canadiana - philbu.net
Transcription
canadiana - philbu.net
CANADIANA Klous-Die ter Ertler/Hortmut Lutz (eds./6ds.) Literotu ren/Kulturen - Literotu res/Cultures- Litt6rotu res/Cultures Herousgegeben vonKlous-Dieter Ertler undWolfgong Klooß Conodoin Groinou/ LeConodoö Groinou BondZ PETER LANG . New York. Oxford .Wien Fronkfurt om Moin . Berlin. Bern. Bruxelles A Multidtsciplinory Survey of ConodionStudiesofter30 yeors Tourd' horizonmultidisciplinoire d'Etudesconodiennes, 30 änsoprös PETER LANG Internotiono lerVerlogder Wissenschoften 62 prod.Neighbours. NationalFilrn Boardof Canada,1952.8 rnin. Mclaren,Malcolrn,dir., writ., ar-rd Mehta,Deepa,dir. llater. DeepaMehtaFilms,2005.114min. BritishColumbiaFilm Commission,1994.87 min. Shum,Mina, dir.DoubleHapplness. Stopkewich,L).nne,dir. Kissed.BoneyardFilm Company,1996.78 min. BritishColumbiaFilm Commission,1999.l0l min Wheeler.Anne.dir. BetterthanChocolate. Indigenous Media Technology Production in Northern Ontario. Canada Philipp Budka (Vienna) I Introduction When there was the Biafra famine back in the 1980s,the First Nation community of Sandy Lake in Northwestern Ontario was raising money to support the aid agenciesthat went down there to help the starving people. To raise these funds, the women of the community went to the communication centre where they switched off the TV transmitter from the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC). They did this just before Saturdaynight ice hockey was going to be on, which is one of the most popular TV events,particularly among the community's male inhabitants. After shutting off the transmitter, the women went on community radio and announcedthat they wouldn't turn the transmitter back on until the men had given a certain amount of money. There was another popular program broadcastby the CBC, a soap opera calledAll My Children, which was on every day and particularly watched by the women of the community. The following Monday, the Sandy Lake men went down to the communication centre and shut off the TV transmitter. This time they said that they wouldn't put the program back on until the women had donated so much money. This is a nice example of how membersof a community take control and ownership over media technologies.Even though the technical equipment for receiving TV signals did not belong to the community - it was the property of the CBC - people used it for their own, very special,purposes. In this paper, I want to take a look at indigenousmedia technology production in the geographical and socio-cultural contexts of Northem Ontario, Canada. By introducing two casestudies,the paper intendsto show how indigenous people have taken control over the production and uses of media technologies over the last 35 years.In both cases,indigenousorganizationshave beentaking the initiative to produceand distributetheir own media and technologyservices. The ethnographicresearchfor this paper was conductedwithin the scopeof my Ph.D.dissertationprojectduring the summerof 2006. 64 IndigenousMedia Technologiesand Anthropological Research According to Ginsburg, Abu-Lughod and Larkin (2002) tnedia anthropology researchcan be categorizedinto threebrancheswithin a socio-politicalcontinuum: 1. On one end of this continuum,anthropologicalresearchis dealingwith the productionand distributionof mass media through commercialorganizationsand govemmentalinstitutions,the most powerful media actors, as well as with the consumptionof thesemedia products(cf. AbuLughod 2002; Mankekar2002;Wilk 2002; Yang 2002). 2. In the middle of the continuum,processesand contextsof media productionand consumptionby diasporicand minority groupsare the focal points of research(cf. Hobart 2002; Monis 2002; Schein2002). 3. Finally, on the other end of the continuurn,we find anthropologicalresearchon media practicesthat aim to empower indigenousand disenfranchised people (cf. Ginsburg 2002a, 2002b; Mclagan 2002; Michaels1994;Prins2002;Tumer2002). Within the latter, anthropologistsare particularly interestedin how indigenous peoplehavestartedto 'talk back' to structuresof power that neglectthe political, cultural and economicinterestsof thesemarginalizedpeopleby producingtheir own media.To "underscorethe senseof both political agencyand cultural interventionthat peoplebring to theseefforts",Ginsburgrefersto this mediapractice as "culturalactivism"(2002a,8;1997). In the caseof indigenousmediaproduction,many anthropologistshavebecome media activists,and hence cultural activists themselves,by working togetherwith indigenouspeopleto producevideos (Turner 2002),websites(Forte 2006), and films (Ginsburg 2002a; 2002b). Taking into considerationthe difficult and sometimeseven desperatesituationsunder which many indigenous peoplehave to live, it is understandable that researcherstum into activistsnot only studyingand describing,but actively supporting,for example,media projects. Throughthis form ofsupport anthropologists becomedeeplyinvolved and incorporatedinto processes,proceduresand practiceswhich they initially indentedto analyzemore from the 'outside'.A lot of ethical as well as moral questions are emerginghere,which are discussedparticularlywithin the f,reldsof applied and actionanthropology.' ' In addition, many indigenous people strongly reject the objectification of their lives and cultures through anthropological and ethnographic researchby allowing only work and researchthat contributes to projects owned and controlled by their people (e.g. Smith 2005). 65 Ginsburgidentifiesa growing tendencyof "strategicobjectification"of indigenousculture among native media producers,causedby the use of indigenous "culture" as a "source of claims for political and human rights" (2002a, 9-10).A classicexampleof this developmentis the struggleof the Zapatistasin Chiapas,Mexico, which has also made its way into cyberspace.Images and imaginationsabout the region's indigenouspeoplesand their situations were distributed and representedon the internet, mainly by non-indigenous support organizationsand networks, to create what could be called an "electronic solidarify-scape"(Budka 2004,40; cf. Budka and Kremser2004). For Ginsburg, indigenouspeople are successfullyapplying media technologiesto their specificsocio-culturalneeds,creatingin this way their own 'indigenized' media (2002a; 2002b). Other anthropologists are convinced that modernmedia technologies,developedin the 'Western'industrializedworld, are causingthe assimilationof indigenouspeople and hencethe loss of indigenous cultures(cf. Mander 1991;Weiner 1997). On the one hand, there is hardly any doubt that'Western' media technologies lead to linguistic adaptationand acculturationwithout necessarilyentailing a loss ofdistinct cultural features.It is also obviousthat the productionand consumptionof mass media is controlled and dominatedby powerful economic and political agents.On the other hand,mediatechnologiesare providing indigenous people with the possibility to make their voices heard, to network and connect, to distribute information, to revitalize their cultures and languages,and to become politically engagedand active. New infonnation and communication technologies(ICT), such as the intemet and its applications,offer many of these possibilitiesto marginalizedpeople(cf. Landzelius2006c).I will attemptto take a critical approachto both ofthese perspectivesby introducing fwo casestudies of indigenousmedia technology production. Wawatay - Aboriginal Media Production in Northern Ontario One organizationthat pioneeredthe production of indigenousmedia technologies and content is the Wawatay Native CommunicationSociefy; they provide the approximately45,000Aboriginal inhabitantsof the NishnawbeAski Nation, which covers most of Northem Ontario, with newspapers,radio and TV programsas well as online news. During the 1970s, several Aboriginal newspapersand newsletters came into existenceacrossCanadafollowing the releaseof the White Paperon Indian policy by the Canadiangovernment(cf. Dernay 1993).In Northern Ontario,the bilingual LlawatayNews was publishedfor the first time in 1973,providing the 61 66 First Nations of the region with news in English and oji-cree. Most of the money for media production came from the federal Native communication program, which was also establishedin 1973(cf. Avison & Meadows2000). However, when the canadian governmentcut the funding in 1990, some newspapers (e.g. Kanai News) were forced to ceasepublishing while others, such as /[/awatay News, commercializedand had to include advertisementsat the cost of other content (cf. Demay 1993). Though govemment funded, these media production initiatives depend on regional Native communications societies anJ organizations that emphasizelocal Aboriginal control over production and access. The wawatay Native communications society also establisheda community radio system for ontario's northern First Nations. After the first community radio station was establishedin 1974,the canadian Radio-Television and rele_ communications cornmission (cRTC) licensed the wawatay Radio Network, which provides programming in oji-cree and cree language, in 19g6. particularly in the most northem communities where these languageswere spoken by a majority of residents,the radio network's programs used to reach upto g0 percentof the population(Karam & Zuckemick lgg2,43). Since the majority of the younger generationsare no longer fluent in the native languages,Aboriginal radio broadcastinghas lost some of its audienceto the English-languagemedia of television and the intemet. This of courseprimarily dependson community politics and the local engagementof people with their native language.In the communities of Deer Lake and Fort severn, for instance. children begin learning oji-cree and cree, respectively,in kindergarten. Following the launch of the Anik satellitesat the end of the 1970s.several Aboriginal broadcasters,such as the Inuit Broadcasting corporation, started to provide Native-language prograrnming (cf. Baltruschat 2004; Roth 2005). In 1983,the Northem Broadcastingpolicy and the Northern Native Broadcastprogram, createdthe basis for a northern satellite distribution system which eventu_ ally resultedin the launch of Television Northem canada (T\|NC) in l99l . until 1999, "T\aNC remained the only Aboriginal television network in the world that broadcastedprogramming from indigenous sources" (Baltruschat 2004,3). In that year, the Aboriginal peoples Television Network (AprN) was launched after TVNC was approved for a national broadcastlicense.AprN blends mult! lingual programmingabout Aboriginal cultures,lives, haditions and histories, with news and public affairs in a mainsheambroadcastingstyle. In doing so, it depends on local and regionalAboriginal mediaproducers,suchas wawata% for content. WawatayisnotonlyproducingAboriginalmediacontentandprovidinga is also to preserve Aboriginal local communication infrastructure, its mandate culture and language: communityindependent Societyis a self-goveming, wawatayNativecommunications technologies to usingappropriate dedicated driurnät .pr.neurialnativeorganization in NorthemOntario' needsof peopleof Aboriginalancestry to meettheiommunication wouldservetheir wawatay that intended its *hrr"u", theylive. In doing so, fouiders languagesand culcommunitiesty pnu-ing,"^aintaining and enhancingindigenous added) ture. (Mandate" 2008,emphasis the canadian Heritage Fund for The society therefore also receives money from is almost exclusively in radio and TV broadcasting.whereas radio programming and the Wawatay newsOji-Cree and Cree, the TV shows produced for APTN content' Wawatay language of native portion pup", hau" a considerably smaller in the technologies communication Las constantlytried to improve and integrate providand radios northernFirst Nations by, for example,installing community community raing training programs for utilizing and handling this technology. in First Nation oio trasbecome one of the most popular communication media kinds ofoccasions' communities- used by all age groups,both sexesand for all suchasradiobingoorfundraising'Toproducemediacontentemanatingdirectly fromtheFirstNations,Wawatayemploysfreelancewritersandphotographers in somecommunities to provide the newspaperwith local stories' integrating New ICTs have become an important aspect of engaging and Digital content. their community members into the production of media and for the allow video and photo cameras,audio recorders,and internet connections on used creationof multimedia stories and reports that can easily be edited and the the Wawatay News website,2the communities' websites,the newspaperand forand ways in several reused and used be can radio program. Thus, one story mats. That people in these remote First Nation communities are able to utilize technologieslike the internet, is mainly due to the Kuhkenah Network (K-Net),3 which is one of canada's and the world's leading indigenousICT organizations. K-Net - Digital Media Technologies for First Nation Communities ln the early phasesofglobal internet technology distribution, one ofthe strongest reasonsfor indigenous peoples,groups and organizations"having a presence on the Internet [was] to provide information from a viewpoint that may not have found a voice in the mainstreammedia" (Cisler 1998, 20)' In the spring of 1994' " ' For more information see:<http://wawataynews'ca/>' For more information see:<http://www.knet.ca>' 69 68 the Oneida First Nation of the State of New York were the first, worldwide, to put an indigenous owned website online; some months before the first official websiteof the White Housewent online (cf. Polly 1998).The BlackfeetConfederacy in Alberta establishedthe first aboriginal Canadianweb presenceone year later(cf. Prins2002). Landzeliusrefers to those "self-authoredengagements"ofindigenous peoples in ICT usageas "indigenouscyberactivism"(2003, 8; 2006a).In doing so, shedistinguishesbetween'outreach'and'inreach'activities,which can be further divided into different subcategoriesaccording to intended audience or objectives. Since the agendasof these "genresregularly crisscrossand are mutually reinforcing", Landzelius suggeststo think of indigenous inreach and outreach activities as a "spectrum of orientations"(2003, 8). Indigenous outreach initiatives via ICTs include public relations and tourism management,sovereignty campaigns,liberation movements and common-causeparhlerships between indigenous and non-indigenous groups. The second category of indigenous ICTs practices,identified by Landzelius (2003; 2006a),is oriented towards an intemal public. These inreach activities cover public services (e.g. e-health and elearning), cultural revitalization, reconciliation, pan-indigenousnetworking and personalizedcommunication and representation. Since the mid 1990s, the Kuhkenah Network (K-Net) has provided ICT servicesto First Nations in the remote region of Northwestem Ontario that fit within the inreach as well as the outreachcategory.The organization/networkis part of the Keewaytinook Okimakanak (KO) tribal council, which consistsof the six OjiCree and Cree speaking First Nation communities of Deer Lake, Fort Sevem,Keewaywin, McDowell Lake, North Spirit Lake, and Poplar Hill. Besides offering technical infrastructure and support, K-Net established someprograms and servicesthat have becomevery popular, not only among KO tribal council members, but also among many other First Nation people within the Nishnawbe Aski and beyond. Telehealth, the medical and health support service offered via new media, in particular through video conferencing,allows people to be treated within their own communities without incurring the expensive and exhausting havel time to hospitals in the urban centres of the South.a And students can stay longer within their communities by attending the KO Internet High School that offers a full grade 9 and l0 program.t These ICT supported programs are tailored for this remote and isolated region, where communities during the summer months can only be accessedby plane. ' ' Cf. <http://telemedicine.knet.ca./>. Cf. <http://kihs.knet.ca>. The K-Net serviceI will concentrateon is MyKnet.org.6This serviceprovides free webspaceand e-mail addresses,particularly for the youth of the region's First Nation communities. In August 2008 there were more than 30'000 MyKnet.org accountslisted, 20,000 of which are quite likely to be actually used to set up webpages.This number is particularly impressive, since the overall population of the Sioux Lookout District in Northwestem Ontario, where the KO communities, among other tribal councils, are situated,is 25,000 people living in an arearoughly equal to the size ofFrance'7 MyKnet.org was establishedin 2000 to provide a "safe and healthy on-line space for young people" where they can construct their own personal webpresence(MyKnet.org 2006). Many of the personal homepagesin MyKnet.org are usedto reflect directly on the daily life of people in a world on the margins, where roads come to an end at the settlement'sborder and where friends and families are split up to attend school or to find work in the urban South. Thus, thesehomepagescan be consideredas local representationsof Aboriginal cultures, lives, and identities within the global technologiesof the intemet and the World Wide Web. Results of an online survey conducted in 2007 indicate that 47oÄ(N=992) of MyKnet.org users are between 15 and 25 years of age (Budka 2008). Asked aboutthe main reasonwhy they use MyKnet.org,TSoÄ(N:1202) statedthat they use it for keeping in touch with family and friends. This online environment supportsthe reconnecting and networking of family and füends by bridging temporal and spatialdistancesto chat, discuss,sharestories,music' and pictures.Sinceall homepageusers have to register with their real and full name, it is relatively easy for friendsand relativesto locatesomeone'spresencewithin MyKnet'org' MyKnet.org is mainly a media technology that is used and discussedat home and between family members and friends. People also (hyper)link their homepagesprimarily to relatives and friends. Community and cultural events are being celebrated and integrated on MyKnet.org by sharing photos, stories and music. In doing so, the majority of users are able to maintain their personal representationson the World Wide Web without the help of others. The online social environment thus also becomesa learning spacewhere people leam how to set up simple homepages,upload and edit pictures, and write diary/blog-like texts and comments. This is also why MyKnet.org has been integrated into formal educationalsettingswithin schoolsand training courses. ' t Cf. <htto://mvknet.ors/> MyKn.i.org is also b-eingusedby a lot of Aboriginal people outsidethis area,all across Ontarioand its neighbouringprovinces. 70 MyKnet.org is of course not the only online social environmenton the web. Ahnost half of the survey respondents(N:1204) also have a homepage with other, commercially-orientedwebsite providers. In particular, social networking sitessuch as Facebookand Bebo are fast becomingpopularwithin First Nation communities,Nevertheless,peoplekeep their MyKnet.org homepagesto stay in touch with farnily and friends and to accessand exchangeinformation about people and communitiesby browsing through this online environment. That MyKnet.org is a dedicatedFirst Nation service,is anotherstrongreason for peopleto stay with it. A survey respondentdeclares:"[...] to have a native web page [...] for the whole world to see,i guess...LoL". Another respondent wrrtes that shelikes MyKnet.org becauseit providesan Aboriginal place in cyberspace: "[..'] knowing nativepeoplehavea placeto visit on the www" (Budka200g). As a'cyberactivist'project,MyKnet.org raisesquestionsabout how global and local processesof identity constructionand self-representation are negotl_ ated within this Aboriginal online environment.How do global and local cultures, their representatives, icons, and artefactsinteract on these self-authored homepages? How do people from the local communities"make themselvesa(t) home in a transformingcommunicativeenvironment"(Miller & Slater2000, l)? Even thoughthis online social environmenthas very strongties to the local First Nation communitiesand the region of Northwestemontario, it is at the same tirne also part of the world wide web that connectsmiilions of webpages, their content,their producers,and users. If usersand producersof MyKnet.orghomepagesconsiderthis online environmenttheir own spacewithin cyberspace,where they can make themselves, their families, communities,and culturesat home, Appadurai reminds us also that "home" is not a simple construct,but a rather fragile "production of locality" (qtd. in Landzelius2006a,3). In an agewhere different processes globalof tzation,such as the transnationalflows of people,technologies,ideologies, media, and money, are constantlyspeedingup, the production of localiry is con_ stantlycontested.In addition,globalizedtechnologies,such as the intemet, challengethe definition and the phenomenologyof locality, "leading to repositionings in the experiencingand significanceof centresand peripheries, and the meaningaccordedthem" (Landzelius2006b.293). Conclusion The indigenouspeopleof Northern ontario staftedto develop their own media technologiesquite early. wawatay as well as K-Net have deproyed media technologiessuchas radio, newspapersand the internetto give First Nation people a 7l voice,to connectcommunities,families and friends in remote areas,and to crein the global rnedialandscape.By concentrating ate indigenousrepresentations on the actual situationsand life worlds of Aboriginal people in Northern Ontario, both media producershave tried to develop culturally and linguistically appropriatealternativesto the mainstreammassmedia. Within the processesand practicesof mediatechnologyproduction,authorship as a "cultural principle" and conceptallows media producersto negotiate and challenge authority, ownership and control over media technologies and their content (Peterson 2003, 193). That is why community radio and MyKnet.org,in particular,are popular as media technologiesdevelopedfor the peopleofthis specific geographicand socio-culturalregion. Thesetechnologies are easy to use and they strongly support communication and interaction, particularly in non-literateand oral societies.Schröderand Voell refer to this abiliry of new media technologies,such as the internet, to support communication modes in traditionally oral societies as "modern orality" (2002, l2). Whereas community radio as an oral communication technology was introduced already in the 1970s,and is thereforeparticularlypopular among the older generation, MyKnet.org is used mainly by younger age groups that have learned to write and speakprimarily in English. Control and ownershipof media technologiesis also limited in respectto the funding of thesetechnologies.Both indigenousmedia producershave been dependenton non-indigenous funders such as governmental institutions and organizations.K-Net is investing, very successfully,a great deal of manpowerand money in applying for regional and federalproject funds.Wawatay had to increase the amount of commercial content in their media, which, e.g., for the bilingual newspapermeansmore ads- and so lessspacefor indigenouslanguagecontent. In producingmedia technologies,indigenouspeoplesalso contributeto the constructingand reconstructingof their (cultural)identities,which in the caseof MyKnet.org is influenced by the different worlds that First Nation teenagersin pafiicular live in. Indigenous media can thus be understoodas tools for mediating culture and identity (cf. Ginsburg 2002b,216). Do media practices,as describedin this paper, necessarilyfall into the categoryof cultural and political activism, as both Ginsberg(1997,2002a) and Landzelius(2003,2006a, 2006b) state?As long as indigenouspeople are excluded from the (mass) media discoursesof non-indigenoussocieties,which consequentlyleadsto socio-cultural,political and economicdisenfranchisement, all indigenousactivities and initiatives will continue to have an activist ap- 72 proach. New media technologies,and the internet in particular, hold a tremendous potential for indigenouspeoples'activism; as Kyra Landzelius emphasizes: marginalized peoples arenot onlytakingroles,but in certainrespecr [...] historically 'colonizing' takingthe lead,as sawy, technoscientific actorsthemselves globalmedia channels andconverting theminto fertilehabitatsfor theexercise ofidentityandvoice across (2006b,300) distance. lnterviews Brian Beaton(CoordinatorK-Net Services).personalInterview.July 2006. Bryan Phelan(Editor WawatayNews). personalInterview. July 2006. FlorenceWoolner (IndependentManagementand TelecommunicationConsultant).personal Interview.July 2006. Bibliography Abu-Lughod, Lila. "Egyptian Melodrama-Technologyof the Modern stbject?,, Media worlds: Anthropologyon New Terrain. Ed. Faye D. Ginsburg,Lila Abu-Lughod,and BrianLarkin.Berkeley:U of Califomiap,2002. l l5-133. Avison, Shannon,and Micheal Meadows. "speaking and Hearing: Aboriginal Newspapers and the Public Spherein Canadaand Australia." CanadianJournal of Communication 2s.3 (2000). tl May 2001. <http://www.cjc-online.calindex.php/journal/article/view/l 163/1092>. Baltruschat,Doris. "Televisionand Canada'sAboriginal Communities:SeekingOppornrnities through Traditional Srorytelling and Digital rechnologies." canadian'iournal of Communication29.1 (2004). 15 May 2007. <http://www.cjconline.calviewarticle.php?id=85 8&layout:html>. Budka, Philipp. "Indigene widerstandsbewegungenim Kontext von Gtobalisierungund Informations- und Kommunikationstechnologien:Das Fallbeispiel der EZLN in Mexlko." Journal fiir Entwicklungspolitik 20.1 (2004): 33-44. Report on the MyKnet.org online su,vey,August-November2007. unpubl. paper,200g. Budka,Philipp, and Manfred Kremser."cyberAnthropology- Anthropology of cyberculture." contemporary Issuesin socio-cultural Anthropology;perspectivesanä Research Activitiesfrom Austria. Ed. Stefan Khittel, Barbara plankensteiner,and Maria sixHohenbalken.Wien: Loecker, 2004.213-226. cisler, Steve. "The lnternet and lndigenous Groups: An Introduction.,, cultural survival Quarterly21.4(1998\:20-22.19Feb.2007. <http://www.cs.orglpublications/csq/csq-article .cfm?id:r454&highlight:cisler>. Demay, JoöI. "The Persistenceand creativity of canadian Aboriginal Newspapers."caradian Journal o/ CommunicationI 8.I ( 1993).15 May 2007. <http://www.cjconline.ca/viewarticle.php? id: I 43&layout:html>. Forte,Maximilian. "Amerindian@Caribbean: lntemet lndigeneityin the ElectronicGeneration of Carib and Taino Identities."Nativeon the Net: Indigenousand Diasporic peoplesin t) the WrtualAge. Ed. Kyra Landzelius.London:Routledge,2006. 132-151. Ginsberg,Faye D. "'From Little Things, Big Things Grow': lndigenousMedia and Cultural Activism." BetvveenResistanceand Revolution: Cultural Politics and Social Protest. Ed. RichardG. Fox and Orin Starn.London:Routledge,1997. ll8-144. ngslgsnMemories:ResigniSing the Traditional in lndigenousMedia." Media Worlds: Anthropologt on New Terrain. Ed. Faye D. Ginsburg, Lila Abu-Lughod, and Brian Larkin. Berkeley: U of CaliforntaP, 2002a.39-57. trMediatingCultures: lndigenous Media, EthnographicFilm, and the Productionof Identity." TheAnthropologt of Media: A Reader.Ed. Kelly Askew and RichardWilk. Malden:Blackwell, 2002b.210-235. Ginsburg,FayeD., Lila Abu-Lughod,and Brian Larkin. Introduction.Media llorlds: Anthropologt on New Tewain. Ed. Faye D. Ginsburg,Lila Abu-Lughod, and Brian Larkin. Berkeley:U of CalifomiaP,2002. l-36. Hobart,Mark. "Live or Dead?TelevisingTheaterin Bali." Media lYorlds:Anthropologt on New Terrain. Ed. Faye D. Ginsburg,Lila Abu-Lughod,and Brian Larkin. Berkeley:U of Califomia P, 2002.370-382. Karam,Robert,and Arlene Zuckemick. A study of Audiencesfor Aboriginal CommunityRadio: A Profile of Four Northern Ontario Communities.Toronto: Queen'sPrinter for Ontario, 1992. K-Net.KuhkenahNetwork,30. Oct. 2008.<www.knet.cD. Landzelius,Kyra. "Pathsof IndigenousCyber-Activism." IndigenousAfairs 2 (2003):6-13. "Introduction:Native on the Net." Native on the Net: Indigenousand Diasporic Peoples in the Virtual Age. Ed. Kyra Landzelius.London: Routledge,2006a.l-42. "Postscript:Vox Populi for the Margins?" Native on the Net: Indigenousand Diasporic Peoplesin the Virtual Age. Ed. Kyra landzelius. london: Routledge,2006b. 292-304. ed. Native on the Net: Indigenousand Diasporic Peoplesin the WrtualAge. London: Routledge,2006c. "Mandate."Wawatay:News Online: About Wawatay.2008.Aug. 2008. <http://wawataynews.calabout_wawatay>. Mander,Jerry.In the Absenceof the Sacred: The Failure of Technologt and the Sumival of theIndian. SanFrancisco:SierraClub, 1991. Mankekar,Pumima. "Epic Contests:Television and Religious Identity in lndia." Media Worlds: Anthropologt on New Terrain. Ed. Faye D. Ginsburg, Lila Abu-Lughod, and Brian Larkin.Berkeley:U of CalifomiaP,2002.134-151. McLagan,Meg. "Spectaclesof Difference:Cultural Activism and the Mass Mediation of Tibet;' Media llorlds: Anthropolog,ton New Terrain. Ed. Faye D. Ginsburg,Lila AbuLughod,and Brian Larkin.Berkeley:U of CalifomraP,2ol2.90-114. Michaels,Eric. Bad Aboriginal Art: Tradition, Med.ia,and TechnologicalHorizons.Minneapolis: U of MinnesotaP, 1994. Miller, Daniel,and Don Slater.TheInternet:An EthnographicApproach.Oxford: Berg,2000. Morris, RosalindC. 'A Room with a Voice: Mediation and Mediumship in Thailand'sInformation Age." Media Worlds: Anthropologt on New Terrain. Ed. Faye D. Ginsburg, Lila Abu-Lughod, and Brian Larkin. Berkeley:U ofCaliforniaP,2002,383-398. MyKnet.org. Aug. 2006.<htp://myknet.org/>. Peterson,Mark Allen. Anthropologt and Mass Co,nmunication:Media and Myth in the New Millennium. New York: Berghahn,2003. 74 Polly, Jean.A. "Standing Stones in Cyberspace:The Oneida Indian Nation's Territory on the tNeb." Cultural Survival Quarterly 21.4 (1998): 3741.21 Feb. 2007. <http://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/csq/csq-article.cfm?id:1458>. Frins, Harald E. L. "Visual Media and Primitivist Perplex: Colonial Fantasies, Indigenous Inragination, and Advocacy in North America." Media Worlds: Anthropology on New Terrain. Ed. Faye D. Ginsburg, Lila Abu-Lughod, and Brian Larkin. Berkeley: U of California P. 2002. 58-74. Shooting Back from the rOther' Side: Aboriginal Documentariesin Canada Kerstin Knopf (Greifswald) Roth, Lorna. Something New in the Air'; The Story of First Peoples Television Broadcasling in Canada. Montreal: McGill-Queen's UP, 2005. Schein, Louisa. "Mapping Hmong Media in Diasporic Space." Media lVorlds: Anthropolog,, on New Terrain Ed. Faye D. Ginsburg, Lila Abu-Lughod, and Brian Larkin. Berkeley: U of Califomia P.2002.229-246. Scköder, Ingo W., and Stöphane Voell, eds. Moderne Oralitcit: Ethnologische Perspektiven auf die plurintediale Gegenwarl. Marburg: Curupira, 2002. Smith, Linda. T. Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples. London: Zed,,2005. Turner, Terence. "Representation, Politics, and Cultural Imagination in lndigenous Video: General Points and Kayapo Examples." Media ll/orlds: Anthropology on New Terrain. Ed. Faye D. Ginsburg, Lila Abu-Lughod, and Brian Larkin. Berkeley: U of California P, 2002. 1 5-89 . Ll'qwa t ay : N ew s O n I i n e. 30. Oct. 2008. <http :/ / wawatalnews. cal>. Weiner, Jarnes. "Televisualist Anthropology: Representation,Aesthetics, Politics." Cutent Ant hropo logy 38.2 (1 997 ): | 9'7-236. Wilk, Richard R. "Television, Time and the National Imaginary in Belize." Media l{orlds; Anthropology on New Terrain. Ed. Faye D. Ginsburg, Lila Abu-Lughod, and Brian L a r k i n . B e r k e l e y :U o f C a l i f o m i a P , 2 0 0 2 . l 7 l - 1 8 8 . Yang, Mayfair Mei-hui. "Mass media and Transnational Subjectivity in Shanghai: Notes on (Re)Cosmopolitanism in a Chinese Metropolis." Media l(orlds; Anthropology on New Terrain. Ed. Faye D. Ginsburg, Lila Abu-Lughod, and Brian Larkin. Berkeley: U of C a l i f o m i a P , 2 0 0 2 . I 8 9 - 21 0 . Aboriginal people in Canadaare continually struggling with colonial legacies: geographicalcolonization- the displacementfrom anüor massivereductionof traditionalland bases;cultural colonization- the forceful impositionof Westem philosophies,values, norrns, religion, and govemmentaland social strucfures upon their own; discursivecolonization- the genesisofneo/colonial discourses that legitimize neo/colonialpolitics, uphold Westem cultural and political hegemonies,transmit neo/colonial views on the colonized 'others',and silence Aboriginal voices and thoseof other marginalizedgroups;and mental colonization - the self-perceptionofthe colonial subjectsis channelledthroughcolonialist discourseand creates'colonizedminds'. Aboriginal people for the most part perceivetheir own culturethroughthe eyes,mindset,writings, and lensesof the colonizing group and 'learn' a Eurocentric framework of thought: Aboriginal culturesand religions are inferior; Aboriginal people are def,icientin effectiveness,rationality,intelligence,and organizationalcompetence;Aboriginal people are second-class citizens. In many realms of society, Aboriginal people battle for recognition,participation,and control over their own affairs as the many successfulland claim settlementsand self-govemmentagreementsshow. Likewise in the media,they are striving for participation and productive control over their images that are fed into the mediascape.Their voicesare emergingin all kinds of mediaoutlets, be it television,radio, news media,or film. An arrayof Aboriginal radio stations bear witnessto this self-empoweringdevelopment- for example NCI FM in Winnipeg, the Aboriginal Voices Radio network with its first and main station in Toronto, the Wawatay Radio Nefwork in Sioux Lookout - as well as the first Indigenoustelevision channel with a country-wide broadcast license in the world, APTN. The tradition of Aboriginal documentaryfilm in Canadabeganin the 1970s,when Alanis Obomsawinas the first Aboriginal personstartedto direct documentarieswith the NFB. Large-scaleAboriginal dramatizedfilmmaking had its beginningin the late 1990s,with the 1998CBC televisionmini series Big Bear by Gil Cardinal,the first major Aboriginal film in Canadato receive