near by initiated
cooperation with the Municipality of Arkadi, regarding transport of recyclable, sorted
fractions (glass, aluminium and plastic) to DEDISA the waste management organisation in
Chania. The municipality has planned to collect packaging material for the whole
municipality in March 2007. The service is expected to be free of charge. Until then El Greco
pays 480 Euro per year for the service. The manager is very satisfied with their cooperation.
Regarding improvements, the manager suggests that the energy potential of the waste ought to
be exploited.
The manager believes that the hotel can influence the local community in a positive way
regarding the environment, which is also made easier by the fact that there are four Grecotel
hotels in the area. Apart from the municipality El Greco also cooperates with local
organisations such as Archelon21, the University of Crete and the natural history museum of
Crete. The hotel has also holds a one day environmental conference for school children for the
4th year in a row.
The hotel receives yearly questionnaires from the tour operators, delivering most of their
guests. As the hotel is partly owned by TUI, the TUI group has a lot of influence and
encourages them e.g. concerning the ISO 14001 certification.
9. 1. 4. Summary of the Waste Profiles of the Big Hotels
The table below sums up the waste composition and the waste practices of the large hotels.
21
A local NGO working for the preservation of the Caretta Caretta Sea turtle in Crete.
112
Waste
Lyttos
Royal Mare
El Greco
Elounda
Stella Village
Profiles:
Beach
Village
Enviro.
EMS incl:
EMS incl:
EMS incl:
Irrigation
-Solar
- Energy
Actions
water,
water, energy
water, energy
with waste
panels
saving
energy &
& waste
& waste
water
-Water
-RES (solar
saving
panels)
Beach
Arminda
apart.
Big Hotels
waste
Waste
-Sorting
-Sorting
-Sorting
-Cooked
-Bottles
-Bottles
practices
-Reduction
-Reduction
-Reduction
oil recycl.
returned
returned
-Recycl.
-Recycl.org
-Recycl.org
for soap
- Packaging
-Packaging
org
-Staff train.
-Staff train.
reduction
reduction
-Staff
-Guest info
train.
Waste
Org.: 60%
Org.: 30-35%
Org.: 60%
Org. :45%
Org.: 40-50%
Org.:45-50%
Composit.
Plast.:
Plast.: 5 %
Plast.: 10%
Plast.:10%
Plast.: 10%
Plast.: 20%
15%
Glass: 40%
Glass: 10%
Glass: 5%
Glass: 10%
Paper: 15%
Glass:
Paper: 25%
Paper :15-20%
Paper:25%
Paper: 15-20%
Glass: 10%
15%
Metal: 5%
Metal: 5%
Metal : 1-2%
Metal: 3%
Metal: 1-2%
Paper: 58%
Metal: 34%
The general environmental procedures have also been included as a framework for how the
hotels deal with waste as an environmental issue. Concerning the terms used for different
types of waste practices: sorting refers to the systematic separation of waste fractions with the
purpose of reuse or recycling. Waste reduction refers to the avoidance of a waste product e.g.
by reusing transport packaging or by avoiding products containing hazardous materials such
as aluminium cans. The reuse of some % of the organic fraction for animal feed or compost is
counted as recycling. When only one activity is conducted within a category it is written out
specifically.
At the three presented case hotels waste management procedures of different sorts have been
an integrated part of certified environmental management systems for a number of years
already. At the remaining large hotel cases waste procedures were not part of an overall
framework such as an environmental management system.
When looking at the waste practices of the big hotels at the different levels of the CP model
for hotels a few trends stand out especially among the BCP hotels. At the level of
113
reduction/avoidance two of the BCP hotel cases stand out due to their deliberate procedures to
reduce packaging material and hazardous waste through purchasing policies. At the level of
internal reuse and recycling the BCP hotels all had procedures such as: using refillable ink
cartridges and composting of a certain % of kitchen and garden waste. In regards of the
external recycling level the waste practices at the BCP hotels have been extended gradually
over time to include separation of more fractions in all cases around six fractions.
Furthermore they prioritised the use of returnable beverage containers. However the examples
just given represent best case practice compared to most hotels.
The most common waste measures in the three remaining cases on the waste reduction level
was: bulk purchase over single package items (App. 12, 13, 14), refill soap in the public
toilets and returnable food crates. No activities were found on the level of internal recycling.
On the third level of external recycling some percentage of glass bottles and cans were taken
back by the producers, food scrapes were given to the local farmers. Characteristic for these
practices are that they seem more like practical measures than deliberate waste management
procedures.
Generally, waste is not perceived as a problem by the large and most of the informants are
satisfied with the service of the municipality. Most of the big hotels take care of isolating or
cooling the waste themselves to avoid smell. Regarding the role of the hotels, the
responsibility for source separation seemed an acceptable or even good idea to all of the
informants at the hotels which did not already separate their waste - assuming that the
municipality delivered the containers and undertook the collection free of charge.
All the hotels received questionnaires from (some of) their tour operators on a number of
issues, in most cases, also the environment. In one case the informants did not recall receiving
any questionnaire (App. 14). In terms of factors decisive to the leverage of the tour operators,
all informants stated that most of the guests, usually between 70-90% or more were
channelled through the tour operators. A few mentioned that they were assigned a grade based
on the guest satisfaction questionnaire conducted by the tour operators. The big hotels worked
with big as well as smaller tour operators. As one of the hotel managers mentioned this was
necessary in order to keep up a good occupation rate. The length of cooperation varied and
types of contracts seemed to vary on a seasonal basis. The tour operators mainly seemed to
have influence on the environmental measures at the three BCP hotels.
The waste composition and waste quantity generation of the hotels will be treated further in
the analysis.
114
9. 2. Waste Profiles of the SME hotels (below 250 beds)
Six small and medium sized hotels were interviewed, 2 medium sized and 4 smaller hotels.
Two of the hotels have been selected as examples of waste issues for SME hotels and thus not
only because if some BCP features but also as interesting cases regarding their case
characteristics.
9. 2. 1. Eleni Apartments
Facts
• Informant: Owner/manager Jorgos Chalambalakis. Also owner of Restaurant: Taverna Zorbas.
• Bed capacity: 23 beds – 13 apartments.
• Classification: 2 Star
• Employees: 2-3 including owner
• Cooking facilities in the apartments.
• Season: April – October (sometimes from March), High: July, August, Low: June
• Location: Analipsi, Hersonissos.
Regarding environmentally friendly procedures, the hotel has installed solar panels, magnetic
keys 22. As to solid waste, the owner Jorgos Chambalakis has invested in his own containers
for the hotel and his restaurant.
CP Waste Practices
1. Waste Reduction/Avoidance: Refill soap dispensers are used in the apartments. No
aluminium cans were used in the restaurant because they were not taken back by the
producers. In high season when ordering big quantities of food – the crates are taken back by
the delivery car.
2. Internal Recycling
3. External Recycling: Even though the focus was on the hotel it was interesting to note that
the food scrapes from his nearby restaurant was collected by a local resident for chicken food.
The owner had not experienced any particular problems with waste. The waste is collected by
the municipality once a day, which seems sufficient. Although it was also mentioned that the
tourists sometimes are careless with littering in the area, but according to the owner the locals
usually take care that it looks clean being aware that it is important for the area.
The owner was positive towards the idea of recyclable/less toxic list of product suppliers.
22
Magnetic keys switch off the power automatically when the guests take out the key to leave the apartment.
115
Estimation of Waste Composition
Organic
Plastic
40%
30%
Glass
2-3%
Paper
25%
Metal
2-3%
The waste of the hotel consists mostly of packaging material mainly paper and plastic. The
guests usually do not buy glass bottles nor do they buy canned food. Moreover, according to
the owner the guests hardly cook, very few eat breakfast in the room and most go out to have
their meals.
9. 2. 1. 1. Stakeholders
The guests take care of the everyday cleaning themselves, including carrying out the waste.
In the opinion of the owner, most of the guests are used to sorting at home and it would be
very practical if the municipality would put up containers for sorting in areas with many
apartments hotels so the tourists could sort it themselves.
The hotel receives questionnaires from tour operators also regarding the environment.The
hotel has received a grade based on the feedback from the tour operators’ guest questionnaire.
The hotel cooperates with tour operators, big as well as small, but it varies a lot. Some years
most of the guests are provided by tour operators other years more guests are coming on their
own.
9. 2. 2. Idillios Traditional Apartments (app. 20)
Idillios Traditional Apartment is owned by Eva Papadakis and her husband who come from
Iraklio but prefer the more quite village life and have been running the place for the last 20
years.
Facts
Informant: Eva Papadakis, Owner.
Classification: 3 Star
Bed capacity: 12 beds - 4 apartments
Apartments include cooking facilities
Employees: 3 including the owners.
Season: April to October. High season: April, May, June, September Low: October
Location: Village of Old Hersonissos
Regarding general pro-environment procedures, the hotel has installed solar panels. The waste
is brought to a central public waste container, mostly by the cleaning lady.
116
CP Waste Practices
1. Waste Reduction/Avoidance:None
2. Internal Recycling:None
3. External Recycling: Some of the waste is separated in containers provided by the
municipality: glass, paper and metal.
When asked why it has been natural to the sort the waste, the owner says it has been the way
of her family and that generally in the village people makes sure to keep the area clean.
The owner is satisfied with the municipal waste service, the waste is collected every day and
the streets are swept once a day too.
Estimated Waste Composition
Organic
Plastic
60%
25%
Glass
5%
Paper
5%
Metal
1%
Unlike the other studied apartments with cooking facilities, the guests at Idillios actually use
them. According to the owner, they often cook at least two meals a day. Furthermore, there is
also some green waste from the yard of the hotel. However the 60% organic waste may still
be a little too high. The plastic fraction is quite big due to the use of plastic bottles. The paper
fraction can be assumed to be more than 5% due to the frequent use of paper packaging on
standard food products such as cardboard cartons and brown paper bags. Only few canned
goods and glass bottles are consumed by the guests.
9. 2. 2. 1. Stakeholders
The hotel receives questions from tour operators, but the owner does not remember if they
address the environment. Most of the guests are from the tour operator. The owner prefers to
work with tour operators, because they can provide the guests a lot of extra services. They
also have private guests and guests from tour operators who later return several times on their
own. Also younger people have started coming.
Concerning what the municipality could do to improve their waste service, the owner would
prefer more containers for separation, and that the sorted waste afterwards was treated
properly.
9. 2. 3. Summary of the Waste Profiles of the SME hotels
The table below sums up the waste profiles of all the SME hotels.
117
Table 23: The waste profiles of all the SME hotels
Waste profiles
Eleni
Idillios
Dorian
Hotel
Hotel
Galaxy
of SME Hotels
Apartments
Traditional
Apartments
Aloi
Galini
Apartments
Water-
-Energy
saving
saving
Apartments
Enviro.
Magnetic key
practices
Solar panels
Solar panels
Solar panels
Watersaving
CP levels:
-No alu cans
1. Reduction
-Refill soap
2. Internal
None
None
-Return
-Sorting:
bottles
paper, plastic,
-Food
metal.
Recycling
3. External
recycling
None
None
-Solar panels
-Packaging
-Packaging
Reduction
reduction
None
None
None
None
None
-Return
None
-Return.
bottles
None
Bottles
scrapes for
farmer
Waste
Org. (40%)
Org. 60%
Org. 30-40%
Org.60%
Org. 60%
Org.45-50%
Compostion
Plastic (30%)
Plast. 25%
Plast. 10%
Plast.20%
Plast. 10%
Plast. 20%
Glass (2-3%)
Glass 5%
Glass
Glass 2%
Glass
Paper 15%
Paper (25%)
Paper 5%
12-15%
Paper10%
10-15%
Glass 10%
Metal (2-3%)
Metal 1%
Paper 15%
Metal 5%
Paper
Metal
15-20%
1-2%
Metal 5%
Metal 1-2%
None of the SME hotels in the study have implemented environmental management. Most of
the environmental measures found such as sun panels or magnetic keys23, seem mainly as
practical measures, including the waste procedures.
When looking at the waste practices of the hotels at the different levels of the CP model the
most common waste procedures at the SME hotels are applied on the level of external
recycling. At the reduction/avoidance level mainly the middle seized hotels with restaurants
conduct some bulk purchases and use of food jars in stead of single package items. All most
all the SME hotels use refill soap containers in the public toilets. At the level of internal
recycling no activities were found. Regarding the external recycling level, most of the hotels
with restaurants (4 out of 6) have some percentage of returnable glass bottles and cans and
also sometimes returncrates for e.g. fruit and vegetables. One hotel gives food scrapes to a
local farmer for animal feed, which can also be seen as a kind of sorting practice. Only one
example of participating in public waste sorting was found at the Idillios Traditional
Apartments, where the municipality has put up containers for separation in the
23
The key is needed to turn on the power in the room and therefore automatically turn the power off, when the
room is locked
118
neighbourhood. Likewise, only a single hotel manager had a procedure for reducing
hazardous waste by avoiding non-returnable alu cans.
The attitude of the owners and/or managers towards waste separation near the hotel or on the
hotel grounds was mainly positive, provided that the municipality delivered the containers.
Generally, waste is not perceived as a big problem by the SME hotels and most of the
informants were satisfied with the service of the municipality. During the interviews however,
it appeared that littering on the beach or in the near surroundings of the hotel was often
perceived as a nuisance. Regarding improvements of the municipal waste management
system, most informants mentioned more litter-free surroundings near the hotel. A few
mentioned waste separation and recycling and one hotel manager also stated that it was the
responsibility of the municipality to ‘educate’ the hotels about waste separation.
Concerning the responsibility of the hotels, source separation seemed an acceptable and even
good idea to most of the informants. The attitude was more hesitant regarding green
purchasing in order to minimise and improve the quality of waste,. Most of the hotel
owners/managers thought a list of ‘green suppliers’ would be helpful, however, as one
commented they would have to be price competitive to be a realistic choice (App. 13). When
asked about barriers for environmental initiatives at SME hotels to perform, most answered
that the lack of money was the main issue, combined with practical obstacles such as lack of
space for separation containers, lack of roof space for solar panels or that not much economy
of scale was gained on e.g. installing environmentally friendly installations in a hotel with
four apartments. Yet two managers also pointed the issue of awareness and claimed that it
would take a new generation to make e.g. source separation possible.
All the hotels received questionnaires from (some of) the tour operators on a number of issues
in most cases also the environment. In one case, the informant did not receive any
questionnaires, in another the informant did not know if environmental issues were included.
Two of the managers expressed that the tour operators had a lot of requirements but at the
same time, both larger and smaller tour operators, squeeze the prices as much as possible. A
few mentioned that they were assigned a grade based on the guest satisfaction questionnaire
conducted by the tour operators, just one expressed a certain satisfaction with receiving a
good grade, this question was however not pursued in all cases.
It turned out that, as opposed to the large hotels, it varied a lot concerning what percentage of
the guests were channelled through the tour operators. The SME hotels worked with big as
well as smaller tour operators. The length of cooperation varied for most of the SME hotels
on a seasonal basis. The tour operators did not seem to influence the environmental or the
waste practices of the SME hotels.
The waste composition and waste quantity generation of the hotels will be treated further in
the following analysis.
119
Chapter 10, Analysis part II: The Potential Supportive Role of the Tourism
Industry
This chapter deals with the question of how hotels and tour operators can support local waste
management. In the first part the differences and similarities of the hotel cases will be
examined in terms of how the case characteristics: size, class, type etc. influence the waste
flow and waste practices of the hotels. The second part of the analysis looks into the drivers
and barriers for Integrated Solid Waste Management in the tourism industry as a basis for
determining the potential supportive role of the hotel and the tour operators.
10. 1. Characterisation of the Waste Flow of the Hotels
This section will examine the case-specific trends behind the waste flow and waste practices
of the hotels. Moreover, I will look into what further waste practices are relevant in relation to
the estimated waste flow.
10. 1. 1. Waste Composition and Quantity
An average of the waste composition of the hotels is shown in the tables below in comparison
to the average waste composition of Crete and the municipality of Hersonissos. Table 26
shows the waste composition distributed on large and SME hotels.
Table 24: The Estimated Waste Composition of Crete (Heraklion, Rethymnon and
Lassithi)
Fractions
Organic
Plastic
Paper
Glass
Metala
Misc.b
%
39
17
19
5
5,
14
a:Metal includes: aluminium: 1% + other types of metal:4,%.
b:Miscellaneous includes + inert : 3% + LTRW: 5% + Other: 6 = 14%)
Table 25: Estimated Average Waste Composition of Hersonissos Municipality
Fraction Organic Plastic Glass Paper Metal Misc. & inert
%
41
19
3
20
3
8
Source:(Gidarakos:2005)
120
Table 26: The Estimated Average Waste Composition of the Hotels
All Hotels
Organic Plastic Glass Paper Metal
47%
17%
11% 15% 3%
Big hotels
Organic Plastic Glass Paper Metal
41%** 14%
14% 18% 3%
SME Hotels Organic Plastic Glass Paper Metal
48%** 19%
8%
14% 3%
( App. 3.1 )
**Modified due to clearly overrated individual estimations, which therefore have been reduced.
The average waste composition of Hersonissos is based on an annual study with samples
taken at quarterly intervals. The waste composition of the hotels, however, represents
estimations based solely on the hotel activities during the tourist season. Therefore the
‘tourism effect’ on the general waste composition of Hersonissos can be expected to be more
evened out. This explains e.g. the higher % of glass at the hotels, known as a typical tourismrelated type of packaging waste (Gidarakos et al. 2005).
Apart from glass, a number of other fractions stand out. The organic fraction of the SME
hotels is somewhat higher than the average of Hersonissos. However, this is very likely due to
the overestimations of the managers, as tourism-related waste generation is characterised by
an increase of packaging waste and a decrease of the organic fraction. Furthermore, on the
regional level, where the ‘tourism effect’ can be expected to be even more diluted than in a
concentrated tourism area such as Hersonissos, organic waste only represents 39% (Gidarakos
et al. 2005).
Finally, the hotel managers were not asked to estimate the proportion of miscellaneous or
inert waste as I estimated it to be a fraction too unspecified and difficult for them to assess.
Hence this hidden % within the waste flow of the hotels also represents some uncertainty,
explaining why the percentages do not ad up to 100%. The ‘missing’ fraction affects the
estimated waste composition, and to some extent, it can explain the overrated figures,
especially in the case of organic waste.
Regarding paper waste, the levels of the hotels are also visibly lower than the municipal level,
in particular in the case of the big hotels. This can partly be explained by the overestimated
organic fraction, partly by the influence of case-specific features which will be examined
further in the following.
121
10. 2. Trends and Possibilities regarding the Waste Flow of the Hotels
This section looks into the trends behind the waste composition as a basis for examining
further waste management initiatives.
10. 2. 1. Paper vs. Plastic
The plastic fraction of the SME hotels is higher than at the big hotels. This can partly be
explained by the fact that the luxury hotels prefer glass bottles to plastic bottles. It is thus
likely that the higher percentage of plastic within the SME hotels represents the extended use
of plastic bottles.
Typically, the main type of packaging at SME and big hotels alike, are made of paper in the
form of e.g. cartons and boxes. As hotels in general buy large quantities, food items such as
vegetables, fruit, and meat will more often be wrapped in paper and transported in cardboard
boxes or returnable crates, whereas one-time plastic or metallic wrapping are mostly used for
supermarket groceries.
The ratio of paper vs. plastic packaging waste also differs at big and SME hotels, respectively.
There is a slight overweight of paper as opposed to plastic waste at the big hotels. The
reversed is the case for the SME hotels. In two of the big luxury hotels the paper and plastic
fractions were influenced by the environmental company policies, prescribing avoidance of
plastic packaging and a preference for paper packaging (App. 9, 10 ).
10. 2. 2. The Glass Fraction
As mentioned, the glass fraction is higher among the bigger hotels due to the consumption
patterns of the luxury hotels. Although, the perhaps slightly overrated 40% glass fraction at
the Royal Mare Village draws the percentage somewhat out of proportion. At the luxury
hotel, Elounda Beach, however, it is only 5%. According to the technical manager, this is
because the hotel loses money when the bottles are not returned (App.9, 12).
A high fraction of glass vs. a relatively low plastic fraction at the BCP hotels also indicates
that the guests mainly buy their beverages at the hotel, corresponding with the resort package
deal that includes most meals.
Concerning the SME hotels, the manager of Eleni Apartments reported that his guests almost
never brought any glass bottles to the rooms. Contrary, the two managers of Dorian
apartments and Galaxy apartment stated that the guests produced a lot of glass waste (10-15%
and 10% respectively) due to frequent drinking of alcohol in the rooms. The most likely
122
explanation behind these findings is related to the location of the hotels, whereas Dorian and
Galaxy Apartments are located within the ‘party zone’ of Hersonissos town, Eleni Apartments
is situated in a village outside the town area apparently attracting a different clientele. In the
case of Galaxy Apartments, the plastic fraction, mainly consisting of bottles, is quite high,
indicating that “a high-glass-low- plastic-fraction” is not a general trend but rather a luxury
segment phenomena.
10. 2. 3. The Organic Fraction
The organic fraction is the largest fraction, however, compared to the average of Hersonissos,
it seems to be overrated in size by most of the informants, which can partly be blamed on the
figures suggested to the informants in the questionnaire. When the two surely overrated
estimations of 60% have been modified the % for big hotels goes from 44% to 41%, while the
% for SME hotels goes from 53% to 48%. Compared to the general average in Hersonissos,
these results still appear as slightly overrated. Yet, it is reasonable to assume that the many
hotels with restaurant can result in a higher level of organic waste. Due to unforeseeable
conditions of the hotels without restaurant, such as Galaxy Apartments housing the kitchen of
a sister hotel, it has been difficult to examine the influence of +/÷ restaurant more specifically.
10. 2. 4. The Metal Fraction
Similarly to the regional and municipal average, the percentage of metal is reported as quite
low, indicating that few tin foods and canned beverages are consumed in the hotel restaurants
or by the guest in their rooms. In three cases, this was partly due to intentional avoidance of
alu-cans or products, but overall the effect of avoiding metals was hard to read (App. 9, 10,
16)
10. 2. 5. Waste Quantities of the Hotels
The average estimated waste quantities of the big and SME hotels were 62 ton and 13 ton ,
respectively generated per season. The figures are based on the key assumptions that one
guest generates around 1 kg of waste per overnight stay and that the estimated occupation rate
of the hotels (Gidarakos, 2005, Andriotis, 2005). The key figures for waste generation for
tourists was by Giradakaos et al. set at 1,2 kg per stay, which was assumed to also take nonregistered accommodation into account. Using a key figure of 1 kg per tourist should
therefore not produce overestimations. However, the occupation rates of the hotels, are
particularly in the case of the SMEs based on estimated occupation rates and in the remaining
cases on the rates within the last year.
123
The estimated average quantities distributed on fractions are shown in the tables below.
Table 27: Waste Quantites at the Large Hotels (cf. app. 3.4)
Fractions
Organic
Plastic
Glass
Paper
Metal
The total fraction quantities (kg)
178.478 :6
57.318:6
55.563:6
56.639:6
10.605:6
Average quantity (kg/ton)
29.746 =
9.553 =
9.260=
9.440 =
1.768 =
For the big hotels per season
30 ton
10 ton
9 ton
9 ton
2 ton
Table 28: Waste Quantites at the SME Hotels (Cf. app. 3.2)
Fractions
Organic
Plastic
Glass
Paper
Metal
Total waste
42.989 :6 =
12830 :6 =
8075 :6 =
13.802 :6 =
1561 :6=
7.165 = 7 ton
2.138 = 2 ton
1346 = 13 ton
2.300 = 2 ton
260 =0, 26 ton
quantities (kg)
Est. average
quantity (kg)
per season
There are of course a number of uncertainties associated with these figures: such as the very
high glass vs. very low plastic fraction of Aldemar Village and Elounda Beach (40% vs. 5%
respectively). Despite the evident uncertainties, the figures should still be able to indicate that
hotels are concentrated sources of waste, making waste measures such as recycling and
separation worth the while.
10. 2. 6. Summary
The average waste composition of the hotels was generally found to correspond with the
characteristics of tourism-related waste patterns, where glass and metal was found to be
higher than the regional average. As for paper and plastic, these were surprisingly low
compared to the regional and the municipal average, considering that the level could have
been expected to be at least on the level of the rest of Hersonissos, being a mature destination
heavily influenced by tourism-related activities and general ‘modern’ consumption patterns.
The discrepancies regarding paper, can partly be explained by an overestimated organic
fraction. Concerning plastic, it is also related to case-specific trends. There were mainly two
trends that stood out regarding the BCP hotels. The first being the influence of ownershiprelated chain policies. In two cases this included the reduction of plastic in the form of a
preference for paper over plastic packaging or by generally avoiding plastic products.
Secondly, common for most of the large, luxury hotels is a preference for glass to plastic,
leading to a relatively low plastic fraction compared to the municipal average. Of course,
many other factors could be involved and the connections outlined above are not exhaustive.
124
10. 2. 6. 1. Further CP Possibilities for Hotels
A number of reduction/avoidance procedures used at the BCP hotels could relatively easy be
used by the other hotels too, big and small alike. Among other things, the hotels could
consider how to reduce packaging more systematically, especially plastic. Apart from
reducing single-packed items, a targeted effort could be made regarding plastic bottles,
representing a big part of the plastic waste. In order to reduce the consumption of plastic
bottles, the hotels could buy water in big quantities offering to refill the water bottles at a
reasonable price, preferably cheaper than the purchase of a new bottle of water. This,
however, would require a bottle made of a more durable plastic quality. Cooperating with the
local fresh water supplier about importing reusable plastic bottles would normally not be
possible for a SME hotel, but if several hotels were interested, the regional or local hotel
association and the municipality or prefecture could help organise the project. The local fresh
water suppliers would probably be interested, as recycling measures are required by the
producer responsibility principle expressed in the packaging waste directive (Council
Directive 93/43/EEC).
In terms of reducing the organic fraction through internal or external recycling, the big hotels
could consider utilising the food and garden waste as compost for the green areas, thereby
replacing industrial fertiliser. Other recycling initiatives, such as using refillable ink
cartridges, utilising used office paper as notepaper, and giving food scrapes to local farmers,
are also relevant initiatives for SME hotels. Concerning the small hotels with no restaurants,
the effect of purchasing policies are limited in terms of reducing or recycling organic or
packaging material internally. The main contribution to local waste management would be
participation in waste separation, including the necessary education of staff and guests.
Despite the fact that the metal fraction is low, it is still important to avoid hazardous heavy
metals. A procedure for delivering batteries and avoiding aluminium cans and foil as much as
possible is therefore recommendable.
Regarding the reduction potential, it is difficult to measure whether the waste reducing
policies have had an effect or not, as the waste flow of the BCP hotels has not been
monitored. However, based on the waste practices of the hotels described earlier, it seems that
despite the efforts to reduce and prevent waste, the external recycling activities account for
the largest part of the waste activities, even for the BCP hotels. This is not to say that the
internal waste procedures do not count. On the contrary, a ‘green’ purchasing policy can be
presumed to have a great effect, especially on the waste quality and its suitability for
recycling or other types of treatment.
However, much wider dissemination of reduction/avoidance measures would be necessary, in
order to have a visible effect on the waste flow of the hotels in Hersonissos.
The following part of the analysis will look into the barriers and drivers for the dissemination
of systematic waste measures to hotels in Hersonissos and Crete.
125
10. 3. Drivers and Barriers at the Hotels and the Tour Operators
10. 3. 1. Internal Barriers and Drivers at the Hotels
10. 3. 1. 1. Size
As mentioned, it is a very common notion that big companies have more resources to
implement environmental procedures such as waste management than SMEs. Especially, the
owners or managers of the SME hotels perceive the lack of financial resources to be the
biggest barrier to environmental actions. Yet, this assumption can be questioned. Several of
the informants were surprised that they were already practicing waste reduction e.g. by giving
food scrapes to the local farmers or by using refill soap containers rather than single bar soap.
These procedures were merely viewed as practical measures. Furthermore, several of the
informants did not link water and energy-saving measures with environmental protection and
in general seemed confused when questioned about environmentally friendly procedures. In
particular, the two small hotels seemed to think that any actions they did such as using watersaving installations was not of any great significance (app.19, 20).
The SME hotels in the study demonstrate that waste practices are indeed possible for this
category of hotels. The environmental manager from Kuoni similarly pointed out that green
hotel management eventually is a matter of awareness and motivation (App. 22).
The most common environmental procedures noted by Kuoni were related to energy and
water- saving installations, which can be explained by the fact that waste measures do not
bring about the same obvious economic benefits. That waste initiatives appear mainly as an
expense is thus an inherent barrier to motivating waste management at hotels. Besides, it is
also less obvious what good waste practices are actually about (App. 22).
Many of the waste procedures conducted by the SME hotels do not require any significant
investment. However, to go beyond simple waste reducing procedures by for example
gradually replacing the products and installations with greener alternatives, requires
dedication and is possibly also limited by price criteria.
10. 3. 1. 2. Classification
The best case practices are clearly found in the luxury segment, where the hotel management
is often under foreign influence. Typically, the owners have been educated abroad or foreign
tour operators are involved in the ownership or in business relations. The 4 and 5 star hotels
are usually characterised by a certain size, making environmental management more
economically viable. The two large hotels of 2 and 3 star classification did perform a number
of green measures activities but similar to some of the SME’s the environmental benefits
appeared more like a lucky side-effect. Furthermore, the systematic approach was lacking. It
126
is difficult to explain the differences in approach just by looking at classification and most
likely it is a mix of factors such as: the influence of international trends and business partners,
the educational background of the owner. Perhaps the higher revenues of the luxury hotels
also make a difference.
10. 3. 1. 3. Chain Association
Another characteristic of the luxury segment is that four and five star hotels more often seem
to be part of chains. This case characteristic has turned out to be an essential driver in the
three BCP examples. All three belong to the ownership type, entailing a certain
standardisation of management principles. In all cases, the chain owners have a particular
interest in environmentally sound hotel management. The Royal Mare Village, belonging to
the Aldemar hotels, is owned by a family from Crete, who according to the quality and
development manager, has been engaged in environmental issues from early on in the chain’s
history. In the case of Lyttos Beach, belonging to the Robinson Club chain, it is owned by the
tour operator cooperation TUI group, known for their focus on environmental issues. El
Greco, part of Grecotels, are owned partly by TUI and partly by a Greek family influenced by
environmental studies abroad among other things (App. 9, 11, Faulk, 2000).
The 5 star Elounda Beach, owned by the Helios Hotel group, however, did not have focus on
environmental practices because the owners did not see environmental concerns as related to
their luxury concept. The hotel is also part of the brand-related chain association ‘Leading
Hotels and Spa’. Yet, this association reflects the priorities of the owners and mainly has
focus on ensuring luxury quality e.g. in the form of very high health and safety standards.
Above-mentioned examples indicate that not surprisingly does ownership play a very
important part when it comes to the implementation of environmental measures.
The three star hotel Stella Village, is perhaps a more typical example of a Cretan hotel
‘chain’. The hotel is owned by a local family owning 2-3 hotels. The son of the family,
working as a co-hotel manager, has been to a Swiss hotel school, where the programme
included courses, among other things on waste separation. This foreign influence did not
seem to have rubbed off on the waste practices of the hotel and the manager himself
commented that generally the Greek mentality is lazy regarding such efforts, requiring
containers for sorting to be delivered on the doorstep.
Based on these case examples, it seems that motivated ownership can support environmental
measures more than brand associations. First of all, ownership involves a more direct, daily
influence on what management systems and cultures are developed in the chain. Secondly, the
owner of the chain decides if and what type of brand associations they choose to be part of.
This does not entirely rule out the influence of brand-related chain associations on
environmental hotel management. In the case of Elounda Beach, the very exclusive brand
association ‘Leading Hotels and Spa’ provided some of their highest paying guests. If the
127
association chose to set up environmental membership requirements, it would most likely
have an effect. The probability of that, however, is a different question.
10. 3. 1. 4. Waste Practices as Part of Environmental Management
Another factor, estimated to be of importance, is the presence of Environmental Management
Systems, a feature of all the three BCP cases. At these hotels, environmental measures do not
just appear as a means of improving operation or obtaining economy of scale, but are in
different ways integrated in the quality of the holiday product as well. E.g. at the Royal Mare
Village, the guests are provided with written material about the environmental procedures
including waste separation and the different environmental activities such as the celebration
of the World Environment Day. At El Greco hotel, the guests can participate in nature walks
and attend seminars about the endangered species and the wild life preservation in Crete,
supported by the hotel. The guests are also able to contribute in the collection box at the wild
life exhibition in the foyer. The Grecotel chain is generally known for its support to local
products and their organic farm, supplying the chain with fruit and vegetables. At Lyttos
Beach, the hotel manager gives an environmental tour of the hotel every week. Most of these
examples do not specifically focus on waste, but are part of a product service where the
environmental dimension is included. These cases thus speak in favour of how waste practices
can be addressed more systematically and successfully when being part of a structured
framework such as environmental management.
10. 3. 1. 5. Employee Participation
An aspect generally recognised as a precondition for EMS and waste separation in particular,
is the education and engagement of the employees. At two of the BCP hotels, the
environmental policies and procedures have been made an integral part of the staff training.
Especially, Royal Mare Village has put an effort into engaging the employees in the
environmental activities. Generally, so-called voluntary ‘green teams’ appear to be the most
popular way of giving the employees an opportunity to participate as well as promote
environmental activities towards the guests and the local society. In this respect, a typical
activity is ‘clean up the beach day’.
The lack of employee participation in waste measures can be viewed as a barrier in the
beginning of an implementation process, but if education and engagement is successful it has
the potential to become a powerful impetus in the environmental work of the hotel. According
to the Quality and Development Manager at Royal Mare Village, the environmental
involvement has also had a spill-over effect on the private lives of the employees.
Staff education programmes are more associated with big hotels and again depends on the
owner’s commitment to train the employees. One of the SME managers stated that he would
gladly teach the staff about waste separation, if the municipality took care of containers and
collection. However, others mentioned that the education of the hotels was the job of the
128
municipality or that new generations would have to take over before waste separation at
hotels could become a reality (App. 9, 15, 17).
10. 3. 1. 6. Monitoring
Monitoring can be perceived as a potential driver of waste management, mainly relevant to
the large hotels however.
At present the lack of monitoring waste generation at the large BCP hotels makes it more
difficult to measure and support progress. Although, one hotel has made an agreement with
their waste collectors to supply them with data in the following season (free of charge), this
does not seem to be the general case (App.9).
So far, none of the informants at the BCP hotels have noticed a decrease in the use of
containers. The BCP hotels did not track the potentially positive, economic consequences of
their waste practices either. Yet, within waste separation, rewarding the staff for positive
results could be a very motivating factor. Furthermore, growth rates could be posted on notice
boards in the cantina or else- where for the employees to see. A factor to be considered is that
increased sorting quantities can only be seen as entirely positive, if the hotel has already
reached a high level of waste reduction.
For the SME hotels monitoring is less relevant and often they share the waste containers with
other enterprises, making it difficult for the collectors to give specific feedback.
10. 3. 2. Internal Drivers and Barriers at the Level of the Tour Operators
As mentioned earlier, during the last two decades a trend of ‘responsible tourism’ has
emerged. Some of the European tour operators have taken part in this development,
apparently recognising the need for responsible tourism products as a precondition for their
long term business sustainability.
10. 3. 2. 1. The Role of Destination Staff
The training of destination staff, as ‘environmental agents’, can be seen as a potential driver
behind the attempt of the tour operators to ‘green’ their hotel suppliers. The destination staff
could function as promoters of environmental principles towards hotels and guests. To some
extent they could become the eyes and ears of the tour operators, thus contributing to keeping
their environmental system towards suppliers up to date. Thomas Cook (UK) has recently
educated their ‘over seas staff’ as promoters of the responsible tourism principles adopted by
the company. Both Kuoni and Thomas Cook have received occasional feedback on
environmental issues from the staff (App.22, 23). The potential of ‘green staff training’
remains to be seen, as destination employees are generally known to work long hours,
129
covering many responsibility areas. Besides, sufficient education beyond a one day-seminar
or two, would be necessary in order to support green, corporate policies at the destination.
10. 3. 2. 2. The Potential of Green Supply Chain Tools
The development of environmental programmes towards hotel suppliers seems to be
spreading. E.g. in the case of Kuoni, the company is in a process of harmonising their
standards internally. The UK division of Kuoni has up to now had focus on the health and
safety area, but in the future it will also be incorporating environmental concerns. Kuoni, in
Switzerland, on the other hand, has developed a system mainly focused on environmental
issues, which next year will incorporate social and labour right issues. In the case of Thomas
Cook, the UK division has taken part in the development of a supplier Code of Conduct,
developed for the Federation of Tour Operators (UK), which has also received interest from
Dutch tour operators and the association of Independent Tour Operators (ITO) representing
SMEs (App.23). Thus, the potential range of such a tool could be expanded. The question
remains, how efficient these tools are.
Both TUI and Thomas Cook have developed internet supplier portals, including on-line
supplier questionnaires. Despite the fact that most hotels do not seem to have any preference
for on-line vs. hand-out questionnaires, it is likely to save a lot of time for the tour operators.
The hoteliers can also find green tools and information there, although it still presupposes the
motivation to actually use them (App.21, 22, 23).
A number of barriers were encountered in terms of raising the environmental awareness of the
hotel suppliers. One of the negative side effects of the questionnaires is that the hotels receive
questionnaires from many different tour operators emphasising different issues. Apart from
the workload of answering individual checklists, there is also a risk that the environmental
questions are drowned in inquiries, addressing other issues such as: health, safety, and quality.
However, most of the hotels are actually aware of the environmental questions, apart from a
few, especially among the SME’s, who did not remember that environmental questions had
been asked (App. 19, 20). This can be also related to the fact that the term ‘environment’ was
unclear to some of the informants. E.g. the link between saving energy or reducing waste at
the hotel was to some not associated with having an effect on the environment.
The managers from the three tour operators all agreed that their role was to ‘sensibilise’ their
hotel partners towards environmental issues based on voluntary initiatives. As it is further
specified in Kuoni’s environmental report they see their task as: “..creating awareness,
encouraging and providing the hotels partners with incentives (recognition) and know how”
(Kuoni, 2004). The inherent weakness of this approach is the lack of commitment from the
hotels. The strength of a voluntary approach on the other hand, is that it allows for gradual
change based on the cooperation of the supplier rather than external pressure alone. As
opposed to what could be termed ‘result-oriented’ supply chain tools, voluntary tools can
usually be characterised as informal and process-oriented, implying cooperation outside of
130
contractual obligations (Price-waterhouse Coopers, 2004). One exception to the voluntary
strategy is the case of TUI where filling out the checklist is a mandatory part of the supplier
contract. This can be seen in connection with TUI’s commitment to an extensive
environmental monitoring programme of internal as well as external partners.
The number of questionnaire replies to Kuoni appears to have been gradually increasing
(App. 22). Monitoring can thus be seen as a driver for the tour operators, providing an
indication of how they can support their hotel suppliers.
Furthermore, the tour operators do seem to influence the actions of the BCP hotels, especially
in cases where closer cooperation for various reasons takes place, such as the case of TUI and
its ownership of Grecotels and Robinson Club. Likewise Thomas Cook is planning to
encourage a BCP example at one of their exclusive24 hotels in Turkey. The BCP hotels stated
that the opinion of the tour operators, delivering most of their guests, is taken very seriously
(App. 9, 11). The tour operators thus seem to be a central driver behind spreading
environmental standards in this hotel segment e.g. by awarding the hotels for their efforts.
The question is what effect the awareness-raising work of the tour operators has on the
remaining hotels. According to the empirical findings in this study, the supplier tools have not
had much effect so far. Even though many of the hotel managers/owners are aware that
‘environmental measures’ are perceived as ‘politically correct’, it can be a long way from
awareness to action.
For a voluntary strategy to work, experiences from other sectors show that personal relations,
trust and a stable business partnership is the best way to motivate suppliers to upgrade their
product or as in this case their environmental standards (Price-Waterhouse Coopers, 2004).
However, even for medium and large tour operators it is not realistic to go beyond armslength monitoring of all their suppliers. Although, small tour operators do have an advantage
in one respect - that of specialisation. Thus several of the SME tour operators participating in
the Tour Operators Initiative have from the beginning based their product on holiday
experiences harmonising with environmental or broader sustainable issues (TOI, 2003).
The SME hotels are generally seen as the target group most difficult to reach with green
improvements (UNEP, 2003:3).They also represent the segment that appears to change
cooperation with tour operators most frequently, which can be assumed to limit the influence
of the individual tour operator. That TUI is able to include commitments to participate in their
monitoring programme in the contract, can to a large extent be explained by their size and
market power.
24
meaning a hotel solely receiving Thomas Cook guests.
131
10. 3. 3. External Drivers and Barriers for the Hotels and the Tour Operators
Various external trends and factors have been found, which could be seen as either limiting or
enhancing waste measures at hotels.
10. 3. 3. 1. Customer Demand Wanted
A number of surveys show that customers prioritise a healthy environment at the destination,
however, in practice environmental issues receive very little attention when people book their
holiday (App. 22, 23). As a way of awarding the more environmentally sound hotels, the tour
operators e.g. provide them with the PR-benefit of green logos in their catalogues. However,
Kuoni has only noted a slight increase in positive response so when sellers suggest holidays
that integrate environmental concerns and generally among the three tour operators ‘green’
requests seem to be almost non-existent (App.22, 23). Even though, no tracking systems of
customer inquiries have been developed, the feedback on environmental issues seem mainly
to concern incidents where the customer has been directly affected by an unpleasant
experience (App.21, 22, 23).
The lack of customer attention towards environmental issues could also be felt by the hotels.
The BCP hotel informants stated that relatively few guests sign up for environmental
activities or give positive feedback regarding their environmental initiatives. Exceptions to
this are the tour of the Lyttos Beach hotel and the tour of the organic traditional farm of
Grecotel. The success of these activities can be explained by the fact that it involves a more
’whole-package’ experience that include: in the case of Lyttos Beach, a look behind the stage
into a world of advanced technical service systems and the organic garden. In the case of
Grecotel, it is a historic trip back to traditional farming including, homemade cooking and pet
animals for the kids. These experiences could indicate that environmental activities should be
packaged as more fun and all-inclusive experiences and not solely as environmentally correct
activities. More hotels could take advantage of organising events that combine environmental
aspects with their service quality. Such initiatives could seem limited to big hotels with resort
concepts and revenues higher than average. Yet, also SME hotels can integrate environmental
aspects with their product e.g. by offering organic traditional food in the restaurant, promoting
responsible hiking tours and giving the guests the possibility of donating their change to local
conservation projects.
10. 3. 3. 2. Market Conditions
From the view point of the hotels, the tour operators are not only their benefitters. As two
SME managers mentioned, the tour operators have many requirements, while simultaneously
squeezing the prices. A recent study of Greek hotels and their relation with the tour operators,
shows that the SME hotels are generally less satisfied (Koutoulas, 2006:1f). One of the main
reasons is that the SMEs usually belong to lower classifications and accordingly get lower
prices, thus also becoming more vulnerable to changing market conditions than the bigger
resort hotels belonging to the luxury segment. In recent years, it has become more difficult for
132
Greece to compete on mass tourism products because destinations in e.g. Eastern Europe can
offer the same product at a cheaper price. The above-mentioned study points out that the
Greek hotels have become over-dependent on the tour operators for marketing and occupation
rates thus making them more vulnerable when the tour operators according to market demand
lower the fees or send the tourists elsewhere (Koutoulas, 2006:1f). To some extent,
overdependence can be seen as a threat to the SME’s and their revenues, again affecting the
supply-chain relation and weakening the position of the tour operators as ‘sensibilisers’. Thus
the market demand for cheap holidays with no concerns about green hotel management, poses
a serious barrier to their efforts of greening the hotel industry.
Another potential barrier, mentioned by the responsible tourism manager from Thomas Cook,
is that the European Tour Operators have recently had competition from Russian and Chinese
tour operators who do not have any green requirements and therefore spend fewer resources
on supply chain management while having a larger range of accommodation suppliers to
choose from (App.23). Moreover the national tourism strategy of Greece is focusing on new
eligible markets such as China and the US. (Greek Tourism Report, 2006), which could in the
long term mean less market domination and local influence to the European tour operators.
10. 3. 3. 3. Local Capacity Building
As the environmental managers of TUI and Kuoni pointed out, the lack of a local waste
management system able to handle the sorted fractions, demotivates the hotels. Besides, it
requires that the hotels can allocate the necessary resources for waste measures such as
separation and education of staff (App.21, 22).
Despite the good intentions towards separation declared by the hotels in this study, an earlier
attempt to sort waste in Hersonissos has failed (ESDAK: App. 1b), mainly due to very low
participation. Proper waste separation would require that also the SME hotels notified the
guests and educated their employees, mainly the cleaning ladies. In this regard, an important
opportunity for the tour operators lies on a more general destination level. As the
environmental manager of Kuoni suggested, local green capacity building at hotels may be
too much for the individual tour operator (App. 22). Instead, tour operators could sponsor or
form partnerships with the local or regional hotel associations around educational issues. The
members of The Tour Operator Initiative for sustainability have demonstrated a number of
projects where tour operators, larger as well as small enter into partnerships with local
authorities and NGOs around environmental and cultural projects (TOI, 2003).
10. 3. 3. 4. Possibilities of Influencing the Local Community
Concerning local engagement, an important issue is awareness raising and the positive
influence the tour operators and hotels might be able to exert on the local community. As
mentioned earlier, the environmental policies and actions of at least one of the BCP hotels
also appear to influence the environmental awareness of the employees. This spill-over effect
133
gained from educating and raising the awareness of the staff can be regarded as an important
area of influence on ‘the local community’. Yet, as the BCP hotels have experienced, it takes
time and effort to motivate and educate the employees (App. 9, 11 ).
Regarding the more general community influence of the hotels, Grecotel is a BCP example
that it is possible for hotels to go beyond their own backyard, entering into partnership with
public organisations and authorities e.g. regarding waste separation. However, as the biggest
hotel chain in Greece and the only BCP hotel with a manager solely responsible for
environmental and cultural activities, it is questionable whether the other BCP hotels could do
the same. As clearly stated by most of the hotels, the task of awareness-raising and facilitating
waste separation is viewed as the responsibility of the local authorities.
10. 3. 4. Summary
In order to examine the potential supportive role of the tourism industry, the analysis has
looked into the waste practices of the hotels and the green supply chain systems of the tour
operators.
With emphasis on the BCP hotels, it has been discussed what case features were significant in
terms of promoting integrated waste initiatives. A number of driving characteristics seemed to
be unique to the BCP hotels and therefore some of these benefits could not be ‘transferred’ to
the remaining hotel cases. These were: 1. motivated chain-ownership reflected in hotel
policies implemented in the entire hotel chain 2. A certain size contributing to economy of
scale, and 3. The inclusion of waste within an environmental management system.
Furthermore, in all three cases the hotels were in different ways under the ‘green’ influence of
the tour operators. Finally, the BCP hotels all belong to the luxury segment, where higher
revenues can be assumed to provide more resources for extra economic activities such as
EMS. The benefit of economy of scale often achieved through EMS would, however, also be
possible to exploit for also medium-sized hotels. A potential BCP benefit, for other hotels big
and small, is the advantage of engaging and educating employees and to generally integrate
environmental aspects as part of the product quality, where possible. This however, requires
motivated ownership.
Another potential driver in terms of incentives, found at the hotels, is that there are a number
of waste measures, which are inexpensive and easy to carry out. However, especially for the
SMEs extra resources would be required if more elaborate waste measures such as organising
waste separation and education of employees are to be introduced. Thus, the main barrier
found at the hotels, big as small, was not so much a lack of resources as a lack of awareness
and motivation. From this barrier also stems the want of systematic approach.
134
Due to the inherent unapproachable features of waste issues: the lack of obvious savings and
results, as well as the lack of clarity regarding what good waste measures actually are about, it
seems reasonable to conclude that outside intervention is needed in order to reach hotels that
are not under direct influence of motivated owners and/or chain policies.
In terms of outside influence, the general effect of the voluntary supply chain procedures of
the tour operators have on their hotel partners seems limited. From the tour operators’ point of
view a number of obstacles can be identified, the main barrier being the lack of awareness and
economic incentives of their hotel partners. The attitude of the small hotel owners is that
environmental actions are not so relevant for small hotels. Generally, initiatives such as solar
panels, returnable bottles and food crates were seen as mainly practical measures by most of
the hotels and were generally not connected with environmental benefits. Except for the BCP
hotels, the general attitude of the hotels is that waste management is the responsibility of the
municipality. The fact that the mass tourism market demands cheap prices of the middle and
low-class hotels and that business partnerships seem to be mostly on a seasonal basis, does
not support the economic incentive or the role of the tour operators as ‘environmental
sensibilisers’.
Yet, the role model effect of emphasising Best Case Practices along with educating
employees and providing green user-friendly information can still prove to be of value. At
present, not enough empirical material has been found to illuminate the potential for a more
general effect of the tour operators’ green supply chain efforts.
However, it seems that more extensive initiatives and partnerships are necessary to provide
incentives for the hotels. These possibilities and the role of the local authorities will be
touched upon in the following discussion.
10. 4 Discussion of the Role of the Tourism Industry
10. 4. 1. Potential Supportive Actions to ISWM
As mentioned above, there are a number of ways that the tourism industry, in this case the
hotels, can support an Integrated Solid Waste Management System. Apart from internal waste
measures such as waste reduction, waste sorting represents the biggest contribution. First of
all, because it involves a fraction with the biggest resource potential. Secondly, because it
supports the sorting system and thus also the quality and feasibility of the waste treatment
system. E.g. if the hotels sort out PVC, aluminum, and batteries, it would have great value for
incineration, both in terms of emissions and energy efficiency. If a bio-gas plant is
established, it would also be of great operational benefit to organize separate collection of the
organic waste from the hotels.
135
Finally, there is also a potential spill-over effect from employee involvement. If waste
separation and sorting material is expanded to include the hotels, quite a large number of
people will be involved. As it was the case at Royal Aldemar Village, the environmental
training appeared to have a significant effect on the general environmental awareness of the
staff. However, this requires education and dedication from hotel management.
10. 4. 2. Incentives
As mentioned earlier, the incentives of the hotels to support local waste management can be
divided into direct and more indirect economic interests, the latter in the form of image
concerns. The image of the area as an attractive holiday spot is more likely to be of
importance, as the economic gains from waste reduction measures are not very obvious and
taxes for waste collection are fixed. However, none of the informants regarded waste as a
problem for their business. Although, when asked they were dissatisfied with littering issues
on the beach and in the streets. In a few cases, the hotels even took care of cleaning up
littering themselves, in order not to upset the tourists. It appears that the municipality of
Hersonissos, as a mature tourism destination, is already very aware of keeping the area clean.
This was also the case at Elounda Beach, where the municipality paid special attention to
waste collection and littering in the area of the luxury hotels (App.12).
However, in order to go beyond the issues of street littering to waste reduction and separation,
more elaborate measures are required. Awareness-raising and environmental training of
employees within the local tourism industry thus obviously call for outside intervention and in
general an outreaching approach from the authorities and outside-stakeholders.
10. 4. 3. Partnerships Targeting Hotels and Waste
The green supply chain systems of the tour operators are providing information on among
other things, good waste practices. Yet, of course this still requires an interest in learning and
implementing the suggested measures. As the tour operators already have a number of other
requirements to fulfill regarding e.g. health and safety, it is difficult to sharpen the focus on
environmental issues further in their questionnaires and auditing practices. When looking at
waste quantities, the big hotels are naturally the most efficient place to start. Moreover, also
chain owners, including smaller chains of a couple of hotels, could be relevant for the
authorities to address directly in order to have a greater impact of scope. Furthermore,
important people for waste management, such as the hotel management and the technical
manager are often employed in the same function at the various hotels within the chain.
As expected, strategies for reaching the SMEs are less obvious. One solution, suggested by an
SME owner, was to set up more sorting containers in areas with many small hotels. The
owner argued that many of the guests were already used to sorting in their home countries
136
(App.16). However, sorting standards are very different within the EU (the main source
market) and more elaborate information would be needed e.g. in the form of info-posters to be
set up at the SME hotels.
In order to provide the municipality with more legitimacy when inviting the hotels to
cooperate, a partnership behind the initiative, involving more stakeholders would seem
beneficial. E.g. the Environmental Protection Association of Hersonissos has been reporting
hotels burning their waste to the police (as a final resort if dialogue did not help). After a few
years of repeated reporting, one of the hotels in question stopped the burning. This is, of
course an extreme example, however encouragement coming from different community
actors, can generally be expected to attain greater authority.
As mentioned, the resources at the municipal level are generally limited, so perhaps the
greatest contribution of the tour operators would be to initiate and act as coordinators of
partnerships including authorities, local NGOs and hotel associations around topics such as
providing sorting education for hotel managers and staff. In this matter, it could be of great
value to include HERRCo25 regarding the sponsoring of sorting schemes and information
material targeting e.g. hotels and restaurants.
In bigger and richer municipalities, such as Heraklion, much more attention could be given to
awareness raising events. Some school programs including waste issues have been performed
(App.4b), but the willingness to support a continuous effort seems to be lacking, thus the
sorting program was solely left to the information campaign of HERRCo, which is mainly
focused on the introduction campaign. In Hersonissos, the municipality is already
communicating with the hotels and the local environmental association on a more informal
level. However, the support of the tour operators could give more legitimacy to the projects.
Chapter 11 Conclusion
The thesis has posed the following two research questions:
•
What waste treatment technology options are relevant for Crete as an island community
based on an Integrated Solid Waste Management approach?
•
How can the tourism industry support integrated solid waste management in Crete?
Based on the two corresponding analyses a number of conclusions can be drawn. Regarding
what treatment technology options are fitting in Crete from an Integrated Solid Waste
Management perspective a review of incineration and bio-gasification technologies was
conducted. Based on this perspective, incineration was found to be the most relevant solution
25
Hellenic Recycling and Recovery Cooperation
137
seen from an environmental and technical view point. Incineration involves both the largest
diversion of waste from landfill and the largest exploitation of the energy potential
representing a significant replacement of fossil fuels. Moreover, it is by far the most flexible
solution in terms of system coherency because it more easily can accommodate to changes in
the waste flow and the market for recyclable material without resulting in an increased deposit
of waste. Finally, it does not require pre-treatment and is thus a more realistic solution than a
central biogas plant to a large degree depending on an already well-established source sorting
system.
It is however, important not to forget the continuous improvement of the source-sorting
system, just because the immediate deposit issue has been ‘solved’ and thus maintain focus on
increasing the recycling rate of valuable materials corresponding with an eco-efficient, waste
management approach.
Choosing incineration as the central solution, does indeed not exclude other complimentary
arrangements such as bio-gas farm cooperatives or specific collection from central sources.
Another component to be added is composting, which is also an integrated part of the regional
waste management plan. However it is planned to treat only agricultural waste. Composting
technology is a much more socially accepted technology, because it is not associated with the
same degree of (visible) pollution or health hazard. Furthermore, people often have more
direct experience with the concept. Composting was therefore chosen as the main treatment
technology for sorted mixed waste in Chania, even though it was not viewed as the optimal
solution by DEDISA, the waste organisation in Chania, both from an environmental and an
economic view point.
In terms of economic feasibility, incineration plants are known to be high in capital costs
compared to anaerobe digestion. However, when taking operational costs, including pretreatment and combustion of bio-gas, into consideration, grate incineration appears as the
most proven and feasible solution.
Another important part of economic feasibility relates to the energy efficiency of a waste-toenergy solution. Since grate-incineration in particular, compared to Fluidised Bed
Combustion, is a more proven technology this also goes for the attainable output of energy.
The important factor for optimal energy efficiency is the possibilities of heat distribution.
Apparently, markets in the form of air conditioning and olive oil factories, does exist. In this
matter plant location will therefore be crucial for the heat exploitation. With an annual
increase of the energy demand of at least 4%, oversupply of electricity does not seem to be an
issue either.
From a social and political point of view, incineration is a very unpopular choice and can be
expected to create a lot of opposition. Bad experiences from the past have caused lack of trust
in the authorities and their ability to run waste management facilities properly. Experience
138
shows that merely the problem of finding a location in the first place, can stall the project
severely. An easy way out of the vicious circle between the waste management authorities
and the public is not evident, but necessary in order to move on. The forming of the waste
management organisation DEDISA, however, illustrates that progression is possible, when
internal and external pressure are exerted on the authorities and the population. The
experience of DEDISA, shows that face-to-face communication combined with continuous
information events can be an effective approach. Not only in terms of increasing the sorting
quality but perhaps even more importantly in terms of creating more faith in the waste
management authorities in the long run.
In order to look for community support, the second part of the problem formulation addressed
the possible role of the tourism industry as an influential stakeholder in the Cretan society
with a potential interest in an healthy environment. The tour operators and the hotels were
selected as representatives, with the main emphasis on the hotels as both important
stakeholders and waste generators. The waste flow, waste practices and opinions of 12 hotels
of varying size were analysed. Among these, three hotels were selected as a basis for
examining the possibility of transferring Best Case Practices. Finally, the role of the tour
operators as facilitators of environmental awareness was looked into by examining their green
supply chain systems towards their hotel suppliers.
Regarding the waste flow of the hotels, the estimated average waste composition was
generally found to correspond with the characteristics of tourism-related waste patterns,
where especially glass and metal is higher than that of the regional average. However, due to
overestimations of the organic fraction, the paper and plastic fraction appeared lower than
what is likely to be the case. The estimated waste quantities of the hotels confirmed that also
the SME hotels represent concentrated sources of waste generation, although of course the
small hotels to a lesser degree.
The role of the hotels was examined on different levels: first of all - possibilities, what can
the hotels do and secondly what are the hotels actually willing to do. Finally, how can they be
encouraged from outside by the tour operators and the authorities.
Regarding the possibility for the hotels to support ISWM, a number of waste practices were
found to be inexpensive and easy to do for big and small hotels alike, assuming that motivated
ownership is present. E.g. hotels could consider more systematically how to reduce
packaging, especially plastic. Despite the fact that the metal fraction is relatively low, it can
be considered important to avoid hazardous heavy metals. A procedure to deliver batteries,
avoid aluminium cans and foil as much as possible is therefore recommendable.
Regarding reducing the organic fraction through internal or external recycling (local farms),
the big hotels could consider to use food scrapes and garden waste as compost for the green
areas. Other recycling initiatives such as using refillable ink cartridges, employing used office
139
paper as notepaper and giving food scrapes to local farmers are also initiatives that are
relevant for SME hotels. Concerning the small hotels with no restaurants the effect of
purchasing policies are limited in terms of reducing or recycling organic or packaging
material internally. The main contribution to local waste management would be to participate
in sorting waste, including the required education of staff.
Finally, a potential BCP benefit, for both big and small hotels to exploit, is the advantage of
engaging and educating employees and generally integrating environmental aspects as part of
the product quality, where possible. This type of all-inclusive approach, however, again
highlights motivated ownership as the main precondition for any conscious, environmental
improvements to take place.
Generally, the reduction potential is difficult to measure. Since the waste flow of the BCP
hotels has not been monitored, the effect of the waste reducing policies is not known. All in
all, the external recycling activities such as source sorting or returnable bottles account for the
largest contribution, even for the BCP hotels. Internal waste procedures such as green
purchasing or reduction policies are also important, though more likely to show in the long
run. When it comes to more elaborate waste measures such as developing purchasing policies,
this would also be possible for SMEs to some extent, although again it would require
motivated ownership. Thus, the main barrier found at the hotels, big as small, was not so
much the lack of resources as the lack of awareness and motivation. From this barrier also
stems the lack of systematic approach combined with the low economic benefits of waste
management.
Due to the inherent unapproachable features of waste measures: the lack of obvious savings
and results, compared to water and energy savings, and the lack of clarity regarding what
good waste measures actually are, it seems reasonable to conclude that outside intervention is
needed in order to reach hotels that are not under the direct influence of motivated owners
and/or chain policies, where waste is included in an overall framework, such as environmental
management.
In terms of outside influence, the general effect of the voluntary supply chain procedures of
the tour operators have on their hotel partners seems limited. From the tour operators’ point of
view a number of obstacles can be identified, the main barrier being the lack of awareness and
economic incentives of their hotel partners. The attitude of the small hotel owners is that
environmental actions are not so relevant for small hotels. Furthermore, measures such as
solar panels, returnable bottles, and food crates are seen as mainly practical measures by most
of the hotels and, except for the BCP hotels, are generally not perceived as environmental
benefits. The hotel owners and managers do not perceive waste as a problem to their business
and see waste as the responsibility of the municipality and are generally satisfied with the
public waste service.
140
The fact that the mass tourism market demands cheap prices of the middle and low-class
hotels and that business partnerships seem to be mostly on a seasonal basis, does not support
the economic incentive or the role of the tour operators as ‘environmental sensibilisers’.
The lack of customer demand for green hotels makes it even more difficult for the tour
operators. Yet, both the role model effect of emphasising Best Case Practices combined with
educating destination staff and providing user-friendly information can still prove to be of
long-term value.
Furthermore, the tour operators as well as the authorities could consider joining forces on
specific, green projects, where broader stakeholder partnerships including local tourism
associations and NGOs could prove to be an advantage.
Further Perspectives
There are a number of substantial barriers to solving the waste problems in Crete. The greatest
barriers appear to be: issues of bureaucracy, lack of institutional coordination and
consistency, and not least lack of environmental awareness and social acceptability.
Like waste management, tourism planning has also been a neglected area in terms of proper
coordination and long-term sustainable strategies. It was however, an assumption of this study
that incentives could be found within the tourism industry to create more coordinated and
sustainable destination strategies reflecting, at least as a business interest. The following will
include considerations on an overall ideal strategy that could benefit both the environmental
(waste) and tourism planning of the authorities as well as the economic interests of the
tourism industry.
Despite constraining factors such as: prices going up considerably due to the introduction of
the Euro, the emergence of popular destinations in Eastern Europe delivering sun, sea, and
sand at a cheaper price, tourism in Crete has been growing the last couple of years
(Koutoulas, 2006:1ff, Andriotis, 2005:29 and 2001:305f). Crete has a lot to offer in terms of
climate, culture and natural resources and it is likely that the island will remain one of the
most successful tourism destinations in Greece in the years to come. However, in what way
this status will be maintained, will be a determining factor for the future of the cultural as well
as the natural environment.
Generally, destinations are mainly characterised by one of two types of market strategies: - a
value-competitive strategy or a cost-competitive strategy. A cost-competitive strategy can be
described as a ‘high-volume-low- price’ approach, where the aim is to attract as many tourists
as possible with low prices. A value-competitive strategy, on the other hand, seeks to improve
141
the quality of the product e.g. through increased focus on development and conservation of
natural resources. This in turn can form the basis for more possibilities of diversifying the
destination’s tourist attractions. Instead of focusing on the volume of guests, the aim is to
attract the type of guests, willing to pay more for a higher quality product (Buhalis, 2000).
Despite the fact that the national and regional tourism strategy is already aiming at attracting
perhaps fewer but richer tourists, a very big part of the Cretan tourism product is still based on
‘mass produced holidays’, assuming unlimited ‘production’ resources.
In terms of natural resources, Crete is a big island and it may take many years still before the
environmental degradation will start to scare away the tourists. However, the fight about
water resources between the tourism industry and the remaining local population is one of the
signs indicating a severe need for improved resource management. The scarcity of water
resources in summertime is furthermore being reinforced by the progressing interrelated
mechanisms of deforestation and desertification. However, the tourism strategies coming
from the mainland are not recognising these issues. E.g. three golf courses are presently being
planned on the north coast near the touristy area of Hersonissos, where the population density
combined with many tourists is already posing problems to the water supply (Andriotis mail).
Regarding cultural degradation, this is a matter of more relative opinions. E.g. it is difficult to
avoid the consequences of urbanisation and economic growth, resulting in abandonment of
the traditional village life. However, most of the SME hotel owners in the area of Hersonissos
agree that they are not very pleased about the behaviour of some of the charter guests,
referring to the tourists on party vacation, throwing waste and bottles in the streets and
exhibiting noisy and violent behaviour when drunk.
The above-mentioned issues, are of course not unique to Crete, but typical problems found in
many other tourism regions. Other holiday destinations have thus been faced with similar
problems and have in some cases found alternative strategies, incorporating both local needs
as well as market demand.
At present, the destination of Crete is being formed by market demand. In order for the local
community to be able to form the destination more according to own needs and resources, it
would require a completely different approach, what could be termed a ‘sustainable
destination strategy’.
As a response to the above-mentioned issues, different strategies are emerging, as destinations
are starting to develop different approaches that also include the environmental dimension in
the tourism product. The initiatives span from more narrowly aimed projects such as EMAS
certification of golf-courses in Catalonia26 to more all-inclusive destination development
strategies, including branding and product diversification such as it is the case with the
26
http://www.gencat.net/mediamb/sosten/golfangl.pdf
142
Certification for Sustainable Tourism developed in Costa Rica or the general upgrading of
tourism in Malta27 also including e.g. green hotel certification schemes (WWF, 2000:25, 73).
Seen in relation to the planning model (cf. p. 66) the stakeholder dimension in the first phase
and through out the planning circle is an essential part of sustainable destination strategy, and
exactly what is needed in Crete.
Some of the advantages of these sustainable destination strategies can involve:
Local stakeholder influence on the tourism development, including what kind of
tourists and tourist products they want to host and how this can and be matched with
the local natural and cultural resources.
Development of closer relations between the stakeholders of the destination - between
the tourism industry and the local planning authorities in particular, which can be seen
as a precondition for delivering a better product
Improved competitiveness through marketing and branding of the destination and its
products through alignment and specialisation of the local tourism enterprises based
on ‘sustainable’ principles resulting in improved environmental protection and more
means of ‘product’ differentiation.
And very importantly: avoiding over-exploitation of local resources, leading to the
loss of product/life-quality.
(Buhalis, 2001, Destination 21, 2000)
As the necessary coordination and collaboration between the public sector and the tourism
industry has not been able to deal with the mentioned constraints and problems of the tourism
development in Crete, an organisation named The Tourism Company of Crete was recently
established to fill out the gap. The main purpose of the organisation was to ensure the market
position of Crete as an attractive tourism destination through creating a stable tourism policy.
The participants represented all the immediately interested parties from the public and private
sector of the island (Anagnostopoulou et al., 1996:32 in Andriotis, 2001:311). However, the
organisation dissolved again due to, among other things, the lack of real influence. The
appearance of such an organisations together with the issues addressed by the regional
tourism policy, clearly reflects the recognition of the need for a practical solution. Yet,
political and public will has to be substantial enough for such a strategy to come to life, be it
on a municipal, prefectorial or regional scale.
27
http://www.mta.com.mt/index.pl/eco_certification
143
References
Andriotis, Konstantinos:”Tourism Planning and Development in Crete”: Recent Tourism
Policies and their Efficacy, in Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 9, No. 4, 2001.
Andriotis, Konstantinos:” Tourism in Crete a form of Modernisation” in Current Tourism
Issues vol 6 no.1, 2005.
Arbter, Kerstin: “SEA and SIA – Two Participative Assessment Tools for Sustainability”,
published in: Conference proceedings of the EASY ECO 2 Conference p. 175-181, May 1517, 2003, Vienna.
Barnes, M. Pamela and Barnes, G. Ian:“Environmental Policy in the European Union”, Edgar
Elgar Publishing Limited, 1999.
Berkun, Mehmet, Egemen Aras, Semih Nemlioglu:”Disposal of Solid Waste in Istanbul and
along the Black Sea Coast of Turkey”, printed in Waste Management 25, June 2005.
Buhalis Dimitrios:“Marketing the Competetive Destination of the Future” published in
Tourism Management 21, 2000.
Charter for Sustainable Tourism, World Tourism Conference at Lanzarote, 1995: c.f.
http://www.insula.org/tourism/charte.htm
Christensen, H. Thomas et al.:”Waste Technology”, Teknisk Forlag, 1 Edition, 1998 (In
Danish).
Clean Knowledge (RenViden in Danish): “CO2 and Waste” no. 1, March, 2005, year 13.
Cliffe K.R and Patumsawad S.: “Study on FBC of high moisture MSW” printed in Energy
Conversion and Management 43, 2002.
Council Directive 75/442/EEC as amended by Council Directive 2006/156/EEC, Waste frame
directive.
Council Directive (EC/2000/76) on Incineration of Waste
Council Directive on the landfill of waste1999/31/EC
Council Directive 93/43/EEC, Packaging and packaging waste.
Council directive (96/61/EC) on Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control
144
Danish Energy Authority, Elkraft system and Elektra: “Technology Data for Electricity and
Heat Generating Plants”, 2005 page 31, 67 and 130).
Destination 21 Manual:”Destination 21- Certification for Sustainable Destinations”,
Destination 21, 2000 (in Danish, own translation).
EC:”Report from the Commision to the Council and the EU Parliament regarding the
implementation of the common waste legislation for the period: 1995 – 1997”, 2000,
Bruxelles (own translation).
EC:”Report from the Commision to the Council and the EU Parliament regarding the
implementation of the common waste legislation for the period:1998-2000”, 2003, Bruxelles
(own translation).
EC: a: Decision no. 1600/2002/ EC regarding the 6th Environmental Action Programme,
2002.
Cf. http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2002/l_242/l_24220020910en00010015.pdf
EC: b” Handbook on the Implementation of EC Environmental Legislation” 2002.
http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/enlarg/handbook/waste.pdf
EC: “The Story behind the Strategy: The EU Waste Policy”, 2005a.
EC:”The European Environment, State and Outlook 2005b”, Appendix C: “Country
Analysis”.
EC, Commission Staff working document: “Impact Assessment on the Thematic Strategy on
the Prevention and Recycling of Waste and the immediate Implementing Measures”, 2005c
EC: “Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Reference Document on the Best Available
Techniques for, Waste Incineration”, August 2006.
EC: “Status on Action”, viewed 2007 on:
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/newprg/pdf/6eap_scoreboard_oct2005.pdf)
EEA:”Biodegradable Waste Management in Europe: part 3: Technologies and Market
Issues”, 2001.
EEA, “Environmental Signals 2004”, 2004.
European Topic Centre on Waste (ETCW): “European Activities on Waste Minimisation”,
Topic Report EEA, 2002.
145
EPA:”Manual for Waste Minimisation Opportunity Assessment”, United States
Environmental Protection Agency, 1998.
Environmental Protection Agency of Copenhagen:“ Waste Management Plan 2000-2004”,
2000 Copenhagen (in Danish).
European Topic Centre on Waste:”Base line Projections of Selected Waste Streams”, Kim
Michael Christiansen and Christian Fischer, Topic report EEA 1999, Copenhagen.
Eurostat:”EU in Figures, data 1995-2005”, 2006.
EXERGIA S.A.:”Waste Management in Island Communities: Strategy to Integrate Waste
to Energy Policies”, 2003.
Faulk, Saskia:”A Survey of Environmental Management by Hotels and related Tourism
Businesses”, (pre-study) University Center Cesar Ritz, 2000.
Filis E., Razis Y., Lekkas T.D.: “Pilot Project for Packaging Waste Recyling in Maroussi and
Vrilissia, Greece” 1996 printed in Waste Management and Research 15, 1997.
Gereffi, Gary and Memdovic, Olga:” The Global Apparel Value Chain”, UNIDO Sectorial
Studies Series, 2003.
Greece Tourism Report, 2nd Quarter, 2006, Published by Business Monitor International
Goulder Europe EEIG, commissioned by the EC: Report on Implementation of the Landfill
Directive in the 15 Member States, 2005.
Hellenic Republic Ministry for Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works: “National
Strategy for Sustainable Development Greece”, 2002.
HERRCo, Hellenic Recycling and Recovery Cooperation: Information on the recycling rates
of the sorting factory of Alikarnassos and information of the general performance of
HERRCos sorting projects, 2007.
Hotel Plan: Environmental Report, 2001-2002.
www.hotelplan.ch/reisen/reiseinfos/services/umwelt/
Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IME):” Sixth International Conference on Engineering
for Profit from Waste”, 13-14th November conference transactions, Professional Engineering
Publications Ltd, 2001.
146
ISWA, International Solid Waste Association:“Approaches to Integrated Solid Waste
Management- Industry as a Partner for Sustainable Development”, Published by ISWA and
United Nations Environment Programme, 2002.
ISWA:”1000 terms of Solid Waste Management”, edited by John Skitt, published by Marko
Aps, 1992.
Kjær, Tyge: Presentation for ISWA regarding waste definitions (unpublished), 2006a.
Kjær, Tyge: Environmental Assessment Course, course presentation 7, (in Danish,
unpublished), Institute of Environment, Technology and Social Studies of Roskilde
University Centre, 2006b.
Koufodimos, George and Samaras, Zissis:“Waste Management Options in Southern Europe
using Field and Experimental Data” in Waste Management 22, 2002.
Koutoulas: "The Market Influence of Tour Operators on the Hospitality Industry: The Case of
Greek Resort Hotels" in "Corporate Rivalry and Market Power: Competition Issues in the
Tourism Industry" edited by Dr. Andreas Papatheodorou, 2006.
Kuoni: Umwelt Report, 2004.
Magrinho Alexandre, Didelet Filipe, Semiao Viriato:”MSW disposal in Portugal”, printed in
Waste Management 26, 2006.
Manios T.: “The Composting Potential of different Organic Solid Wastes: Experience from
the Island of Crete” in Environment International 29, 2004.
National Report of Greece, Summary from Correspondent Meeting Athens 2005. cf.
http://www.minenv.gr/4/48/00/National%20Report%20of%20GREECE%20%20SMAP2005.pdf).
Neuman, Lawrence W.: Social Research Methods, Allyn & Bacon, Fourth Edition, 2000.
OANAK, Eastern Development Organisation of Crete: Exhibit from a study on the waste flow
of Crete presenting projected waste quantities from the base year 2004-2020, in Greek.
OECD: “OECD Factbook, Economic, Environmental and Social Statistics”, 2006.
Price-Waterhouse Coopers:” Social Responsibility in the Supply Chain”, 2004 (in Danish).
REAC, Regional Energy Agency of Crete: Facts about Crete, slides, 2006.
147
Sifakis A., Haidarlis M:”Report on Waste Management in Greece 2005”, Lambadarios and
Associates Lawfirm, 2005. cf.
http://www.lambadarioslaw.gr/downloads/en/waste_management_greece.pdf
The Danish Environmental Protection Agency: ”Status for Waste Prevention in Denmark –
Status on the Danish Performance”, Orientation from the Danish Environmental Protection
Agency no. 14 (In Danish).
Tour Operators’ Initiative:” Sustainable Tourism, The Tour Operators Contribution”,
published by Tour Operators’ Initiative, C/o United Nations Environment Programme
Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, 2003.
TUI: “Managing Sustainably at the World of TUI: Environmental group reporting 20032004”: www.tui-group.com/en/konzern/tui_umweltmanagement/
UNEP: “A Manual for Water and Waste Management: What the Tourism Industry Can Do to
Improve Its Performance”, 2003.
Van Berkel, Rene: “Cleaner Production for Process Industries”, Plenary Lecture: CHEMICA
2000, July, 2000.
White R. Peter, McDougall, R. Forbes, Franke Marina and Hindle, Peter: “Integrated Solid
Waste Management – a Life Cycle Inventory”, Proctor and Gamble, 2001.
Witte, Jan et al:” The Road from Johannesburg – What Future for Partnerships in Global
Governance”, 2002. www.johannesburgsummit.org.
World Conference on Sustainable Tourism, Lanzarote, 1994
http://www.insula.org/tourism/charte.htm
WTO/IHRA,The Joint WTO & IHRA Study on Classification, 2004.
WTTC, WTO & Earth Council: “Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry”, 1997.
World Wildlife Fund:” Tourism Certification, an Analysis of Green Globe 21 and other
Tourism Certification Programmes”, London, World Wild Life Fund, 2000.
Yin, Robert. K.: “Application of Case Study Research”, Sage Publications, 1993.
Mail correspondence
148
HORESTA, 2006: Mail concerning the existence of common categorisation system of hotels
according to size, 13th October, 2006.
Andriotis Konstantinos: Mail concerning the status of the Cretan Tourism Company, 28th
March 2007
Filoxenidi, Haroula :Mail Concerning the energy prices for energy recovery from waste
incineration, 3rd of April, 2007.
The Hotel Association of Heraklion: Mail with information on the structure of the
accommodation industry in Crete, 5th December, 2006
Web sites:
www.islenet.net : European Islands network
http://www.insula.org/: Insula
http://www.toinitiative.org/: Tour Operators Initiative
www.unwto.org: United Nations World Tourism Organisation:
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sids/sids.htm :UN web page for Sustainable Development in
Small Island Developing States
http://www.wbcsd.ch/templates/TemplateWBCSD5/layout.asp?type=p&MenuId=MTE1MQ
&doOpen=1&ClickMenu=LeftMenu: The World Business Council for Sustainable
Development
http://hiltonworldwide.hilton.com/en/ww/promotions/Environment_and_Sustainability/index.
jhtml:Hilton Hotel group
Site Visits
Visits to the illegal landfill of Argalochori and the old landfill of Hersonissos March, 2006.
Visit to the mechanical sorting plant at Alikarnassos, April 2007.
Visit to the recycling plant and landfill of DEDISA, October, 2006.
Visit to dumpsite near Heraklion (front page image), April 2006
149
Overview of Appendices
Appendices (printed)
A: The structure of the hotel industry in Crete
B: Interview Guides for Hotels
C: Features of the Tour Operators Supply Chain Management Systems
D: Diagram of the Recycling Plant of DEDISA
Overview of Appendices on disc
1. Calculations regarding the waste flow in Crete
1.1. Tourism-related Waste Quantities in Crete
1.2. The Estimated quantities of MSW distributed on Fractions
1.3. The Estimated Size of the Combustible Fraction
1. 4. The Projected Quantities of Material Recovery
1. 5. Projections of the Size of the Combustible Fraction until 2020
1. 6. Projection Scenarios for the Bio-mass Fraction 2004-2020
1. 7. Diagram displaying the flow of the recycling plant of DEDISA, 2007.
2. EU Waste targets
3. Calculations regarding the waste flow of the hotels
3. 1. Estimated Average Waste Composition of the Hotels
3. 2. Estimated MSW quantities of the SME hotels
3. 3. Estimated MSW quantities of the big hotels
Interviews with informants from waste related organisations
1. ESDAK, Olga Christou.
1a Interview Guide
1b Interview resume
1c Follow-up interview guide
1d Follow-up interview resume
2. DEDISA, Maria Flemetaki among others.
2 a: Interview guide, Maria Flemetaki
2:b:Interview resume, Maria Flemetaki
2 c:Follow-up interview guide, Maria Flemetaki
150
2d: Follow-up interview resume, Maria Flemetaki
2e: Interview guide, Manolis Vardakis
2f: Interview resume, Manolis Vardakis
3. Hersonissos Municipality, Mrs. Foutini Kasteraki
3a Interview guide
3b Interview resume
4. REAC, Nikolas Zografakis, Manager of REAC
4a:Interview guide,
4b:Interview Resume
4c: Follup-up Interview guide for
4d: Follow-up Interview Resume
5. Haroula Filoxenia, waste management consultant,
5a Interview guide
5b Interview Resume
6. HERRCo: Vassilis Zissimopolos
6a: Interview guide
6b: Interview Resume
6c: Follow-up Interview guide
6d: Follow-up Interview Resume
7. Hersonissos Environmental protection Association: Jorgos Vaneris.
7a:Interview guide
7bInterview Resume
8. Nikolas Levantakis
8a Interview guide line
8b Interview Resume
Interviews with Hotel Managers and Owners
9. Royal Mare Village: Sofia Klotza, quality and development employee and the
technical manager.
10. El Greco: Katarina Velokaki, Manager of environmental and cultural activities
11. Lyttos Beach Robinson Club: Yannis Koutsounakis, Technical Manager
12. Elounda Beach: The Technical Manager and Michalis Volyrakis, Food and beverage
assistant.
13. Stella Village: Dimitris Tzirakis, General Manager
14. Arminda Apartments: Liza Christoulaki, receptionist, Eleni Kapetanaki, General
Manager
151
15. Galaxy Apartments: Stavros Popuzakis, daily manager
16. Eleni Apartments: Jorgos Chambalakis, manager/owner
17. Hotel Galini: Efthymis Kogerakis, General Manager
18. Hotel Aloi: Parma Gabrielle, Hotel Manager/owner
19. Dorian Apartments: Lambros Kanakakis, Owner/Manager
20. Idillios Traditional Appartments
Interviews with EU based Tour operators
21. TUI (Germany) Arne Kretschmer, Quality & Environmental Manager
22. Kuoni (Switzerland) Mathias Leissinger, Environmental Manager
23. Thomas Cook (UK), Nancy Brock, Responsible Tourism Manager
24. Diagrams of the Energy demand in Crete
152
Appendix A: Structure of the Accommodation industry in Crete
Hotel Units in Crete 2005:
Hotel
Class UNITS ROOMS
BEDS
%
Estim. Average
Type
Bed capacity
Hotels
Apartments
Hotel &Apartments
Traditional
In all
5*
35
8643
17131 11,76
489
4*
115
19235
37344 25,64
324
3*
169
11310
21832 14,99
129
2*
351
11776
22609 15,52
64
1*
111
2280
4486 3,08
40
E
13
194
381 0,26
29
5*
1
45
90 0,06
90
4*
71
3145
5351 3,67
75
3*
104
3996
7031 4,83
67
2*
405
12888
22203 15,24
54
1*
115
3062
5344 3,67
46
5*
2
671
1280 0,88
640
4*
NA
NA
NA
NA
A
16
120
249
0,17
15
B
24
174
339 0,23
14
1532
77539
Even though the statistical
material does not reveal any
direct numbers on the
distribution of hotels according
to size/bed capacity an
estimation can still be made as I
have added in the
right column, which shows a
certain coherence between class
and size (The Hotel Association
of Heraklion, 2006).
145670 100,00
153
Appendix B: Interview Guides for the Hotels
Interview Guide for big Hotels (above 250 beds)
Your name and job position?
No. of rooms/beds?
How many employees work at the hotel?
How long is the hotel’s season?
How many guests do you have (occupation rate%) in high season months
(usually July, August), in ‘low’ season (usually April, October)?
Has the hotel made or planned any environmental actions or installation? (E.g.
water-saving installation, solar panels, magnetic energy saving keys, use of less
harmful chemicals to clean, organic gardening methods..)
If the hotel has environmental management:
o
o
o
o
When was it implemented?
What issues are included in the system?
Who is responsible for the system?
How are the employees informed about the enviro. policies/practices?
Do you in any way separate, recycle or reduce waste at the hotel?
o
o
o
o
o
o
Refill ink containers
Give food scrapes to local farmer.
Use jugs of e.g. butter, jam in stead of single package items.
Use Refill Soap dispensers in the rooms
Avoid alu cans and foil, when possible.
Returnable boxes for delivery of vegetables/fruit
o
Preference to water, beer and refreshments in returnable glass bottles.
o Buy products less harmful products: environmental friendly cleaning products,
organic gardening products
If yes, how long has the hotel worked with waste?
What fractions do you sort? Who sorts the waste?
154
What are the easiest/most difficult fractions to handle and why?
Do you in some way register the amounts of waste generated at the hotel?
What are the costs related to sorting of waste? Collection fee? Containers?
Other things?
Since you started with the waste procedures have you noticed any decline in the
amounts of waste produced, e.g. the need for fewer containers?
What do you think are the biggest barriers for you as a middle sized/small hotel
regarding making environmental or waste actions?
Lack of time? Knowledge and know-how? Lack of money? Other?
Have you received questions about the environment from tour operators?
Approx. what % of the hotel guests are provided by the tour operators?
Has the hotel experienced any problems with waste?
(E.g. Smell? Late or too few collection rounds? No space to store it properly? Complaints
from guests? Other?)
How often is waste collected from the hotel?
Where is the waste stored/collected from? Does the hotel have its own container?
If yes what is the capacity (approx. ltr)?
Is the container full when in the evening?
Your estimation of the size of the different waste fractions - for example:
1. Organic (food, garden) (60%)
2. Plastic (15%)
3. Glass (10%)
4. Paper (10%)
5. Metal (5%)
What could the municipality do to improve their waste service to suit the need of
the hotel or Hersonissos in general?
What of the following could motivate you to make waste management actions
such as waste separation and using purchasing procedures for less waste and
better waste quality?
•
•
That the municipality provided containers for separation placed on the hotel grounds?
That the municipality collected the separated waste for free?
155
•
•
A list of suppliers providing products environmentally friendly or easy to recycle?
Other?
Are waste initiatives (separation and/or buying recycling products) realistic for
hotels in your opinion?
Do you think hotels the size of this hotel have the potential to influence the public
opinion/awareness of waste?
Interview Guide for SME Hotels
Your name and job position?
No. of rooms/beds?
How many employees work at the hotel?
How long is the hotel’s season?
How many guests do you have (occupation rate%) in high season months
(usually July, August), in ‘low’ season (usually April, October)?
Has the hotel made or planned any environmental actions or installation? (E.g.
water-saving installation, solar panels, magnetic energy saving keys, use of less
harmful chemicals to clean, organic gardening methods..)
Do you in any way separate, recycle or reduce waste at the hotel? (E.g.:
o
o
o
o
o
o
Refill ink containers
Give food scrapes to local farmer.
Use jugs of e.g. butter, jam in stead of single package items.
Use Refill Soap dispensers in the rooms
Avoid alu cans and foil, when possible.
Returnable boxes for delivery of vegetables/fruit
o
Preference to water, beer and refreshments in returnable glass bottles.
o Buy products less harmful products: environmental friendly cleaning products,
organic gardening products
If yes, how long has the hotel worked with waste?
156
What do you think are the biggest barriers for you as a middle sized/small hotel
regarding making environmental or waste actions?
Lack of time? Knowledge and know-how? Lack of money? Other?
Have you received questions about the environment from the tour operators?
Approx. what % of the hotel guests are provided by the tour operators?
Has the hotel experienced any problems with waste?
(E.g. Smell? Late or too few collection rounds? No space to store it properly? Complaints
from guests? Other?)
How often is waste collected from the hotel?
Where is the waste stored/collected from? Does the hotel have its own container?
If yes what is the capacity (aprox. ltr)?
Is the container full when collected in the evening?
Your estimation of the size of the different waste fractions - for example:
6. Organic (food, garden) (60%)
7. Plastic (15%)
8. Glass (10%)
9. Paper (10%)
10. Metal (5%)
What could the municipality do to improve their waste service to suit the need of
the hotel or Hersonissos in general?
What of the following could motivate you to make waste management actions
such as waste separation and using purchasing procedures for less waste and
better waste quality?
.
•
•
•
•
That the municipality provided containers for separation placed on the hotel grounds?
That the municipality collected the separated waste for free?
A list of suppliers providing products environmentally friendly or easy to recycle?
Other?
Are waste initiatives realistic for SME hotels in your opinion?
157
Appendix C: Overview of the Green Supply chains systems of the Tour Operators
Features of the tour
Kuoni (Switzerland)
Thomas Cook (UK)
TUI (Germany)
Questionnaire sent by
From this year on-line check list
On-line Checklist in TUI’s
mail or distributed by
at the Thomas Cook supplier web
hotel web site
agents.
site.
Around 1500
Around 1500 suppliers
3500
Around 2500
Not known exactly
Around 3500
No. of answered
Around 5-600, - 40% (last
Around 150 (1 month after
3500
questionnaires
year)
release)
Environmental subjects
Energy, water, waste &
Energy, water, waste &
Energy, water, waste &
covered
organisation
organisation
organisation.
Prioritising specific
No
No
Environmental policy +
operators’ supplier
management systems
Monitoring System
Number of Suppliers
monitored
No of Hotel partners in all
(generally)
environmental manager
environmental issues
gives higher scores.
Monitoring practiced
Since 2000
Since 2004
Since 1992
The purpose of
-Water and energy
-To give an idea of status quo
-Water and energy
Data collection
consumption are tracked
and for giving recognition
consumption are tracked
-Recognition & awards
- Recognition & awards
Environmental program
Yes, including Kuoni’s
Yes, part of supplier code of
Yes, including the TUI
for hotels
Green Planet award and
conduct that also includes enviro.
Umwelt Champion Award
scoring system
issues, scoring & reward system
& scoring system.
300 (report 2004)
Not known yet, just started.
A max. of 100 will receive
No. of hotels in the EMS
an environmental award.
program/CC
On-site Audits
Yes, spot checks.
No, not yet.
Yes, spot checks
Enviro. training of staff
Not yet.
Yes.
Yes.
Green Support for hotel
- Green logo in catalogue
-Green logo in catalogue
- Hotel Supplier website
suppliers
- Quarterly newsletter
- Acc. Supplier web site with
with tools and info
- Green Work shops
tools & info
-Hotel handbook
-Kuoni’s Green Planet
-Show case of BCP
-Green logo in catalogue
(incl. overseas travel
agents)
award
-TUI Umwelt Champion
award
Encourage participation
Yes, in monitoring
/support for local green
questionnaire
Yes, in monitoring questionnaire
Yes, in monitoring
questionnaire
activities
158
Appendix D: Detailed flow diagram of the recycling plant of DEDISA
159